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65-646: The origins of the L-5 can be traced to the prewar civilian Stinson HW-75 . This 75 horsepower civilian high-wing design was built by the Stinson Aircraft Company at Wayne, Michigan and first flew in 1939. It was marketed as the Model 105 and was first introduced to the public at the New York World's Fair. The three-place HW-75 featured two side-by-side seats and a third "jumpseat" in back on which

130-606: A Stinson L-5 . During the Battle of Okinawa , L-5s operated from an LST equipped with the "Brodie System". The Navy and Marine version of the L-5 through L-5E were designated OY-1 , and all these aircraft had 12-volt electrical systems. The 24-volt L-5G became the OY-2 . Neither the L-5G nor OY-2 saw combat during World War II because production did not begin until July 1945, just weeks before

195-411: A windsock beside a landing strip. Types of runway safety incidents include: The choice of material used to construct the runway depends on the use and the local ground conditions. For a major airport, where the ground conditions permit, the most satisfactory type of pavement for long-term minimum maintenance is concrete . Although certain airports have used reinforcement in concrete pavements, this

260-480: A 7 will indicate 7,000 ft (2,134 m) remaining. The runway threshold is marked by a line of green lights. [REDACTED] There are three types of runways: Waterways may be unmarked or marked with buoys that follow maritime notation instead. For runways and taxiways that are permanently closed, the lighting circuits are disconnected. The runway threshold, runway designation, and touchdown markings are obliterated and yellow "Xs" are placed at each end of

325-555: A Stinson division in April 1949 to sell the complete aircraft inherited from Convair, and to assemble a further 125 aircraft from spare parts. These aircraft were marketed as Piper-Stinson 108s. Total new production of the Stinson Model 108, by Stinson, was 5,260; this total does not include the two converted prototypes. Stinson delivered approximately 4,935 aircraft and Piper delivered approximately 325 aircraft. Piper later sold

390-632: A braked carriage snagged an arresting hook attached to the top of the airplane. After successful tests of the "runway on a rope" in Oklahoma, it was demonstrated to the British in India who declined to adopt it. However, the unorthodox "Rube Goldberg" Brodie landing system was installed aboard the USS ; City of Dalhart . Staff Sergeant R. A. Gregory made ten good successful launches and recoveries with

455-486: A landing site for the Space Shuttle . Takeoff and landing distances available are given using one of the following terms: There are standards for runway markings. There are runway markings and signs on most large runways. Larger runways have a distance remaining sign (black box with white numbers). This sign uses a single number to indicate the remaining distance of the runway in thousands of feet. For example,

520-542: A periodic basis. Fields with very low traffic of light planes may use a sod surface. Some runways make use of salt flats. For pavement designs, borings are taken to determine the subgrade condition, and based on the relative bearing capacity of the subgrade, the specifications are established. For heavy-duty commercial aircraft, the pavement thickness, no matter what the top surface, varies from 10 to 48 in (25 to 122 cm), including subgrade. Airport pavements have been designed by two methods. The first, Westergaard ,

585-783: A small number were used by the Japan Defense Force. Others were also sold to Korea, China, Thailand, Mexico, Venezuela, and Brazil. Today there are about 300 known examples left worldwide and less than half are in flying condition. A group called the Sentinel Owners and Pilots Association is dedicated to the preservation and enjoyment of this aircraft type. Data from Stinson L-5 Sentinel General characteristics Performance Related development Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Related lists Model numbering continued by Convair Stinson Model 108 Voyager The Stinson 108

650-676: A small passenger could sit facing sideways. Economical, spin resistant and easy to fly, the plane was popular with aircraft owners and flight schools and by the end of 1939 Stinson was building three per day. In 1940 the Model 105 was upgraded to an 80 hp (60 kW) Continental engine and with other small improvements this was marketed as the Model 10 . Stinson became a subsidiary of the Vultee Aircraft Corporation in August 1940. Under Vultee management, an improved version

715-399: A stretched derivative of the Model 10A / 105 Voyager – more than 5,000 of the model 108 Voyager (or Station Wagon) were produced by Stinson, before the company was acquired by Piper Aircraft in late 1948. When Piper took over the 108 line, a number of model 108s built by Stinson were completed, but unsold, and went to Piper as part of the acquisition. Piper then sold that inventory as

