Misplaced Pages

#26973

113-530: In Congressional Debate, high school students emulate members of the United States Congress by debating pieces of legislation, including bills and resolutions . Before the event, each school submits mock legislation to each tournament. After the legislation has been compiled, it is distributed to each participating team. Each team attempts to research as many topics as possible, with each participant choosing to stand in affirmation or negation of

226-640: A U.S. citizen for seven years for the House and nine years for the Senate, and be an inhabitant of the state which they represent. Members in both chambers may stand for re-election an unlimited number of times. The Congress was created by the U.S. Constitution and first met in 1789, replacing the Congress of the Confederation in its legislative function. Although not legally mandated, in practice since

339-478: A federal structure with two overlapping power centers so that each citizen as an individual is subject to the powers of state government and national government. To protect against abuse of power, each branch of government – executive, legislative, and judicial – had a separate sphere of authority and could check other branches according to the principle of the separation of powers . Furthermore, there were checks and balances within

452-430: A "session." The National Speech and Debate Association defines a session as having: While larger tournaments may have preliminary rounds that precede elimination rounds (semifinals, finals, etc.), smaller tournaments may not have elimination rounds and may recognize and award students in individual chambers. Rounds usually begin with a method for determining which bills will be debated and in which order, referred to as

565-470: A 10-second grace period). The first speech on each legislation, known as the "authorship", goes to the person who wrote the legislation, or from the same school of the author. (However, many tournaments use legislation from the NSDA, in which case anyone can give the authorship.) If nobody from the author's school is present, another debater gives a sponsorship speech (sometimes called the first affirmative), which

678-460: A comprehensive guide, based on the original 1876 version written primarily to help guide voluntary associations in their operations of governance: "New editions have marked the growth of parliamentary procedure as cases occurring in assemblies have pointed to a need for further rules or additional interpretations to go by." Robert's Rules of Order The Modern Edition and The Standard Code of Parliamentary Procedure aspire to be concise. "This book

791-444: A powerful effect of waking up a somewhat dormant Congress which investigated presidential wrongdoing and coverups; the scandal "substantially reshaped" relations between the branches of government, suggested political scientist Bruce J. Schulman . Partisanship returned, particularly after 1994; one analyst attributes partisan infighting to slim congressional majorities which discouraged friendly social gatherings in meeting rooms such as

904-425: A question, and only a question, however this rule may not be present at some tournaments. The debate rules also provides for direct questioning, if the standing rules of the organization allow for it, where the speaker and questioner can engage in direct dialogue without moderation from the chair. This is done in 30- or 60-second blocks of time, allowing the questioner to engage the floor speaker to greater depth. This

1017-479: A resolution. A popular type of resolution is to propose amendments to the United States Constitution , which requires action by state legislatures. Tournaments may review legislation submitted before sharing the overall docket with all participating schools. Contestants from each school research and prepare arguments both in favor and against each legislation in the docket before arriving at

1130-404: A result of discussions with its Congressional Debate Rules and Recommendations Committee in 2009. Some leagues and tournaments still use a protocol where the balanced of unused speaking time is reserved for questioning, rather than having a specific period. While some student questioners feel the need to ask if the speaker yields, this is unnecessary under procedure, because the standing rules of

1243-524: A revised constitution with a two-chamber or bicameral Congress. Smaller states argued for equal representation for each state. The two-chamber structure had functioned well in state governments. A compromise plan, the Connecticut Compromise , was adopted with representatives chosen by population (benefiting larger states) and exactly two senators chosen by state governments (benefiting smaller states). The ratified constitution created

SECTION 10

#1732782341027

1356-401: A six-year term, with terms staggered , so every two years approximately one-third of the Senate is up for election. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, so currently, there are 100 senators for the 50 states. Article One of the U.S. Constitution requires that members of Congress be at least 25 years old for the House and at least 30 years old for the U.S. Senate, be

1469-529: A state's at-large representation to the federal government by senators. Most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent. The historical records of the House of Representatives and the Senate are maintained by the Center for Legislative Archives, which is a part of the National Archives and Records Administration . Congress

1582-544: A student has stood, out of order, because they result in competitors simply "playing the game". Often, coaches will instruct students who preside to call on contestants for early speeches that they do not know, and/or who are less experienced. Additionally, since debate becomes more complex after more arguments have been introduced, later speakers bear a higher burden for clash and refutation. In some areas, before precedence and recency are established, priority cards are distributed or numbers are designated to each student, giving

1695-414: Is a basic reference book but does not claim to be comprehensive. For most organization and for most meetings, it will prove very adequate." " Alice Sturgis believed that confusing or unnecessary motions and terminology should be eliminated. Her goal was to make the process simpler, fairer, and easier to understand, and The Standard Code of Parliamentary Procedure did just that ..." A common text in use in

