64-581: State Atomic Energy Corporation Rosatom (commonly referred to as Rosatom Russian: Росатом , IPA: [rosˈatəm] ), also known as Rosatom State Nuclear Energy Corporation , (Russian: Государственная корпорация по атомной энергии «Росатом» , romanized : Gosudarstvennaya korporatsiya po atomnoy energii "Rosatom" ), or Rosatom State Corporation , is a Russian state corporation headquartered in Moscow that specializes in nuclear energy , nuclear non-energy goods and high-tech products. It
128-442: A native Russian keyboard layout ( JCUKEN ). In the latter case, they would type using a system of transliteration fitted for their keyboard layout , such as for English QWERTY keyboards, and then use an automated tool to convert the text into Cyrillic. There are a number of distinct and competing standards for the romanization of Russian Cyrillic , with none of them having received much popularity, and, in reality, transliteration
192-511: A nuclear power plant in Kaliningrad started on 25 February 2010, but was suspended for the project to be redesigned. There are also plans to build two more units at Leningrad NPP, two units at Smolensk NPP , two more units at Novovoronezh NPP and two more units at Kursk NPP . In mid-June 2021, Rosatom announced that two 600 MW VVER reactors will be added to Kola NPP with the first coming online in 2034. In early June 2021, construction of
256-443: A 38% world market share and in 2019 led in global uranium enrichment services (36%) and covers 16% of the global nuclear fuel market. The state corporation is authorized on behalf of the state to fulfill Russia's international obligations in the field of the use of nuclear energy and of non-proliferation of nuclear materials. Rosatom is also involved with large-scale projects such as ITER and FAIR . As of February 2021,
320-654: A Latin alphabet for the Russian language was discussed in 1929–30 during the campaign of latinisation of the languages of the USSR , when a special commission was created to propose a latinisation system for Russian. The letters of the Latin script are named in Russian as following (and are borrowed from French and/or German ): State corporation (Russia) State Corporation ( Russian : Государственная корпорация , romanized : Gosudarstvennaya Korporatsiya )
384-408: A leak or accident at its nuclear sites and suggested that the plume was caused by a satellite burning upon reentry. A 2019 study ruled out the satellite hypothesis. By analyzing air sample data from multiple monitoring sites, the scientists determined that the most likely cause of the plume was a fire or explosion while attempting to process ruthenium into cerium-144. Rosatom continues to deny that there
448-545: A strategy is aimed at eliminating internal competition, deliberately created earlier. This measure can be effective from the economic point of view in view of a large number of domestic and foreign orders. Rosatom is one of the world leaders in the number of simultaneously constructed power units. As of late 2021, Rosatom is building two new power units in Russia at Kursk Nuclear Power Plant II, and there are 35 power units at different stages of implementation abroad. Construction of
512-473: A subsidiary, is engaged in production of carbon fibre and fibre-based items, as well as R&D and engineering support to its partners. The other subsidiaries involved are JSC Khimprominzhiniring, and LLC ALABUGA-FIBRE. The managing company is the Digitalization Unit of Rosatom, which is engaged in solving tasks in three main areas: The participation in the digitalization of Russia, as Rosatom
576-479: Is JSC ASE EC , which has extensive capabilities for managing the construction of complex engineering facilities. The main business areas of the division include the design and construction of large NPPs in Russia and abroad, and developing digital technologies for managing complex engineering facilities based on the Multi-D platform. Key companies include JSC Atomenergoproekt, and JSC ATOMPROEKT. The managing company
640-487: Is JSC Atomenergomash . It is one of Russia's largest groups of mechanical engineering enterprises offering a full range of solutions for the design, manufacture, and supply of equipment for the nuclear power industry. The division comprises more than 10 production sites, including production enterprises, engineering centers, and research organizations in Russia, Ukraine, the Czech Republic, and Hungary. According to
704-481: Is JSC Rosenergoatom . It is the only NPP operator in Russia and a key player in the Russian electricity market . Its main business areas include power and heat generation at NPPs and acting as the operator of nuclear facilities (nuclear power plants), radiation sources, and facilities storing nuclear materials and radioactive substances. Key companies include all Russian NPPs, JSC AtomEnergoRemont, JSC AtomEnergoSbyt, and TITAN-2 construction holding. The managing company
