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113-434: A street light , light pole , lamp pole, lamppost , streetlamp , light standard , or lamp standard is a raised source of light on the edge of a road or path. Similar lights may be found on a railway platform . When urban electric power distribution became ubiquitous in developed countries in the 20th century, lights for urban streets followed, or sometimes led. Many lamps have light-sensitive photocells that activate

226-519: A lanternarius . In the words of Edwin Heathcote , "Romans illuminated the streets with oil lamps, and cities from Baghdad to Cordoba were similarly lit when most of Europe was living in what it is now rather unfashionable to call the Dark Ages but which were, from the point of view of street lighting, exactly that." So-called " link boys " escorted people from one place to another through

339-518: A prototype steam locomotive in 1784, and made a number of discoveries in chemistry . Murdoch remained an employee, and later a partner, of Boulton and Watt until the 1830s, but his reputation as an inventor has been obscured by the reputations of Matthew Boulton , James Watt , and the firm they founded. William Murdoch was born in Bello Mill near Old Cumnock in Ayrshire , Scotland ,

452-705: A Circle making it carry the fire Shovel, poker & tongs. This demonstration of his steam carriage in Rivers Great Room, at the King's Head hotel, Truro , was the first public demonstration in Britain given of steam locomotion in action. Although after 1786 there is no further mention of Murdoch's work on Steam Carriages in Watt's or Boulton's correspondence, a volume of evidence exists that he continued to work on it without his employers' support, and some argue that

565-652: A Unified System of Photometry. These mesopic visual performance models are conducted in laboratory conditions in which the viewer is not exposed to higher levels of luminance than the level being tested for. Further research is needed to bring additional factors into these models such as visual adaptation and the biological mechanics of rod cells before these models are able to accurately predict visual performance in real world conditions. The current understanding of visual adaptation and rod cell mechanics suggests that any benefits from rod-mediated scotopic vision are difficult, if not impossible, to achieve in real world conditions under

678-535: A bell at his home to announce visitors. Some of Murdoch's other minor inventions and experiments were: a machine developed in 1784 or 1785 in Cornwall for drilling wooden pipes, (in 1810 this was further developed and patented for stone pipes), a steam cannon which he attempted to use in 1803 to knock down a wall at Soho, a steam gun in the same year which fired 3 cm lead bullets, and machinery to grind and compress peat moss under great pressure to produce

791-406: A clarity white and pure, have a marvelous effect." The gaslights installed on the boulevards and city monuments in the 19th century gave the city the nickname "The City of Light." Oil-gas appeared in the field as a rival of coal-gas. In 1815, John Taylor patented an apparatus for the decomposition of "oil" and other animal substances. Public attention was attracted to "oil-gas" by the display of

904-459: A cord over the middle of the street at a height of 20 feet (6.1 m); as an English visitor enthused in 1698, 'The streets are lit all winter and even during the full moon!' In London, public street lighting was implemented around the end of the 17th century; a diarist wrote in 1712 that 'All the way, quite through Hyde Park to the Queen's Palace at Kensington, lanterns were placed for illuminating

1017-412: A curved platform – often a platform gap is present. Usually such platforms will have warning signs, possibly auditory, such as London Underground 's famous phrase " Mind the gap ". There may be moveable gap filler sections within the platform, extending once the train has stopped and retracting after the doors have closed. The New York City Subway employs these at 14th Street–Union Square on

1130-454: A dearth of letters from Murdoch to Watt from 1780 until 1797 in the Watt archive, possibly, as argued by John Griffiths, due to an attempt by Watt's son, James Watt Junior , to uphold his father's reputation by removing any evidence of the origin of some of the inventions he patented. It is almost certain that Murdoch's contract of employment, in common with those for other employees of Boulton and Watt, specified that anything he invented would be

1243-420: A full size version was built. One story often told, both in respect of a full size carriage and one of his models, is that one night Murdoch decided to test his carriage outside on the open road and it soon outpaced him, leaving him to chase after it. Whilst chasing it he encountered a local clergyman in a state of considerable distress who had mistaken his carriage, with its billowing smoke and fire burning under

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1356-506: A full-size steam carriage some time in the 1790s, which could be the source of this story. A fact important to the later development of the steam locomotive by others was that, in 1797 and 1798, Richard Trevithick came to live in Redruth next door to the house where William Murdoch lived (1782 to 1798). Trevithick would have seen and been influenced by Murdoch's experiments, and would certainly have been aware of his work in this area. There