1808-450: Is commonplace for students to move a recess following voting. Amendments are an important tool that can add nuance and perspective to debate on a particular issue, even though they are not practiced as often as they once were. To amend, a student will submit the amendment in writing to the head table (often rising to a point of personal privilege and seeking permission to approach the rostrum). The presiding officer (often in consultation with

1921-693: Is directly responsible for the governing of the District of Columbia , the current seat of the federal government. The First Continental Congress was a gathering of representatives from twelve of the Thirteen Colonies . On July 4, 1776, the Second Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence , referring to the new nation as the "United States of America". The Articles of Confederation in 1781 created

2034-440: Is elected and gives each House the power to create its own structure. Section Seven lays out the process for creating laws, and Section Eight enumerates numerous powers. Section Nine is a list of powers Congress does not have, and Section Ten enumerates powers of the state, some of which may only be granted by Congress. Constitutional amendments have granted Congress additional powers. Congress also has implied powers derived from

2147-493: Is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the great public policy issues of the day. Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux. In recent times, the American South and West have gained House seats according to demographic changes recorded by the census and includes more women and minorities . While power balances among the different parts of government continue to change,

2260-433: Is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress: Congress reflects us in all our strengths and all our weaknesses. It reflects our regional idiosyncrasies, our ethnic, religious, and racial diversity, our multitude of professions, and our shadings of opinion on everything from the value of war to the war over values. Congress is the government's most representative body   ... Congress

2373-491: Is functionally identical to an authorship. This first speech is followed by a two-minute questioning period. One three-minute speech in opposition (negation) follows it, with another mandatory two minutes of questioning. After these initial speeches, debate alternates in favor and opposition to the legislation with three-minute speeches and one minute of questioning. Within each speech, contestants develop two or three organized, logical arguments supported by credible evidence for why

SECTION 20

#1732782341027

2486-440: Is never necessary for a contestant to specifically move the main motion. Main motions can be changed or affected by a variety of subsidiary motions. The following motions end debate on the pending main motion: Only one main motion is in order at any given time. If the chamber wishes to change to another legislation while another is still being considered, the chamber must end debate (which could include pausing debate by laying on

2599-715: Is often called chairmanship , chairing , the law of meetings , procedure at meetings , the conduct of meetings , or the standing orders . Erskine May's Parliamentary Practice is used and often referred to as "Erskine May" in the United Kingdom, and influential in other countries that use the Westminster system . In the United States terms used are parliamentary law , parliamentary practice , legislative procedure , rules of order , or Robert's rules of order . Rules of order consist of rules written by

2712-597: Is quite uncommon. Article One of the United States Constitution states, "All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives." The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process – legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers. The Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while

2825-548: Is the accepted authority on the powers and procedures of the Westminster parliament . There are also the Standing Orders for each House . Of the 99 state legislative chambers in the United States (two for each state except Nebraska , which has a unicameral legislature), Mason's Manual of Legislative Procedure governs parliamentary procedures in 70; Jefferson's Manual governs 13, and Robert's Rules of Order governs four. The United States Senate follows

2938-478: Is to allow orderly deliberation upon questions of interest to the organization and thus to arrive at the sense or the will of the majority of the assembly upon these questions. Self-governing organizations follow parliamentary procedure to debate and reach group decisions, usually by vote , with the least possible friction. In the United Kingdom, Canada, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and other English-speaking countries, parliamentary procedure

3051-509: Is used to sometimes build arguments that the questioner uses in a later speech, similar to cross-examination in other competitive debate events. At tournaments where this is practiced, the presiding officer is either required or strongly advised to keep a separate questioning priority, to ensure equal opportunity for questioners. Several tournaments have piloted this method since the National Speech and Debate Association suggested this as

3164-646: The Code Morin ) and the Code Confédération des syndicats nationaux . Legislative assemblies in all countries, because of their nature, tend to have a specialized set of rules that differ from parliamentary procedure used by clubs and organizations. In the United Kingdom, Erskine May's Parliamentary Practice (frequently updated; originally Treatise on the Law, Privileges, Proceedings and Usage of Parliament ; often referred to simply as Erskine May )

3277-529: The tabloidization of media coverage. Others saw pressure to squeeze a political position into a thirty-second soundbite. A report characterized Congress in 2013 as unproductive, gridlocked, and "setting records for futility". In October 2013, with Congress unable to compromise, the government was shut down for several weeks and risked a serious default on debt payments, causing 60% of the public to say they would "fire every member of Congress" including their own representative. One report suggested Congress posed

3390-544: The Board of Education . Congress began reasserting its authority. Lobbying became a big factor despite the 1971 Federal Election Campaign Act . Political action committees or PACs could make substantive donations to congressional candidates via such means as soft money contributions. While soft money funds were not given to specific campaigns for candidates, the money often benefited candidates substantially in an indirect way and helped reelect candidates. Reforms such as