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#1732797361900768-465: Is JSC Federal Center for Nuclear and Radiation Safety. It is dedicated to a centralized system for management of spent nuclear fuel and radioactive waste , as well as decommissioning of hazardous nuclear and radiological facilities. Key companies include FSUE Mining and Chemical Combine , FSUE Radon, NO RWM. The managing company is JSC Science and Innovations. Key companies include Russian Scientific Center (RSC) – A.I. Leipunskiy IPPE, NII NPO Luch, and
832-459: Is JSC NovaWind. This Rosatom's division concentrates its efforts in advanced areas of wind energy generation technology. Key companies include WindSGC, WindSGC-2, and Atompowerindustry Trade. The managing company is JSC Rusatom Healthcare. It has been historically developed at various enterprises of the Russian nuclear industry. In 2017, Rosatom established the division to bring together assets and expertise in healthcare. The nuclear medicine division
896-415: Is JSC Rusatom Automated Control Systems. It builds comprehensive solutions for automation of production processes, manufactures and supplies electrical equipment , designs and constructs electricity supply facilities. The managing company is FSUE Federal Environmental Operator. The management company Rosenergoatom operates all of Russia's nuclear power plants and represents the electric power division of
960-593: Is Rusatom Additive Technologies. It connects together the scientific and production companies of Rosatom in order to develop the area of additive production in Russia. It controls design and production of 3D-printers, additive powders, complete sets, software, and 3D-printing services. The managing company is LLC RENERA, which is engaged in the development of lithium-ion traction batteries for electric transport and fixed systems for energy accumulation, as well as products for emergency and uninterruptible power supply and storage systems for renewable energy. The managing company
1024-436: Is a leading organization on the global nuclear fuel cycle front-end market and the only supplier of nuclear fuel for Russian NPPs and the nuclear-powered icebreaker fleet. Key daughter companies include Bochvar National Research Institute for Inorganic Materials, Siberian Chemical Combine , and Chepetskiy Mechanical Plant . The division's tasks include the fabrication of nuclear fuel, conversion and enrichment of uranium, and
1088-494: Is a non-membership non-commercial organization, a type of legal entity in Russia introduced in 1999 (Article 7.1, NCO Law). Each state corporation is created by a separate Russian federal law. These state corporations are non-profits established only under a federal law and are different from all the other organizations referred to in the mass media as "state corporations". They are regulated by bespoke legislation. According to
1152-550: Is carried out at the Mayak Production Association at the RT-1 plant. The plant is currently processing the spent nuclear fuel (of various compositions) from power reactors ( BN-350 , VVER-440 , BN-600 , RBMK-1000 , VVER-1000 ; BN-MOX), from the research reactors of Russian and foreign scientific centers, and from the reactors of submarine and surface naval fleet transport power plants. The managing company
1216-486: Is considering reducing support for new nuclear under its support contracts, called Dogovor Postavki Moshnosti (DPM), which guarantees developers a return on investment through increased payments from consumers for 20 years. Ruthenium , a byproduct of uranium-235 fission, is used by nuclear monitoring sites as an indicator of a nuclear accident. In October 2017, a plume of ruthenium-106 was detected by multiple laboratories throughout Europe. Rosatom denied that there had been
1280-602: Is converted to an oxide form at the W-ECP unit of Zelenogorsk Electrochemical Plant. Nuclear fuel is produced at Rosatom's Machine-building plant (JSC MSZ) and Novosibirsk Chemical Concentrates Plant (JSC NCCP). The plants produce UO 2 -based (enriched fresh and reprocessed uranium) nuclear fuel for all models of Russian power and research reactors, as well as for many foreign power and research reactor models and for Russian ship-based power installations. The development of accident-tolerant fuel for VVER and PWR reactors has now entered
1344-416: Is in charge of nuclear medicine, manufacturing and distribution of radioisotope products and radiation sterilization equipment, as well as creation of integrated turnkey solutions for medicine. Key companies include JSC Isotope and NIITFA. In February 2022, Rusatom Healthcare acquired 25,001% of shares of Medscan group, the rest of shares still being hold by its major shareholder, Yevgeny Tugolukov. JSC UMATEX
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#17327973619001408-597: Is often carried out without any consistent standards. Scientific transliteration, also known as the International Scholarly System , is a system that has been used in linguistics since the 19th century. It is based on the Czech alphabet and formed the basis of the GOST and ISO systems. OST 8483 was the first Soviet standard on romanization of Russian, introduced on 16 October 1935. Developed by