1469-505: A guideline for platform safety specifies that for the platforms with train passing speeds between 160 kilometres per hour (99 mph) and 200 kilometres per hour (120 mph), there should be a yellow-line buffer zone of 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) and other warning signs. If trains can pass at speeds higher than 200 kilometres per hour (120 mph), the platforms should be inaccessible to passengers unless there are waiting rooms or screened areas to provide protection. The European Union has

1582-511: A hard durable seal. Another discovery, and the first for which Murdoch took out a patent, was that of The art or method of making from the same materials and by the same processes entirely new copperas, vitriol, and different sorts of dye or dying stuff, paints and colours, and also a composition for preserving the bottoms of all kinds of vessels and all wood required to be immersed in water, from worms, weeds, barnacles, and every other foulness which usually does or may adhere thereto. This patent

1695-544: A lantern-bearer if they had to move at night through the dark, winding streets. King Louis XIV authorized sweeping reforms in Paris in 1667, which included the installation and maintenance of lights on streets and at intersections, as well as stiff penalties for vandalizing or stealing the fixtures. Paris had more than 2,700 streetlights by the end of the 17th century, and twice as many by 1730. Under this system, streets were lit with lanterns suspended 20 yards (18 m) apart on

1808-441: A material with "the appearance of the finest Jet ". An important invention for which Murdoch receives less credit than one might expect is Britain's first working model of a steam carriage , or road locomotive , in 1784. French engineer Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot had already demonstrated the utility of such a device by building (from 1769) two full-sized working steam vehicles, one of which was designed to carry 4–5 tonnes . All that

1921-441: A matter of much consequence. Another innovation of Murdoch's was his 1799 invention of a much simplified and more efficient steam wheel than those in use at the time. A precursor of the steam turbine , the steam wheel allowed the wheel to be directly turned by the pressure of the steam moving through it. By this time Murdoch's contract had been amended and he was able to patent this device in his own name. Murdoch also carried out

2034-500: A number of experiments with compressed air and developed the first pneumatic message system which worked by using compressed air to propel a message in a cylinder through a tube to its intended destination. This system was developed by the London Pneumatic Despatch Company and became widely used; Harrods in particular used this system until at least the 1960s. Murdoch also used compressed air to ring

2147-487: A patent. He having been told by Mr W. Wilkn what Sadler had said & he had likewise read in the news paper Simmingtons puff which had rekindled all Wms fire & impations to make Steam Carriages. However, I prevailed upon him readily to return to Cornwall by the next days diligence & he accordingly arivd here this day at noon, since which he hath unpacked his Carg & made Travil a Mile or two in Rivers's great room in

2260-410: A regulation for platforms that are close to tracks with train passing speeds of 250 kilometres per hour (160 mph) or more should not be accessible to passengers unless there is a lower speed limit for trains that intend to stop at the station or there are barriers to limit access. Platforms usually have some form of warnings or measures to keep passengers away from the tracks. The simplest measure

2373-612: A significant portion of the city, with over 13 km of streets lit by 52 incandescent lights and 3 arc lights. Powered by a municipal power company, this system gave Tamworth the title of "First City of Light" in Australia. On 10 December 1885, Härnösand became the first town in Sweden with electric street lighting, following the Gådeå power station being taken into use. Incandescent lamps were primarily used for street lighting until

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2486-477: A significant safety problem as the safe distance from the platform edge increases with the speed of the passing train. A study done by the United States Department of Transportation in 1999 found that trains passing station platforms at speeds of 240 kilometres per hour (150 mph) can pose safety concerns to passengers on the platforms who are 2 metres (6.6 ft) away from the edge due to

2599-670: A small foundry in Adelaide Street and occupied by J. W. Sutton and Co. In 1884, Walhalla, Victoria , had two lamps installed on the main street by the Long Tunnel (Gold) Mining Company. In 1886, the isolated mining town of Waratah in Tasmania was the first to have an extensive system of electrically powered street lighting installed. In 1888, the New South Wales town of Tamworth installed a large system illuminating

2712-448: A small signal halfway along the platform. Some, such as London Waterloo East , use letters instead of numbers (this is to distinguish the platforms from numbered ones in the adjoining Waterloo main-line station for staff who work at both stations); some, such as Paris-Gare de Lyon , use letters for one group of platforms but numbers for the other. The actual meaning of the word platform depends on country and language. In many countries,

2825-429: A station building, often some form of shelter or waiting room is provided, and employee cabins may also be present. The weather protection offered varies greatly, from little more than a roof with open sides, to a closed room with heating or air-conditioning. There may be benches , lighting , ticket counters, drinking fountains , shops, trash boxes, and static timetables or dynamic displays with information about