3503-541: The Commerce Clause , the enumerated power to regulate commerce, in rulings such as McCulloch v. Maryland , have effectively widened the scope of Congress's legislative authority far beyond that prescribed in Section Eight. Constitutional responsibility for the oversight of Washington, D.C. , the federal district and national capital, and the U.S. territories of Guam , American Samoa , Puerto Rico ,

Congressional Debate - Misplaced Pages Continue

3616-469: The Congress of the Confederation , a unicameral body with equal representation among the states in which each state had a veto over most decisions. Congress had executive but not legislative authority, and the federal judiciary was confined to admiralty and lacked authority to collect taxes, regulate commerce, or enforce laws. Government powerlessness led to the Convention of 1787 which proposed

3729-609: The Conservative Coalition . Democrats maintained control of Congress during World War II . Congress struggled with efficiency in the postwar era partly by reducing the number of standing congressional committees. Southern Democrats became a powerful force in many influential committees although political power alternated between Republicans and Democrats during these years. More complex issues required greater specialization and expertise, such as space flight and atomic energy policy. Senator Joseph McCarthy exploited

3842-534: The Houses of the Parliament . The Constitutional Court judges the limits beyond which these regulations cannot go, exceeding the parliamentary or political function (judgement n. 120 of 2014) and on their bad application when a law is passed. Parliamentary procedure is based on the principles of allowing the majority to make decisions effectively and efficiently ( majority rule ), while ensuring fairness towards

3955-523: The Northern Mariana Islands . These six members of Congress enjoy floor privileges to introduce bills and resolutions, and in recent Congresses they vote in permanent and select committees, in party caucuses and in joint conferences with the Senate. They have Capitol Hill offices, staff and two annual appointments to each of the four military academies. While their votes are constitutional when Congress authorizes their House Committee of

4068-687: The Standing Rules of the United States Senate , while the United States House of Representatives follows Jefferson's Manual . Mason's Manual , originally written by constitutional scholar and former California Senate staff member Paul Mason in 1935, and since his death revised and published by the National Conference of State Legislatures (NCSL), governs legislative procedures in instances where

4181-537: The U.S. Virgin Islands , and the Northern Mariana Islands rests with Congress. The republican form of government in territories is devolved by congressional statute to the respective territories including direct election of governors, the D.C. mayor and locally elective territorial legislatures. Parliamentary procedure Parliamentary procedures are the accepted rules , ethics , and customs governing meetings of an assembly or organization . Their object

4294-467: The parliamentary system of government. In the 16th and 17th century, the parliaments of England began adopting rules of order. In the 1560s, Sir Thomas Smyth began the process of writing down accepted procedures and published a book about them for the House of Commons in 1583. Early rules included: The Westminster parliamentary procedures are followed in several Commonwealth countries, including

4407-449: The second-wave feminism movement , when activists moved into electoral politics. Beginning in the 1970s, donors and political action committees like EMILY's List began recruiting, training and funding women candidates. Watershed political moments like the confirmation of Clarence Thomas and the 2016 presidential election created momentum for women candidates, resulting in the Year of

4520-481: The state constitution , state statutes , and the chamber's rules are silent. According to the NCSL, one of the many reasons that most state legislatures use Mason's Manual instead of Robert's Rules of Order is that Robert's Rules applies best to private organizations and civic groups that do not meet in daily public sessions. Mason's Manual , however, is geared specifically toward state legislative bodies. In

4633-484: The "biggest risk to the U.S. economy" because of its brinksmanship , "down-to-the-wire budget and debt crises" and "indiscriminate spending cuts", resulting in slowed economic activity and keeping up to two million people unemployed. There has been increasing public dissatisfaction with Congress, with extremely low approval ratings which dropped to 5% in October 2013. In 2009, Congress authorized another delegate for

Congressional Debate - Misplaced Pages Continue

4746-439: The 1960s opened the possibility for Black, Asian American, Latina and other non-white women candidates to run for Congress. Racially polarized voting, racial stereotypes and lack of institutional support still prevent women of color from reaching Congress as easily as white people . Senate elections, which require victories in statewide electorates, have been particularly difficult for women of color. Carol Moseley Braun became

4859-591: The 19th century, members of Congress are typically affiliated with one of the two major parties , the Democratic Party or the Republican Party , and only rarely with a third party or independents affiliated with no party. In the case of the latter, the lack of affiliation with a political party does not mean that such members are unable to caucus with members of the political parties. Members can also switch parties at any time, although this