1472-753: Is the center of competences of the Federal Project Digital Technologies within the National Program Digital Economy, the development of digital products for nuclear power and beyond and the internal digitalization of the Russian nuclear industry, making it independent from foreign technologies in critical areas. The managing company is JSC Rusatom Infrastructure Solutions. The company develops, builds, modernizes, maintains water supply, water purification and water treatment facilities for energy, petrochemical, food, and other industries. The managing company
1536-706: Is the main system of the Oxford University Press, and a variation was used by the British Library to catalogue publications acquired up to 1975. The Library of Congress system (ALA-LC) is used for newer acquisitions. The BGN/PCGN system is relatively intuitive for Anglophones to read and pronounce. In many publications, a simplified form of the system is used to render English versions of Russian names, typically converting ë to yo , simplifying -iy and -yy endings to -y , and omitting apostrophes for ъ and ь . It can be rendered using only
1600-608: The Council of Ministers transformed the First Main Directorate in charge of nuclear weapons program into the Ministry of Medium Machine Building (MinSredMash). The ministry was entrusted with the development of the civic nuclear power program. In 1989, Minsredmash and the Ministry of Atomic Energy merged to form the Ministry of Nuclear Engineering and Industry of the USSR . The Ministry for Atomic Energy of
1664-634: The Research Institute of Atomic Reactors . The development of the Northern Sea Route has become a Rosatom priority after the company was appointed its infrastructure operator in late 2018. Rosatom seeks to organize ship navigation within the NSR, develop the infrastructure of seaports, including energy, create a navigation safety system, as well as navigational and hydrographic support. In addition, several Rosatom entities are involved in
1728-568: The Russian language (the transliteration of Russian text from the Cyrillic script into the Latin script ), aside from its primary use for including Russian names and words in text written in a Latin alphabet, is also essential for computer users to input Russian text who either do not have a keyboard or word processor set up for inputting Cyrillic, or else are not capable of typing rapidly using
1792-489: The Russian nuclear industry . As part of the celebration, Rosatom launched its rebranding campaign “United Rosatom,” which made subsidiaries in the nuclear industry utilize the Rosatom's Möbius strip logo. In 2020, Rosatom set a goal of tripling its revenue to ₽4 trillion by 2030, 40% of which is set to come from new lines of business, with primarily focus on sustainable tech. In 2020, Rosatom approved an updated strategy with
1856-461: The BREST-OD-300 reactor started. It will be the world's first experimental demonstration power unit featuring a lead-cooled fast neutron reactor. Rosatom was the world's largest portfolio of foreign NPP construction projects with a market share of 74%. At the time of Russia's invasion of Ukraine, Rosatom had 73 projects in 29 countries. Romanization of Russian The romanization of
1920-456: The British Library since 1975. The formal, unambiguous version of the system for bibliographic cataloguing requires some diacritics, two-letter tie characters , and prime marks. The standard is also often adapted as a "simplified" or "modified Library of Congress system" for use in text for a non-specialized audience, omitting the special characters and diacritics, simplifying endings, and modifying iotated initials. British Standard 2979:1958
1984-542: The Latin Alphabet is an adoption of ISO 9:1995 . It is the official standard of both Russia and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). GOST 52535.1-2006 Identification cards. Machine readable travel documents. Part 1. Machine readable passports is an adoption of an ICAO standard for travel documents. It was used in Russian passports for a short period during 2010–2013 ( see below ). The standard
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2048-685: The National Administration for Geodesy and Cartography at the USSR Council of Ministers , GOST 16876-71 has been in service since 1973. Replaced by GOST 7.79-2000. This standard is an equivalent of GOST 16876-71 and was adopted as an official standard of the COMECON . GOST 7.79-2000 System of Standards on Information, Librarianship, and Publishing–Rules for Transliteration of the Cyrillic Characters Using
2112-460: The Rosatom mining division is JSC Atomredmetzoloto , which consolidates Russian uranium mining assets. Key daughter companies include JSC Khiagda and JSC Dalur. Uranium One is a separate global mining company that operates directly under Rosatom with a diverse portfolio of assets in Kazakhstan, United States, and Tanzania. The managing company of the Rosatom fuel division is JSC TVEL , which