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780-426: A test bed for radar tracking, firing aerial rockets, and airborne remote television. In uncommon instances, L-5 crews dropped grenades and fired wing-mounted bazookas at ground targets. The L-5 series was manufactured between November 1942 and September 1945, during which time 3,590 of the unarmed two-seaters were delivered for military service, making it the second most widely used light observation liaison aircraft of

845-415: A third parallel runway was opened at Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport in 2000 to the south of existing 8R/26L—rather than confusingly becoming the "new" 8R/26L it was instead designated 7R/25L, with the former 8R/26L becoming 7L/25R and 8L/26R becoming 8/26. Suffixes may also be used to denote special use runways. Airports that have seaplane waterways may choose to denote the waterway on charts with

910-508: Is a popular single-engine, four-seat, light general aviation aircraft produced by the Stinson division of the American airplane company Consolidated Vultee , from immediately after World War II to 1950 (by which time Stinson was a division of Piper Aircraft ). The 108 was developed from the prewar Model 10A Voyager (also known as the "Stinson 105"). First built in 1946 – as

975-445: Is an extrapolation of the original test results, which are not applicable to modern aircraft pavements or to modern aircraft landing gear . Some designs were made by a mixture of these two design theories. A more recent method is an analytical system based on the introduction of vehicle response as an important design parameter. Essentially it takes into account all factors, including the traffic conditions, service life, materials used in

1040-469: Is based on the assumption that the pavement is an elastic plate supported on a heavy fluid base with a uniform reaction coefficient known as the K value . Experience has shown that the K values on which the formula was developed are not applicable for newer aircraft with very large footprint pressures. The second method is called the California bearing ratio and was developed in the late 1940s. It

1105-399: Is considered to have the longest takeoff distance of the more common aircraft types and has set the standard for runway lengths of larger international airports. At sea level , 3,200 m (10,500 ft) can be considered an adequate length to land virtually any aircraft. For example, at O'Hare International Airport , when landing simultaneously on 4L/22R and 10/28 or parallel 9R/27L, it

1170-418: Is generally found to be unnecessary, with the exception of expansion joints across the runway where a dowel assembly, which permits relative movement of the concrete slabs, is placed in the concrete. Where it can be anticipated that major settlements of the runway will occur over the years because of unstable ground conditions, it is preferable to install asphalt concrete surface, as it is easier to patch on

1235-408: Is included for all ICAO and some U.S. military airports (such as Edwards Air Force Base ). However, most U.S.  civil aviation airports drop the leading zero as required by FAA regulation. This also includes some military airfields such as Cairns Army Airfield . This American anomaly may lead to inconsistencies in conversations between American pilots and controllers in other countries. It

1300-454: Is most nearly aligned with the wind. Airports with one runway are often constructed to be aligned with the prevailing wind . Compiling a wind rose is one of the preliminary steps taken in constructing airport runways. Wind direction is given as the direction the wind is coming from : a plane taking off from runway 09 faces east, into an "east wind" blowing from 090°. Originally in the 1920s and 1930s, airports and air bases (particularly in

1365-578: Is routine for arrivals from East Asia , which would normally be vectored for 4L/22R (2,300 m (7,546 ft)) or 9R/27L (2,400 m (7,874 ft)) to request 28R (4,000 m (13,123 ft)). It is always accommodated, although occasionally with a delay. Another example is that the Luleå Airport in Sweden was extended to 3,500 m (11,483 ft) to allow any fully loaded freight aircraft to take off. These distances are also influenced by

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1430-451: Is slow, runway designation changes are uncommon, and not welcomed, as they require an accompanying change in aeronautical charts and descriptive documents. When a runway designation does change, especially at major airports, it is often done at night, because taxiway signs need to be changed and the numbers at each end of the runway need to be repainted to the new runway designators. In July 2009 for example, London Stansted Airport in

1495-459: Is usually adequate for aircraft weights below approximately 100,000 kg (220,000 lb). Larger aircraft including widebodies will usually require at least 2,400 m (7,900 ft) at sea level. International widebody flights, which carry substantial amounts of fuel and are therefore heavier, may also have landing requirements of 3,200 m (10,500 ft) or more and takeoff requirements of 4,000 m (13,000 ft). The Boeing 747