4972-846: The 2002 Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act limited campaign donations but did not limit soft money contributions. One source suggests post-Watergate laws amended in 1974 meant to reduce the "influence of wealthy contributors and end payoffs" instead "legitimized PACs" since they "enabled individuals to band together in support of candidates". From 1974 to 1984, PACs grew from 608 to 3,803 and donations leaped from $ 12.5   million to $ 120   million along with concern over PAC influence in Congress. In 2009, there were 4,600 business, labor and special-interest PACs including ones for lawyers , electricians , and real estate brokers . From 2007 to 2008, 175 members of Congress received "half or more of their campaign cash" from PACs. From 1970 to 2009,

5085-574: The American response as a "police action". According to Time magazine in 1970, "U.S. presidents [had] ordered troops into position or action without a formal congressional declaration a total of 149 times." In 1993, Michael Kinsley wrote that "Congress's war power has become the most flagrantly disregarded provision in the Constitution," and that the "real erosion [of Congress's war power] began after World War   II." Disagreement about

5198-399: The Congress through oratory skills, hence the name "student congress." The trend is to strike a balance between eloquent speech and reasoned debate. United States Congress This is an accepted version of this page Minority (49) Minority (212) Vacant (3) [REDACTED] [REDACTED] The United States Congress is the legislature of the federal government of

5311-462: The Constitution's Necessary and Proper Clause . Congress has authority over financial and budgetary policy through the enumerated power to "lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States". There is vast authority over budgets, although analyst Eric Patashnik suggested that much of Congress's power to manage

5424-633: The Dominion of Canada , and Erskine May 's The Law, Privileges, Proceedings and Usage of Parliament from Britain. The rules of the United States Congress were developed from parliamentary procedures used in Britain. Many nations' legislatures follow American parliamentary procedure, including Indonesia , the Philippines , Mexico and South Korea . The Treaty on the Functioning of

5537-989: The European Union (1957) states that each of the European Parliament , Council of the European Union , and European Commission adopt their own rules. For the Parliament, these are the Rules of Procedure of the European Parliament . The procedures of the Diet of Japan moved away from the British parliamentary model, when in Occupied Japan , there were efforts to align Japanese parliamentary procedures with American congressional practices. In Japan, informal negotiations are more important than formal procedures. In Italy, written rules govern

5650-604: The Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof". Article Four gives Congress the power to admit new states into the Union. One of Congress's foremost non-legislative functions is the power to investigate and oversee the executive branch. Congressional oversight is usually delegated to committees and is facilitated by Congress's subpoena power. Some critics have charged that Congress has in some instances failed to do an adequate job of overseeing

5763-491: The House expanded delegates, along with their powers and privileges representing U.S. citizens in non-state areas, beginning with representation on committees for Puerto Rico's resident commissioner in 1970. In 1971, a delegate for the District of Columbia was authorized, and in 1972 new delegate positions were established for U.S. Virgin Islands and Guam . In 1978, an additional delegate for American Samoa were added. In

SECTION 50

#1732782341027

5876-448: The House initiates revenue -raising bills. The House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before an impeached person can be removed from office. The term Congress can also refer to a particular meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years; the current one, the 118th Congress , began on January 3, 2023, and will end on January 3, 2025. Since

5989-477: The House of Representatives have equal legislative authority, although only the House may originate revenue and appropriation bills . Congress has an important role in national defense , including the exclusive power to declare war, to raise and maintain the armed forces , and to make rules for the military. Some critics charge that the executive branch has usurped Congress's constitutionally defined task of declaring war. While historically presidents initiated

6102-625: The Jeffersonian Republican Party and began the era of the First Party System . In 1800, Thomas Jefferson 's election to the presidency marked a peaceful transition of power between the parties. John Marshall , 4th chief justice of the Supreme Court , empowered the courts by establishing the principle of judicial review in law in the landmark case Marbury v. Madison in 1803, effectively giving

6215-652: The National Catholic Forensic League. The motions are similar, if not usually identical to those used in Congress with a few exceptions, including the one-thirds second required to amend a motion or legislation, to prevent abuse of that protocol. The presiding officer never should call for motions; rather, contestants should rise and say "motion," and then that they move a specific motion. The following motions are used at almost all Congressional Debate tournaments: * Widely recognized to be an unnecessary motion. The rule in Congress states that

6328-526: The National Forensic League and common practice have dictated that students also consider who spoke earlier (referred to as "recency"). Before precedence and recency are established, the presiding officer must recognize speakers fairly and equitably. The National Forensic League and many tournaments have (as of 2012) ruled the use of methods that tie the number of questions asked or motions made to speaker recognition, as well as how many times

6441-635: The Supreme Court a power to nullify congressional legislation. The Civil War , which lasted from 1861 to 1865, which resolved the slavery issue and unified the nation under federal authority but weakened the power of states' rights . The Gilded Age (1877–1901) was marked by Republican dominance of Congress. During this time, lobbying activity became more intense, particularly during the administration of President Ulysses S. Grant in which influential lobbies advocated for railroad subsidies and tariffs on wool. Immigration and high birth rates swelled