2176-658: The Russian Federation [( Russian : Министерство по атомной энергии Российской Федерации, also known as Minatom (Russian: Минaтом)] was established as a successor to the Russian part of the Ministry of Nuclear Engineering and Industry of the USSR on 29 January 1992, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union . The newly created ministry received about 80% of the enterprises of the union department, including 9 nuclear power plants with 28 power units. Under this name,
2240-561: The Russian invasion of Ukraine. In 2017, Rosatom decided to invest in wind power , believing that rapid cost reductions in the renewable industry will become a competitive threat to nuclear power, and started to build wind turbine . Rosatom was also concerned that nuclear export opportunities were becoming exhausted. In October, Rosatom was reported to be considering postponing commissioning new nuclear plants in Russia due to excess generation capacity and that new nuclear electricity prices are higher than for existing plant. The Russian government
2304-610: The Treasury Office of Foreign Assets Control sanctioned Rosatom's carbon fibre-producing UMATEX subsidiary group of companies in Russia and the Czech Republic pursuant to Executive Order 14024 , as part of a drive against Russia's suppliers of carbon fibers . The Foundation for Defense of Democracies recommends a blanket ban in the US on Rosatom. It said the total revenue accrued by Rosatom from US and European sources
2368-501: The ZNPP would represent the biggest nuclear theft in history. In an essay written in July 2023 it was written that Rosatom supplied fuel to 78 power reactors in 15 countries, and had more than a third of the global nuclear fuel market. Cameco , Orano and ConverDyn were listed as competitors. As of early 2021, Rosatom included 356 of various organizational and legal forms. Some belong to
2432-622: The basic letters and punctuation found on English-language keyboards: no diacritics or unusual letters are required, although the interpunct character (·) may be used to avoid ambiguity. This particular standard is part of the BGN/PCGN romanization system which was developed by the United States Board on Geographic Names and by the Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use . The portion of
2496-635: The development of international transit sea freight traffic along the Northern Sea Transit Corridor. Key companies include FSUE Atomflot , Directorate of the Northern Sea Route, Rusatom Cargo. In 2017, Rosatom decided to invest in wind turbine manufacturing, believing that rapid cost reductions in the renewable industry will become a competitive threat to nuclear power. Russia had recently offered subsidies for domestically built renewable technology. The managing company
2560-416: The enterprises of the nuclear power complex, which comprises organizations of nuclear energy, nuclear engineering , and the nuclear fuel cycle , such as enterprises for the exploration and production of natural uranium, conversion and enrichment of uranium, production of nuclear fuel, electricity and equipment, development of new technologies for the nuclear fuel and gas centrifuge platform. Others belong to
2624-783: The group's own data, 14% of nuclear power plants in the world and 40% of thermal power stations in the CIS and the Baltic states use the holding equipment. In addition, the division is the largest producer of equipment for the VVER reactor and the world's only producer of the fast-neutron reactor ( BN reactor ). Its enterprises are also responsible for the design and manufacturing of reactors for SMR nuclear power plants, both onshore and offshore, as well as nuclear icebreakers. Key companies include OKB Gidropress , OKBM Afrikantov , JSC Machine-Building Factory of Podolsk, and AEM-technology. The managing company
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2688-429: The growing number of new businesses outside of nuclear power, including wind energy, composite materials, additive technologies, and nuclear medicine, among others. The civilian assets of the Russian nuclear industry are concentrated within Rosatom's holding company Atomenergoprom , which unites 204 enterprises as of December 2020. The Rosatom companies are integrated into multiple divisions: The holding company of
2752-597: The intent to branch into 100 new business areas, including nuclear medicine, composites, wind energy, hydrogen, waste management, additive technology, and production of hydrogen. Nations supporting Ukraine following the 2022 Russian invasion sanctioned Rosatom and its subsidiaries. On 24 February 2023 the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office of the United Kingdom announced direct sanctions against Rosatom and its executives. The United States Department of
2816-496: The introduction of a dedicated Latin alphabet for writing the Russian language. Such an alphabet would not necessarily bind closely to the traditional Cyrillic orthography. The transition from Cyrillic to Latin has been proposed several times throughout history (especially during the Soviet era), but was never conducted on a large scale, except for informal romanizations in the computer era. The most serious possibility of adoption of