1560-557: Is very common in a country such as Canada for a controller to clear an incoming American aircraft to, for example, runway 04, and the pilot read back the clearance as runway 4. In flight simulation programs those of American origin might apply U.S. usage to airports around the world. For example, runway 05 at Halifax will appear on the program as the single digit 5 rather than 05. Military airbases may include smaller paved runways known as "assault strips" for practice and training next to larger primary runways. These strips eschew

1625-598: The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), a runway is a "defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for the landing and takeoff of aircraft ". Runways may be a human-made surface (often asphalt , concrete , or a mixture of both) or a natural surface ( grass , dirt , gravel , ice , sand or salt ). Runways, taxiways and ramps , are sometimes referred to as "tarmac", though very few runways are built using tarmac . Takeoff and landing areas defined on

1690-566: The Lycoming O-360 , Franklin O-350 , Continental O-470 . One distinctive feature is the partial leading edge slot installed on the wings and aligned with the ailerons on the trailing edge, ensuring that the portion of the wing containing the aileron remains unstalled at higher angles of attack , thus contributing to docile stall behavior. The 108 initially proved popular, with 746 examples built in 1946, while production in 1947

1755-683: The Army Air Forces liaison squadrons consisting of 32 planes each. One of these squadrons was attached to field army headquarters deployed overseas and an additional squadron was assigned to each Army Group headquarters. They saw action in Western Europe, Italy, the Philippines, New Guinea, and the China-Burma-India theater. In the hands of the U.S. Marine Corps artillery observation squadrons they were widely used during

1820-547: The L-5 was used in the continental United States, Hawaii and Alaska by the Civil Air Patrol for search and rescue work. They were also employed by state law enforcement, forestry and Fish & Wildlife departments. Many other countries also received L-5s after the war. The largest quantities were sold to Italy, the Republic of the Philippines, and India. A few went to Pakistan after the partition of India in 1948, and

1885-526: The Pacific Island campaigns of 1944 and 1945. The L-5 was used by generals and other high-ranking officers for short-range transportation. An unusual use of the Sentinel was launch and recovery from a land-based overhead cable system designed by Lt. James Brodie that could be quickly set up in a large clearing that was otherwise unsuitable for a runway. The cable was strung between two tall masts and

1950-538: The Piper-Stinson over the next few years. Some reports appear to indicate that 108 production and/or sales continued under Piper until 1949, 1950 or 1951. In all, 5,260 Stinson (or Piper-Stinson) 108s were reportedly built Most models were named "Voyager" (like the preceding 10A/105), but some were named "Station Wagon," reflecting interior modifications to accommodate cargo. The single-engine, four-seat, fixed-gear, high-wing, Stinson 108 series

2015-659: The United Kingdom changed its runway designations from 05/23 to 04/22 during the night. Runway dimensions vary from as small as 245 m (804 ft) long and 8 m (26 ft) wide in smaller general aviation airports, to 5,500 m (18,045 ft) long and 80 m (262 ft) wide at large international airports built to accommodate the largest jets , to the huge 11,917 m × 274 m (39,098 ft × 899 ft) lake bed runway 17/35 at Edwards Air Force Base in California – developed as

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2080-468: The United Kingdom) were built in a triangle-like pattern of three runways at 60° angles to each other. The reason was that aviation was only starting, and although it was known that wind affected the runway distance required, not much was known about wind behaviour. As a result, three runways in a triangle-like pattern were built, and the runway with the heaviest traffic would eventually expand into

2145-557: The ailerons, rudder and elevator and the landing gear fairings. The L-5 through L-5E were powered by a six-cylinder 185 horsepower (138 kW) Lycoming O-435-1 engine. The L-5G used a 190 hp Lycoming O-435-11. Capable of operating from short unimproved airstrips , the L-5 Sentinel delivered personnel, intelligence and supplies to the front line. On return flights, wounded soldiers were often evacuated to rear area field hospitals for medical treatment. L-5s were primarily flown by