6554-553: The UK, particularly within trade unions , is Walter Citrine 's ABC of Chairmanship . In English-speaking Canada, popular authorities include Kerr & King's Procedures for Meeting and Organizations . The Conservative Party of Canada uses Wainberg's Society meetings including rules of order to run its internal affairs. In French-speaking Canada, commonly used rules of order for ordinary societies include Victor Morin 's Procédures des assemblées délibérantes (commonly known as

6667-500: The Uniform Congressional Redistricting Act requires that they be elected from single-member constituencies or districts . It is also required that the congressional districts be apportioned among states by population every ten years using the U.S. census results, provided that each state has at least one congressional representative. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for

6780-477: The United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, India, and South Africa, as well as in the Republic of Ireland. In Canada, for example, the House of Commons uses House of Commons Procedure and Practice as its primary procedural authority. Others include Arthur Beauchesne 's Parliamentary Rules and Forms of the House of Commons of Canada , Sir John George Bourinot's Parliamentary Procedure and Practice in

6893-476: The United States , as President of the Senate, has a vote in the Senate only when there is a tie. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members . Congress convenes for a two-year term , commencing every other January. Elections are held every even-numbered year on Election Day . The members of the House of Representatives are elected for the two-year term of a Congress. The Reapportionment Act of 1929 established that there be 435 representatives, and

SECTION 60

#1732782341027

7006-638: The United States . It is bicameral , composed of a lower body, the United States House of Representatives , and an upper body, the United States Senate . It meets in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C. Members are chosen through direct election , though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a governor 's appointment. Congress has 535 voting members: 100 senators and 435 representatives. The vice president of

7119-484: The United States, individuals who are proficient in parliamentary procedure are called parliamentarians (in countries with parliamentary governments the term refers to a member of Parliament ). Several organizations offer certification programs for parliamentarians, including the National Association of Parliamentarians and American Institute of Parliamentarians . Agriculture teachers who coach teams in

7232-520: The University of Kentucky. Students who achieve a high level of competitive success at other national tournaments qualify to compete at the TOC, which brings together some of the best congresspersons from across the nation. [1] The nomenclature of "congressional debate" is also the result of a shift in recent times toward a more debate-oriented category. In the past, the category focused more on simulating

7345-1057: The Villiger tournament in Philadelphia, the Glenbrooks tournament in Chicago, the Crestiann Classic in Florida, Pennsbury, Princeton, George Mason, the Minneapple Debate Tournament in Minnesota, Stanford, the California Invitational at UC Berkeley, the Sunvitational in Florida, and Nova Titan Invitational in Florida. In addition, Congress is now one of the official events at the debate Tournament of Champions, hosted by

7458-554: The White House a little more in favor of the executive branch", according to one account. Past presidents, including Ronald Reagan , George H. W. Bush , Bill Clinton , and George W. Bush , have made public statements when signing congressional legislation about how they understand a bill or plan to execute it, and commentators, including the American Bar Association , have described this practice as against

7571-504: The Whole votes, recent Congresses have not allowed for that, and they cannot vote when the House is meeting as the House of Representatives. On January 6, 2021, the Congress gathered to confirm the election of Joe Biden, when supporters of the outgoing president Donald Trump attacked the building . The session of Congress ended prematurely, and Congress representatives evacuated. Trump supporters occupied Congress until D.C police evacuated

7684-552: The Woman and the election of members of The Squad , respectively. Women of color faced additional challenges that made their ascension to Congress even more difficult. Jim Crow laws , voter suppression and other forms of structural racism made it virtually impossible for women of color to reach Congress prior to 1965. The passage of the Voting Rights Act that year , and the elimination of race-based immigration laws in

7797-544: The adoption of the Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution , the Congress has started and ended at noon on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators; members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. Scholar and representative Lee H. Hamilton asserted that the "historic mission of Congress has been to maintain freedom" and insisted it

7910-607: The area. The event was the first time since the Burning of Washington by the British during the War of 1812 that the United States Congress was forcefully occupied. Various social and structural barriers have prevented women from gaining seats in Congress. In the early 20th century, women's domestic roles and the inability to vote forestalled opportunities to run for and hold public office. The two party system and

8023-461: The assembly by introducing main motions . "Members use subsidiary motions to alter a main motion, or delay or hasten its consideration." Parliamentary procedure also allows for rules in regards to nomination, voting, debate, disciplinary action, appeals, and the drafting of organization charters , constitutions , and bylaws . In the US Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised aspires to be