2880-590: The law, a state corporation is wholly owned by the Russian Federation directly, bypassing the Federal Agency for State Property Management . For example, VEB was used as an off-budget funding vehicle for the state's special projects. VEB is overseen by a nine-member board that puts Dmitriyev together with seven government ministers and a representative of the Kremlin. An opaque organization held firmly controlled by President Vladimir Putin, Vneshekonombank (VEB)
2944-560: The ministry existed until 9 March 2004, when it was transformed into the Federal Agency on Atomic Energy . On 1 December 2007, Russian President Vladimir Putin signed a law adopted by the Federal Assembly under which the Federal Atomic Energy Agency was to be abolished, and its powers and assets were to be transferred to the newly created "State Atomic Energy Corporation Rosatom." On 12 December of
3008-484: The new system and the old one, citizens who wanted to retain the old version of a name's transliteration, especially one that had been in the old pre-2010 passport, could apply to the local migration office before they acquired a new passport. The standard was abandoned in 2013. In 2013, Order No. 320 of the Federal Migration Service of Russia came into force. It states that all personal names in
3072-509: The passports must be transliterated by using the ICAO system , which is published in Doc 9303 " Machine Readable Travel Documents, Part 3 ". The system differs from the GOST R 52535.1-2006 system in two things: ц is transliterated into ts (as in pre-2010 systems), ъ is transliterated into ie (a novelty). In a second sense, the romanization or Latinization of Russian may also indicate
3136-630: The plant's operation. Rosatom spokeswoman said that its employees are present at the ZNPP to ensure the safety of the plant and are not involved in its management or security. On 29 September 2022, the International Atomic Energy Agency was told by a Ukrainian ambassador that Rosatom had sent more officials to the ZNPP to enforce the change in ownership from Ukraine to Russia and to give the plant employees two weeks to apply for work with Rosatom. According to western media outlet Bloomberg, allowing Russia to claim ownership of
3200-470: The plant, threatened the Ukrainian personnel, and demanded the plant's manuals, procedures and other documentation. Since 12 March 2022, once Russian military forces occupied Ukraine's Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant (ZNPP), Rosatom employees have gained access and set a base there without permission of the plant's owner Energoatom . Rosatom engineers have demanded documentation and manuals on
3264-806: The production of gas centrifuges . Uranium enrichment is carried out at four TVEL Fuel Company plants, including Angarsk Electrochemical Plant in Angarsk , Irkutsk Oblast , Zelenogorsk Electrochemical Plant in Zelenogorsk , Krasnoyarsk Krai , Ural Electrochemical Plant in Novouralsk , Sverdlovsk Oblast , and the Siberian Chemical Plant in Seversk , Tomsk Oblast . Uranium is enriched using an advanced gas centrifuge technology to separate uranium isotopes. Depleted uranium hexafluoride
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#17327973619003328-556: The same year, the agency transformed into a state corporation . In 2015, the company's revenue amounted to 126 billion rubles. Between 2000 and 2015, Rosatom "was the supplier in around half of all international agreements on nuclear power plant construction, reactor, and fuel supply, decommissioning or waste". Russia has various diplomatic ties with different countries via nuclear energy diplomacy. Some form of formalized agreement exists with 54 countries as of 2023, although some plans for Russian-built nuclear power plants were canceled after
3392-478: The stage of testing. MOX fuel for fast sodium reactors is produced at the Mining and Chemical Combine, while uranium-plutonium mixed fuel will be produced at the Siberian Chemical Plant, which is currently under construction. A uranium-plutonium fuel REMIX (regenerated mixture) is being tested for VVER reactors; its commercial production is expected to take place at the Mining and Chemical Combine. SNF reprocessing
3456-526: The state corporation Rosatom. As of April 2021, 11 nuclear power plants (38 power units) operated in Russia with a total capacity of 30.5 GW, producing about 20.28% of all electricity produced in Russia. As a result of reforms and reassignments in the period from 2012 to 2014, Rosatom's engineering activities were concentrated within the management company Atomenergoproekt- Atomstroyexport (NIAEP-ASE), based in Nizhny Novgorod . Earlier, Atomstroyexport