2210-559: The aircraft tyres. To maintain the macrotexturing built into the runway by the grooves, maintenance crews engage in airfield rubber removal or hydrocleaning in order to meet required FAA , or other aviation authority friction levels. Subsurface underdrains help provide extended life and excellent and reliable pavement performance. At the Hartsfield Atlanta, GA airport the underdrains usually consist of trenches 18 in (46 cm) wide and 48 in (120 cm) deep from

2275-447: The airport's main runway, while the other two runways would be either abandoned or converted into taxiways. Runways are named by a number between 01 and 36, which is generally the magnetic azimuth of the runway's heading in deca degrees . This heading differs from true north by the local magnetic declination . A runway numbered 09 points east (90°), runway 18 is south (180°), runway 27 points west (270°) and runway 36 points to

2340-543: The ambiguity that would result with more than three parallel runways. For example, in Los Angeles, this system results in runways 6L, 6R, 7L, and 7R, even though all four runways are actually parallel at approximately 69°. At Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport , there are five parallel runways, named 17L, 17C, 17R, 18L, and 18R, all oriented at a heading of 175.4°. Occasionally, an airport with only three parallel runways may use different runway identifiers, such as when

2405-903: The cargo / ambulance version were the L-5C with provisions for mounting a K-20 aerial camera, the L-5E with drooping ailerons for better low-speed control, the L-5E-1 with larger tires and heavy-duty brakes for better short and soft-field performance, and the final L-5G with a 24-volt electrical system and 190 hp version of the Lycoming engine. In addition to the previously listed uses, L-5s were employed in many diverse roles such as reconnaissance, search & rescue, aerial photography, forward air control of fighter-bombers, laying communication wire, spraying pesticides, dropping para-cargo, dropping leaflets, and aerial broadcasting with loudspeakers. It also served as

2470-411: The construction, and, especially important, the dynamic response of the vehicles using the landing area. Because airport pavement construction is so expensive, manufacturers aim to minimize aircraft stresses on the pavement. Manufacturers of the larger planes design landing gear so that the weight of the plane is supported on larger and more numerous tires. Attention is also paid to the characteristics of

2535-638: The following: According to Transport Canada 's regulations, the runway-edge lighting must be visible for at least 2 mi (3 km). Additionally, a new system of advisory lighting, runway status lights , is currently being tested in the United States. The edge lights must be arranged such that: Typically the lights are controlled by a control tower , a flight service station or another designated authority. Some airports/airfields (particularly uncontrolled ones ) are equipped with pilot-controlled lighting , so that pilots can temporarily turn on

2600-496: The lack of designated landing direction. If there is more than one runway pointing in the same direction (parallel runways), each runway is identified by appending left (L), center (C) and right (R) to the end of the runway number to identify its position (when facing its direction)—for example, runways one-five-left (15L), one-five-center (15C), and one-five-right (15R). Runway zero-three-left (03L) becomes runway two-one-right (21R) when used in

2665-432: The landing gear itself, so that adverse effects on the pavement are minimized. Sometimes it is possible to reinforce a pavement for higher loading by applying an overlay of asphaltic concrete or portland cement concrete that is bonded to the original slab. Post-tensioning concrete has been developed for the runway surface. This permits the use of thinner pavements and should result in longer concrete pavement life. Because of

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2730-409: The lights when the relevant authority is not available. This avoids the need for automatic systems or staff to turn the lights on at night or in other low visibility situations. This also avoids the cost of having the lighting system on for extended periods. Smaller airports may not have lighted runways or runway markings. Particularly at private airfields for light planes, there may be nothing more than

2795-458: The nearest 10°, this affects some runways sooner than others. For example, if the magnetic heading of a runway is 233°, it is designated Runway 23. If the magnetic heading changes downwards by 5 degrees to 228°, the runway remains Runway 23. If on the other hand the original magnetic heading was 226° (Runway 23), and the heading decreased by only 2 degrees to 224°, the runway becomes Runway 22. Because magnetic drift itself

2860-521: The need for "distinctly marked and carefully prepared landing places, [but] the preparing of the surface of reasonably flat ground [is] an expensive undertaking [and] there would also be a continuous expense for the upkeep." For fixed-wing aircraft , it is advantageous to perform takeoffs and landings into the wind to reduce takeoff or landing roll and reduce the ground speed needed to attain flying speed . Larger airports usually have several runways in different directions, so that one can be selected that