8136-436: The body itself (often referred to as bylaws ), usually supplemented by a published parliamentary authority adopted by the body. Typically, national, state or provincial and other full-scale legislative assemblies have extensive internally written rules of order, whereas non-legislative bodies write and adopt a limited set of specific rules as the need arises. The term parliamentary procedure gets its name from its use in

8249-417: The budget has been lost when the welfare state expanded since "entitlements were institutionally detached from Congress's ordinary legislative routine and rhythm." Another factor leading to less control over the budget was a Keynesian belief that balanced budgets were unnecessary. The Sixteenth Amendment in 1913 extended congressional power of taxation to include income taxes without apportionment among

8362-405: The chamber should vote for or against the given legislation. The general format of a speech is as follows: Questioning, traditionally, has been the standard set by the debate rules. One speaker at a time has an opportunity to ask one question at a time, moderated by the presiding officer. Typically, questions attempt to expose faults in the speech given. Sometimes speakers upholding the same side as

8475-454: The competition itself is run. Each chamber has a presiding officer (PO) or chair. At the beginning of each session, contestants in the chamber nominate candidates. Usually, each nominee gives a brief candidacy speech introducing themselves and stating their qualifications. Contestants then elect a presiding officer by majority via individual, secret balloting. The presiding officer's job is to facilitate fair, balanced, and efficient debate during

8588-402: The current speaker will ask a "friendly question," seeking agreement, although in some regions, this is discouraged. Questions, and their respective answers, are to be short and to the point, as delays will unfairly cut into other speakers' questioning time. Rules do not allow for "prefacing," where students formulate a statement or argument as part of their question; rather, they must simply ask

8701-502: The docket. This most commonly happens with a nominated docket at the tournament, although some areas have a system of informal caucusing or highly organized committees, which convene to review legislation that has been subdivided by the tournament to address a specific topic area, such as is done in the National Catholic Forensic League. A common committee structure includes: " Public welfare ", " Economics ," and " Foreign Affairs ." Congressional Debate speeches last up to three minutes (with

8814-612: The early years as political parties became pronounced. With the passage of the Constitution and the Bill of Rights , the anti-federalist movement was exhausted. Some activists joined the Anti-Administration Party that James Madison and Thomas Jefferson were forming about 1790–1791 to oppose policies of Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton ; it soon became the Democratic-Republican Party or

8927-487: The electorate. Lame duck reforms according to the Twentieth Amendment reduced the power of defeated and retiring members of Congress to wield influence despite their lack of accountability. The Great Depression ushered in President Franklin Roosevelt and strong control by Democrats and historic New Deal policies. Roosevelt 's election in 1932 marked a shift in government power towards

9040-480: The end of the session), and some tournaments have both the scorers and parliamentarian evaluate the presiding officer, while others just have one or the other do so. The following key standards distinguish effectiveness: "Judging Standards" . Archived from the original on August 13, 2011 . Retrieved March 22, 2013 . In addition to judges who score speeches, most tournaments have a parliamentarian in each chamber. Unlike scorers, who generally rotate each session,

9153-736: The event has been growing nationwide, added by several states as State Tournament event, and added to numerous large invitational tournaments. In the past decade, Congressional Debate has spread widely across the debate community. The first major tournament outside of NFL and NCFL nationals to hold Congressional Debate was the Harvard University Tournament traditionally held near President's Day weekend in February. Other major tournaments which host congress competitions include The Barkley Forum for High Schools at Emory University, The University of Florida Blue Key, Yale, Princeton,

9266-425: The exclusive power of removal , allowing impeachment and removal of the president, federal judges and other federal officers. There have been charges that presidents acting under the doctrine of the unitary executive have assumed important legislative and budgetary powers that should belong to Congress. So-called signing statements are one way in which a president can "tip the balance of power between Congress and

9379-595: The executive branch. Numerous New Deal initiatives came from the White House rather initiated by Congress. President Roosevelt pushed his agenda in Congress by detailing Executive Branch staff to friendly Senate committees (a practice that ended with the Legislative Reorganization Act of 1946). The Democratic Party controlled both houses of Congress for many years. During this time, Republicans and conservative southern Democrats formed

9492-463: The extent of congressional versus presidential power regarding war has been present periodically throughout the nation's history. Congress can establish post offices and post roads, issue patents and copyrights , fix standards of weights and measures, establish Courts inferior to the Supreme Court , and "make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in

9605-564: The fear of communism during the Second Red Scare and conducted televised hearings. In 1960, Democratic candidate John F. Kennedy narrowly won the presidency and power shifted again to the Democrats who dominated both chambers of Congress from 1961 to 1980, and retained a consistent majority in the House from 1955 to 1994. Congress enacted Johnson's Great Society program to fight poverty and hunger. The Watergate Scandal had