2938-537: A tram stop is served by ordinary trams with rather low floors and metro -like light rail vehicles with higher floors, and the tram stop has a dual-height platform. A railway station may be served by heavy-rail and light-rail vehicles with lower floors and have a dual- height platform, as on the RijnGouweLijn in the Netherlands. In all cases the platform must accommodate the loading gauge and conform to

3051-401: A verb meaning "to berth at a station", as in the announcement: "The last two cars of this train will not platform at East Rockaway". The most basic form of platform consists of an area at the same level as the track, usually resulting in a fairly large height difference between the platform and the train floor. This would often not be considered a true platform. The more traditional platform

3164-470: A visually-contrasting color, for the full length of the platform. Ideally platforms should be straight or slightly convex , so that the guard (if any) can see the whole train when preparing to close the doors. Platforms that have great curvature have blind spots that create a safety hazard. Mirrors or closed-circuit cameras may be used in these cases to view the whole platform. Also passenger carriages are straight, so doors will not always open directly onto

3277-525: A working model of his steam carriage (now in Thinktank, Birmingham Science Museum ); accounts exist from witnesses who "saw the model steam carriage run around Murdoch's living room in Redruth in 1784". This is the first recorded example in Great Britain of a man-made machine moving around completely under its own power. Murdoch's working model was a three-wheeled vehicle about a foot in height with

3390-403: Is a great deal of money to be made by it. Replies from Watt made it clear that he thought there was no future in such an idea and, fearful of losing Murdoch's services in Cornwall, attempted to dissuade him from the scheme. A later letter from Boulton disclosed more details of Murdoch's ideas: He proposes to catch most of the condensed Steam by making it strike against broad Copper plates &

3503-413: Is also a story told by Murdoch's son John of a visit by Trevithick and Andrew Vivian to see a model engine in 1794: The model of the wheel carriage engine was made in the summer of 1792 and was then shown to many of the inhabitants of Redruth – about two years after Trevithick and A. Vivian called at my father's house in Redruth... My father mentions that... on that day they asked him to show his model of

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3616-662: Is elevated relative to the track but often lower than the train floor, although ideally they should be at the same level. Occasionally the platform is higher than the train floor, where a train with a low floor serves a station built for trains with a high floor, for example at the Dutch stations of the DB Regionalbahn Westfalen (see Enschede ). On the London Underground some stations are served by both District line and Piccadilly line trains, and

3729-503: Is markings near the edge of the platform to demarcate the distance back that passengers should remain. Often a special tiled surface is used as well as a painted line, to help blind people using a walking aid, and help in preventing wheelchairs from rolling too near the platform edge. In the US, Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 regulations require a detectable warning strip 24 inches (61 cm) wide, consisting of truncated dome bumps in

3842-572: Is not found in the data. Towns, cities, and villages can use the unique locations provided by lampposts to hang decorative or commemorative banners. Many communities in the US use lampposts as a tool for fundraising via lamppost banner sponsorship programs first designed by a US-based lamppost banner manufacturer. The major criticisms of street lighting are that it can actually cause accidents if misused, and cause light pollution . There are three optical phenomena that need to be recognized in streetlight installations. There are also physical dangers to

3955-531: Is the first major city to have entirely switched to LED lighting. In North America , the city of Mississauga , Canada was one of the first and largest LED conversion projects, with over 46,000 lights converted to LED technology between 2012 and 2014. It is also one of the first cities in North America to use Smart City technology to control the lights. DimOnOff , a company based in Quebec City ,

4068-461: The Ancient Greek and Ancient Roman civilizations, where light primarily served the purpose of security , to both protect the wanderer from tripping on the path over something and keep potential robbers at bay. At that time, oil lamps were used predominantly, as they provided a long-lasting and moderate flame. A slave responsible for lighting the oil lamps in front of Roman villas was called

4181-624: The IRT Lexington Avenue Line and at Times Square on the 42nd Street Shuttle , and formerly at the South Ferry outer loop station on the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line . (+4 for Sealdah metro station ) William Murdoch William Murdoch (sometimes spelled Murdock ) (21 August 1754 – 15 November 1839) was a Scottish chemist, inventor, and mechanical engineer. Murdoch was employed by

4294-459: The Netherlands , Philips found that birds can get disoriented by the red wavelengths in street lighting, and in response developed alternative lighting that only emit in the green and blue wavelengths of the visible spectrum. The lamps were installed on Ameland in a small-scale test. If successful, the technology could be used on ships and offshore installations to avoid luring birds towards