2925-581: The north (360° rather than 0°). When taking off from or landing on runway 09, a plane is heading around 90° (east). A runway can normally be used in both directions, and is named for each direction separately: e.g., "runway 15" in one direction is "runway 33" when used in the other. The two numbers differ by 18 (= 180°). For clarity in radio communications, each digit in the runway name is pronounced individually: runway one-five, runway three-three, etc. (instead of "fifteen" or "thirty-three"). A leading zero, for example in "runway zero-six" or "runway zero-one-left",

2990-589: The opposite direction (derived from adding 18 to the original number for the 180° difference when approaching from the opposite direction). In some countries, regulations mandate that where parallel runways are too close to each other, only one may be used at a time under certain conditions (usually adverse weather ). At large airports with four or more parallel runways (for example, at Chicago O'Hare , Los Angeles , Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County , Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta , Denver , Dallas–Fort Worth and Orlando ), some runway identifiers are shifted by 1 to avoid

3055-538: The primary purpose of the L-5 was short range officer transport, courier work and artillery spotting. The fuselage was reconfigured in June 1944 and the modified aircraft, designated as the L-5B , could be used as an air ambulance or for light cargo transport. With a wider and deeper rear fuselage section and a large rear door that folded downward, a litter patient or 250 pounds of cargo could be quickly loaded. Later iterations of

3120-478: The runway grade (slope) such that, for example, each 1 percent of runway down slope increases the landing distance by 10 percent. An aircraft taking off at a higher altitude must do so at reduced weight due to decreased density of air at higher altitudes, which reduces engine power and wing lift. An aircraft must also take off at a reduced weight in hotter or more humid conditions (see density altitude ). Most commercial aircraft carry manufacturer's tables showing

3185-406: The runway and at 1,000 ft (305 m) intervals. A line of lights on an airfield or elsewhere to guide aircraft in taking off or coming in to land or an illuminated runway is sometimes also known as a flare path . Runway lighting is used at airports during periods of darkness and low visibility. Seen from the air, runway lights form an outline of the runway. A runway may have some or all of

3250-623: The standard numerical naming convention and instead employ the runway's full three digit heading; examples include Dobbins Air Reserve Base 's Runway 110/290 and Duke Field 's Runway 180/360. Runways with non-hard surfaces, such as small turf airfields and waterways for seaplanes , may use the standard numerical scheme or may use traditional compass point naming, examples include Ketchikan Harbor Seaplane Base 's Waterway E/W. Airports with unpredictable or chaotic water currents, such as Santa Catalina Island 's Pebbly Beach Seaplane Base, may designate their landing area as Waterway ALL/WAY to denote

3315-414: The suffix T; this is advantageous for certain airfields in the far north such as Thule Air Base (08T/26T). Runway designations may change over time because Earth's magnetic lines slowly drift on the surface and the magnetic direction changes. Depending on the airport location and how much drift occurs, it may be necessary to change the runway designation. As runways are designated with headings rounded to

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3380-577: The suffix W; such as Daniel K. Inouye International Airport in Honolulu and Lake Hood Seaplane Base in Anchorage . Small airports that host various forms of air traffic may employ additional suffixes to denote special runway types based on the type of aircraft expected to use them, including STOL aircraft (S), gliders (G), rotorcraft (H), and ultralights (U). Runways that are numbered relative to true north rather than magnetic north will use

3445-652: The surface of water for seaplanes are generally referred to as waterways . Runway lengths are now commonly given in meters worldwide , except in North America where feet are commonly used. In 1916, in a World War I war effort context, the first concrete-paved runway was built in Clermont-Ferrand in France , allowing local company Michelin to manufacture Bréguet Aviation military aircraft. In January 1919, aviation pioneer Orville Wright underlined

3510-441: The susceptibility of thinner pavements to frost heave , this process is generally applicable only where there is no appreciable frost action . Runway pavement surface is prepared and maintained to maximize friction for wheel braking. To minimize hydroplaning following heavy rain, the pavement surface is usually grooved so that the surface water film flows into the grooves and the peaks between grooves will still be in contact with