9718-409: The first legislation in order, and the author always gets first right of refusal. When a session starts, there usually are not predetermined methods for selecting contestants for their first speech. Once speakers have been recognized, the universal rule in all leagues and tournaments is to first recognize those who have not spoken, or those who have spoken least (referred to as "precedence"). Beyond that,

9831-412: The first woman of color to reach the Senate in 1993. The second, Mazie Hirono , won in 2013. In 2021, Kamala Harris became the first female President of the Senate , which came with her role as the first female Vice President of the United States . Article One of the Constitution creates and sets forth the structure and most of the powers of Congress. Sections One through Six describe how Congress

9944-482: The floor is opened by the presiding officer, not by a motion coming from the chamber. These motions are allowed at some Congressional Debate tournaments, depending on the region and the style of debate: This requires a suspension of the rules.* The term "main motion" refers to the primary question before the assembly; in Congressional Debate, this is the legislation as presented on the agenda, so it

10057-402: The internal structure of Congress is important to understand along with its interactions with so-called intermediary institutions such as political parties , civic associations , interest groups , and the mass media . The Congress of the United States serves two distinct purposes that overlap: local representation to the federal government of a congressional district by representatives and

10170-486: The lack of term limits favored incumbent white men, making the widow's succession – in which a woman temporarily took over a seat vacated by the death of her husband – the most common path to Congress for white women. Women candidates began making substantial inroads in the later 20th century, due in part to new political support mechanisms and public awareness of their underrepresentation in Congress. Recruitment and financial support for women candidates were rare until

10283-430: The late 20th century, the media became more important in Congress's work. Analyst Michael Schudson suggested that greater publicity undermined the power of political parties and caused "more roads to open up in Congress for individual representatives to influence decisions". Norman Ornstein suggested that media prominence led to a greater emphasis on the negative and sensational side of Congress, and referred to this as

10396-488: The law. Generally militia forces are controlled by state governments, not Congress. Congress also has implied powers deriving from the Constitution's Necessary and Proper Clause which permit Congress to "make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof". Broad interpretations of this clause and of

10509-424: The legislation being debated. Unlike other debate events, students drive the topics for discussion by drafting their own legislation for submission to tournaments. The bills and resolutions must be national in scope, and must either fall within jurisdiction for lawmaking by the United States Congress as a bill, or express a specific position and/or recommendation for further action outside of Congress' jurisdiction as

10622-410: The legislation must consider the legislation as amended. Judges either serve as a scorers or parliamentarians. Scorers judge individual sessions. While judging a speech is clearly, to a certain extent, subjective, there are certain key standards that distinguish effectiveness: The presiding officer always is taken into consideration for recognition in the chamber by judges (usually through ranking at

10735-441: The legislature since there were two separate chambers. The new government became active in 1789. Political scientist Julian E. Zelizer suggested there were four main congressional eras, with considerable overlap, and included the formative era (1780s–1820s), the partisan era (1830s–1900s), the committee era (1910s–1960s), and the contemporary era (1970–present). Federalists and anti-federalists jostled for power in

10848-513: The minority and giving each member or delegate the right to voice an opinion. Voting determines the will of the assembly. While each assembly may create their own set of rules, these sets tend to be more alike than different. A common practice is to adopt a standard reference book on parliamentary procedure and modify it through special rules of order that supersede the adopted authority. A parliamentary structure conducts business through motions , which cause actions. Members bring business before

10961-580: The organizations and tournaments provide specific parameters for questioning periods that already establish when questioning begins. While all Congressional Debate competition rely upon parliamentary procedure as practiced in Congress (i.e. the Standing Rules of the United States Senate or the Procedures of the United States House of Representatives ) as the underpinning for how sessions are conducted, there may be slight variations in how

11074-584: The other branches of government. In the Plame affair , critics including Representative Henry A. Waxman charged that Congress was not doing an adequate job of oversight in this case. There have been concerns about congressional oversight of executive actions such as warrantless wiretapping , although others respond that Congress did investigate the legality of presidential decisions. Political scientists Ornstein and Mann suggested that oversight functions do not help members of Congress win reelection. Congress also has

11187-424: The parliamentarian remains in one chamber for all sessions (preliminary, semifinal or final). The parliamentarian's role is a fairly passive one; their main purpose is to serve as a reference on parliamentary procedure in case there is confusion or a dispute the presiding officer cannot resolve. Unless either the presiding officer makes (or fails to correct) a major error in procedure or else the debate gets bogged down

11300-527: The parliamentarian will generally not intervene in the proceedings unless asked by someone in the chamber. The first high school Congress was held in 1938 by the National Forensic League. Like other forms of debate, it emphasizes clash of ideas, and consideration of questions of policy (bills) and value (resolutions). It operates like a forensic speech event with sectioning of multiple entries per section and comparative ranking and rating by points (as opposed to pairing just two entries and wins/losses). Since 2000,