3520-502: The system pertaining to the Russian language was adopted by BGN in 1944 and by PCGN in 1947. In Soviet international passports , transliteration was based on French rules but without diacritics and so all names were transliterated in a French-style system . In 1997, with the introduction of new Russian passports , a diacritic-free English-oriented system was established by the Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs , but
3584-447: The system was also abandoned in 2010. In 2006, GOST R 52535.1-2006 was adopted, which defines technical requirements and standards for Russian international passports and introduces its own system of transliteration. In 2010, the Federal Migration Service of Russia approved Order No. 26, stating that all personal names in the passports issued after 2010 must be transliterated using GOST R 52535.1-2006. Because of some differences between
3648-437: The total portfolio orders of Rosatom reached $ 250 billion. According to the 2020 corporate report, its 10-year foreign order portfolio stood at $ 138.3 billion, while revenue reached $ 7.5 billion. The 10-year order portfolio for new products stood at ₽1,602.1 billion while revenue reached ₽261.1 billion. Several Soviet and Russian government entities with different tasks are among the Rosatom predecessors. On 26 June 1953,
3712-671: The use of diacritics) that faithfully represents the original and allows for reverse transliteration for Cyrillic text in any contemporary language. The UNGEGN , a Working Group of the United Nations , in 1987 recommended a romanization system for geographical names, which was based on the 1983 version of GOST 16876-71 . It may be found in some international cartographic products. American Library Association and Library of Congress (ALA-LC) romanization tables for Slavic alphabets are used in North American libraries and in
3776-537: Was a leak or explosion. On 28 June 2017, The Financial Times criticized Rosatom for lack of transparency regarding an alleged expansionist agenda through its role as a " Kremlin-controlled company ". On 20 March 2018, this criticism was underlined by the Bellona Foundation , who focused on the scarce data available on Rosatom's progress in Sudan . On 20 August 2020, Rosatom marked the 75th anniversary of
3840-554: Was around $ 2 billion in FY2023 and considered this unacceptable. The European Union dares not sanction Rosatom because of the clout it wields on the continent, although the European Parliament did call for sanctions as lately as 2 February 2023. Within the next two days after Russian military forces occupied Ukraine's Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant on 24 February 2022, Rosatom employees had gained unauthorized access to
3904-510: Was engaged in foreign construction, and a number of independent engineering institutes with the name Atomenergoproekt were engaged in the design and construction of facilities in Russia: Moscow , St. Petersburg , and Nizhny Novgorod. Since October 2014 on the basis of NIAEP-ASE, Rosatom forms a unified engineering division, not including design company on nuclear power facilities and technologies Atomproekt. According to Kommersant , such
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#17327973619003968-1049: Was established in 2007 and comprises more than 350 enterprises, including scientific research organizations, a nuclear weapons complex , and the world's only nuclear icebreaker fleet. The organization is the largest electricity generating company in Russia, producing 215.746 TWh of electricity, 20.28% of the country's total electricity production. The corporation ranks first in overseas nuclear power plant construction, responsible for 76% of global nuclear technology exports: 35 nuclear power plant units, at different stages of development, in 12 countries, as of December 2020. Rosatom also manufactures equipment, produces isotopes for nuclear medicine, carries out research, and conducts material studies. It also produces supercomputers and software as well as different nuclear and non-nuclear products. Rosatom plans to further develop renewable energy and wind power . Two nuclear power plants are being built in Russia at Kursk-2 NPP with plans announced for 2 more units at Kola NPP. Rosatom has
4032-458: Was substituted in 2013 by GOST R ISO/ IEC 7501-1-2013, which does not contain romanization, but directly refers to the ICAO romanization ( see below ). Names on street and road signs in the Soviet Union were romanized according to GOST 10807-78 (tables 17, 18), which was amended by newer Russian GOST R 52290-2004 (tables Г.4, Г.5), the romanizations in both the standards are practically identical. ISO/R 9, established in 1954 and updated in 1968,
4096-570: Was the adoption of the scientific transliteration by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). It covers Russian and seven other Slavic languages. ISO 9:1995 is the current transliteration standard from ISO. It is based on its predecessor ISO/R 9:1968, which it deprecates; for Russian, the two are the same except in the treatment of five modern letters. ISO 9:1995 is the first language-independent, univocal system of one character for one character equivalents (by
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