4407-610: The Royal cypher of King Ferdinand VII of Spain and commemorates the date of the birth of his daughter, the Infanta Luisa Fernanda, Duchess of Montpensier . The first electric street lighting employed arc lamps , initially the "electric candle", "Jablotchkoff candle", or " Yablochkov candle ", developed by Russian Pavel Yablochkov in 1875. This was a carbon arc lamp employing alternating current , which ensured that both electrodes were consumed at equal rates. In 1876,

4520-733: The Singapore MRT and the Hong Kong MTR , and stations on the Jubilee Line Extension in London. Platforms should be sloped upwards slightly towards the platform edge to prevent wheeled objects such as trolleys, prams and wheelchairs from rolling away and into the path of the train. Many platforms have a cavity underneath an overhanging edge so that people who may fall off the platform can seek shelter from incoming trains. In high-speed rail , passing trains are

4633-704: The Southern Hemisphere and in Africa to have electric streetlights – with 16 first lit on 2 September 1882. The system was only the second in the world, after that of Philadelphia , to be powered municipally. In Central America, San Jose , Costa Rica, lit 25 lamps powered by a hydroelectric plant on 9 August 1884. Nuremberg was the first city in Germany to have electric public lighting on 7 June 1882, followed by Berlin on 20 September 1882 (Potsdamer Platz only). Temesvár (Timișoara in present-day Romania)

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4746-554: The University of Leuven from 1785. Archibald Cochrane, 9th Earl of Dundonald , had also used gas for lighting his family estate from 1789 onwards. Murdoch also made innovations to the steam engine, including the sun and planet gear and D slide valve . He invented the steam gun and the pneumatic tube message system, and worked on one of the first British paddle steamers to cross the English Channel . Murdoch built

4859-408: The current through the string became zero, causing the voltage of the circuit (thousands of volts) to be imposed across the insulating film, penetrating it (see Ohm's law ). In this way, the failed lamp was bypassed and power was restored to the rest of the district. The streetlight circuit contained an automatic current regulator, preventing the current from increasing as lamps burned out, preserving

4972-691: The place du Carrousel and the Rue de Rivoli , then on the rue de la Paix , place Vendôme , and rue de Castiglione. By 1857, the Grands Boulevards were all lit with gas; a Parisian writer enthused in August 1857: "That which most enchants the Parisians is the new lighting by gas of the boulevards...From the church of the Madeleine all the way to rue Montmartre, these two rows of lamps, shining with

5085-445: The steam engine manufacturer. Both Watt and Murdoch were probably aware of each other because of their connections with James Boswell , who had made several visits to Watt's workshop at Soho. Watt's partner Matthew Boulton was so impressed by Murdoch's wooden hat, made on a lathe of his own design, that he hired him. Murdoch began his career with Boulton and Watt in the pattern workshop of their Soho Foundry , making patterns for

5198-418: The structure gauge of the system. Platform types include the bay platform , side platform (also called through platform), split platform and island platform . A bay platform is one at which the track terminates, i.e. a dead-end or siding . Trains serving a bay platform must reverse in or out. A side platform is the more usual type, alongside tracks where the train arrives from one end and leaves towards

5311-551: The 16th century, and accelerated following the invention of lanterns with glass windows by Edmund Heming in London and Jan van der Heyden in Amsterdam, which greatly improved the quantity of light. In 1588 the Parisian Parliament decreed that a torch be installed and lit at each intersection, and in 1594 the police changed this to lanterns. Still, in the mid 17th century it was a common practice for travelers to hire

5424-399: The 20th century, high-pressure sodium (HPS) lamps were preferred, taking further the same virtues. Such lamps provide the greatest amount of photopic illumination for the least consumption of electricity. Two national standards now allow for variation in illuminance when using lamps of different spectra . In Australia, HPS lamp performance needs to be reduced by a minimum value of 75%. In

5537-577: The Civil Twilight Collective created a variant of the conventional LED streetlight, namely the Lunar-resonant streetlight. These lights increase or decrease the intensity of the streetlight according to the lunar light. This streetlight design thus reduces energy consumption as well as light pollution. Two very similar measurement systems were created to bridge the scotopic and photopic luminous efficiency functions, creating

5650-481: The Craikston Bridge over Lugar Water in 1774, which William would have been involved in. He is also said to have carried out experiments in coal gas , using coal heated in a copper kettle in a small cave near his father's mill. However, there is no contemporary documentation. In 1777, at age 23, Murdoch walked to Birmingham , a distance of over 300 miles (480 km), to ask for a job with James Watt ,