11413-401: The parliamentarian) will first determine if the amendment is germane; or if it changes the original intent of the legislation, it is ruled dilatory. The author of the amendment then moves to amend, and if the presiding officer rules it germane, they read it aloud to the chamber and calls for a one-thirds second (usually by voice vote). If one-third of the chamber concurs to consider the amendment,

11526-409: The presiding officer a clear and objective directive as to whom to recognize. This has been criticized by longtime National Forensic League Congress Coordinator Harold Keller for entirely removing the dynamism of the activity from students' hands. The National Forensic League's Table of Parliamentary Motions is in use by almost every organization that conducts Congressional Debate competition, including

11639-438: The presiding officer then calls for a speech in support of the amendment. At most tournaments, the speech introducing or sponsoring the amendment is not guaranteed to its author, and in fact, it is common practice in some areas for a contestant to immediately move the previous question on the amendment. If that happens, it is not debated before the chamber passes or defeats the amendment. If the amendment passes, subsequent debate on

11752-597: The process for going to war, they asked for and received formal war declarations from Congress for the War of 1812 , the Mexican–American War , the Spanish–American War , World War I , and World War II , although President Theodore Roosevelt 's military move into Panama in 1903 did not get congressional approval. In the early days after the North Korean invasion of 1950 , President Truman described

11865-703: The ranks of citizens and the nation grew at a rapid pace. The Progressive Era was characterized by strong party leadership in both houses of Congress and calls for reform; sometimes reformers said lobbyists corrupted politics. The position of Speaker of the House became extremely powerful under leaders such as Thomas Reed in 1890 and Joseph Gurney Cannon . By the beginning of the 20th century, party structures and leadership emerged as key organizers of Senate proceedings. A system of seniority, in which long-time members of Congress gained more and more power, encouraged politicians of both parties to seek long terms. Committee chairmen remained influential in both houses until

11978-504: The reforms of the 1970s. Important structural changes included the direct popular election of senators according to the Seventeenth Amendment , ratified on April 8, 1913. Supreme Court decisions based on the Constitution's commerce clause expanded congressional power to regulate the economy. One effect of popular election of senators was to reduce the difference between the House and Senate in terms of their link to

12091-433: The session in which they have been elected, primarily through recognition of speakers and questioners (see section below). At the end of many tournaments students in the chamber vote on which presiding officer was the best, and some tournaments have a separate means for judge recognition of presiding officers. The most common duties of the presiding officer are: The presiding officer always calls for an author or sponsor for

12204-413: The several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration. The Constitution also grants Congress the exclusive power to appropriate funds, and this power of the purse is one of Congress's primary checks on the executive branch. Congress can borrow money on the credit of the United States, regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the states, and coin money. Generally, the Senate and

12317-736: The spirit of the Constitution. There have been concerns that presidential authority to cope with financial crises is eclipsing the power of Congress. In 2008, George F. Will called the Capitol building a "tomb for the antiquated idea that the legislative branch matters". The Constitution enumerates the powers of Congress in detail. In addition, other congressional powers have been granted, or confirmed, by constitutional amendments. The Thirteenth (1865), Fourteenth (1868), and Fifteenth Amendments (1870) gave Congress authority to enact legislation to enforce rights of African Americans, including voting rights , due process , and equal protection under

12430-514: The table" (requiring a simple majority vote) out of order, since that is an abusive way to circumvent the spirit of the rules to allow the minority a voice before majority rules. After the previous question has been moved, the presiding officer calls for a vote on the legislation, and after counting votes, announces whether the ayes or noes have it, and the motion carries or is defeated. Note that "yay" and "nay" are archaic modes of voting expression that are no longer used in parliamentary parlance. It

12543-439: The table) before changing to the desired item. Some tournaments establish a minimum time before the previous question can be moved; others limit how long each legislation may be debated. When debate gets one-sided, or "stale," often a contestant will rise and move the previous question, which requires two-thirds of the chamber concurring. If this motion fails, the presiding officer would rule any immediate subsequent motion to "lay on

12656-427: The tournament. It is important that this happens. Students attending each tournament are divided up into sections of 10-30 (usually 15–20, the NSDA recommendation is 18). These individual rooms are called chambers, and sometimes labeled as a "House", or "Senate," depending on the region and the tournament. During each phase of a tournament (preliminary and elimination), there is at least one round, often referred to as

12769-540: Was a "driving force in American government" and a "remarkably resilient institution". Congress is the "heart and soul of our democracy", according to this view, even though legislators rarely achieve the prestige or name recognition of presidents or Supreme Court justices ; one wrote that "legislators remain ghosts in America's historical imagination." One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played an active role in shaping government policy and

#26973