3575-547: The top of the pavement. A perforated plastic tube (5.9 in (15 cm) in diameter) is placed at the bottom of the ditch. The ditches are filled with gravel size crushed stone. Excessive moisture under a concrete pavement can cause pumping, cracking, and joint failure. In aviation charts, the surface type is usually abbreviated to a three-letter code. The most common hard surface types are asphalt and concrete. The most common soft surface types are grass and gravel. A runway of at least 1,800 m (5,900 ft) in length

3640-630: The type certificate to Univair Aircraft Corporation . Univair built and certified the model 108-5, but built only one example. Total new model production by Stinson and Univair was 5,261 aircraft. The 108 variants closely resemble each other but can be visually distinguished by their design changes: Data from Plane and Pilot , Jane's all the World's Aircraft 1947, Stinson Operating Manual. General characteristics Performance Related development Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Runway According to

3705-505: The war behind the Piper L-4 Cub. The fuselage was constructed using arc-welded chrome-moly steel tubing covered with doped cotton fabric and the wings and empennage were constructed of spruce and mahogany plywood box spars and plywood ribs and skins, also covered with fabric. The use of aluminum, which was in critically short supply and more urgently needed for other aircraft, was limited to the engine cowling, tail cone, framework for

3770-554: The war ended, but they were used extensively during the Korean War. A further two dozen or so OY-1's were converted to OY-2's in 1948 and 1949. The British Royal Air Force (RAF) procured 40 L-5s and 60 L-5Bs in 1944 and designated them Sentinel Is and Sentinel IIs respectively. These aircraft were used exclusively in the India-Burma theater of operations by SEAC communications and medical evacuation units. After World War II,

3835-588: Was almost half of all 4-seat private aircraft built in the United States, with the Stinson division the only part of Convair that was profitable for a time. In 1948, however, overproduction in the US general aviation industry led to a glut of light aircraft, with unsold 108s being stored, and on 30 June 1948, Convair shut down the Stinson factory. The name and assets of Stinson (including 200 unsold 108s) were sold to Piper Aircraft on 1 December 1948, with Piper setting up

3900-417: Was built with a six-cylinder Franklin engine -- 150 horsepower (110 kW) 6A4-150, or 165 horsepower (123 kW) 6A4-165, normally -- driving a fixed-pitch propeller. The fuselage is of fabric-covered steel tube. Aftermarket modifiers have obtained supplemental type certificates (STC) allowing conversion to an aluminum covering. Many different engines have been installed in the 108 by STC such as

3965-615: Was called the Model 76 and was adopted as the L-5 . The experimental 175 hp Model 76 , dubbed "the Flying Jeep" by factory personnel, was first flown at the Stinson factory airport on June 23, 1941, by chief pilot Al Schramm. Accepted by the military after accelerated service trials were completed in September, the first contract for 275 planes was issued in January 1942. Originally designated O-62 ('O' for observation), this

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4030-530: Was changed to L-5 Sentinel ('L' for liaison) in April 1942, seven months before the first production airplanes were delivered. With minor changes, the six-cylinder Lycoming O-435 engine was upped to 185 horsepower, becoming the O-435-1 that powered all production Sentinel models through the L-5E-1. Adopted by the Army Air Forces as their standard liaison aircraft, replacing the larger and more costly L-1 Vigilant,

4095-471: Was demonstrated to the military in August and September 1940. The V-75C failed to meet military requirements, so the Stinson engineers went back to the drawing board and came up with a clean-sheet design that was similar in concept to the V-75C but was a far stronger, more powerful and completely new tandem-seat airplane that met rigorous Army-Navy engineering standards for the design of military aircraft. This

4160-463: Was fitted with a four-cylinder 90 hp (67 kW) Franklin engine for the 1941 model year and the type became known as the Model 10A Voyager . In the postwar era, the fuselage of the Model 10A was lengthened to accommodate four passengers and the four-cylinder powerplant was replaced with a Franklin 150 hp six-cylinder engine. This conversion became the Stinson Model 108 Voyager that

4225-514: Was the only aircraft commercially produced by Stinson after WWII. During the summer of 1940, Stinson built an experimental tandem-seat version of the HW-75, equipping it with a 100 hp (75 kW) Lycoming engine. This was known as the Model 75B . Under Vultee management it was re-designated V-75B . Soon increased to 125 horsepower for better performance, this became the Model V-75C that

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