5763-483: The Piccadilly trains have lower floors. A tram stop is often in the middle of the street; usually it has as a platform a refuge area of a similar height to that of the sidewalk, e.g. 100 mm (4 in), and sometimes has no platform. The latter requires extra care by passengers and other traffic to avoid accidents. Both types of tram stops can be seen in the tram networks of Melbourne and Toronto . Sometimes

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5876-455: The UK, illuminances are reduced with higher values S/P ratio. New street lighting technologies, such as LED or induction lights , emit a white light that provides high levels of scotopic lumens . It is a commonly accepted practice to justify and implement a lower luminance level for roadway lighting based on increased scotopic lumens provided by white light. However, this practice fails to provide

5989-418: The US, commonly installed in exceptionally tall moonlight towers . Arc lights had two major disadvantages. First, they emit an intense and harsh light which, although useful at industrial sites like dockyards, was discomforting in ordinary city streets. Second, they are maintenance-intensive, as carbon electrodes burn away swiftly. With the development of cheap, reliable and bright incandescent light bulbs at

6102-535: The United States to successfully demonstrate electric lighting was Cleveland , Ohio, with 12 electric lights around the Public Square road system on 29 April 1879. Wabash, Indiana , lit 4 Brush arc lamps with 3,000 candlepower each, suspended over their courthouse on 2 February 1880, making the town square "as light as midday". Kimberley , Cape Colony (modern South Africa), was the first city in

6215-505: The Wheels of Mills or other Machines". This gear converted the vertical motion of a beam, driven by a steam engine, into circular motion using a 'planet', a cogwheel fixed at the end of a rod connected to the beam of the engine. With the motion of the beam this revolved around, and turned, the 'sun' a second rotating cog fixed to and which turned the drive shaft . This system of achieving rotary motion, which enabled Boulton and Watt to evade

6328-433: The advent of high-intensity gas-discharge lamps . They were often operated at high-voltage series circuits . Series circuits were popular since their higher voltage produced more light per watt consumed. Furthermore, before the invention of photoelectric controls, a single switch or clock could control all the lights in an entire district. To avoid having the entire system go dark if a single lamp burned out, each streetlamp

6441-505: The aerodynamic effects created by pressure and induced airflow with speeds of 64 kilometres per hour (40 mph) to 95 kilometres per hour (59 mph) depending on the train body aerodynamic designs. Additionally, the airflow can cause debris to be blown out to the waiting passengers. If the passengers stand closer at 1 metre (3.3 ft), the risk increases with airflow that can reach speeds of 79 kilometres per hour (49 mph) to 116 kilometres per hour (72 mph). In United Kingdom,

6554-413: The boiler, for the devil . This story may be accurate; however, is more likely to relate to a model than to a full-size steam carriage. Another story often told, this one almost certainly apocryphal, is of Murdoch travelling from "mine to mine in a steam chaise lit by gas". Given the state of the roads at that time this can be discounted. However, it is argued by John Griffiths that Murdoch may have built

6667-423: The builders for groups or individuals known as 'adventurers' (shareholders). The engine manufacturers were paid not for a completed engine but through a complex formula calculated on the basis of that engine's performance, as Watt described: Our profits arise not from making the engine, but from a certain proportion of the savings in fuel which we make over any common engine, that raises the same quantity of water to

6780-490: The casting of machine parts. By 1778 Watt wrote: if William Murdoch is not at home he should be sent for immediately as he understands the patterns and care must be taken to avoid mistakes of which our engine shop has been too guilty. He Anglicised his name to "Murdock" when he settled in England. Murdoch progressed to work in fitting and erecting steam engines and was often sent from Soho for this purpose. By 1779 Boulton

6893-785: The common council of the city of Los Angeles ordered four arc lights installed in various places in the fledgling town for street lighting. On 30 May 1878, the first electric streetlights in Paris were installed on the avenue de l'Opera and the Place de l'Étoile , around the Arc de Triomphe , to celebrate the opening of the Paris Universal Exposition . In 1881, to coincide with the Paris International Exposition of Electricity, streetlights were installed on

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7006-420: The condensed part trickling down may be caught and returned into its Boiler or other reservoir. This may do some good in rain or frosty weather & he proposes to have different sized revolvers to apply at every hill & every vale according to their angle with ye Horizon... I verely believe he would sooner give up all his cornish business & interest than be deprived of carrying the thing into execution. In

7119-484: The context needed to apply laboratory-based visual performance testing to the real world. Critical factors such as visual adaptation are left out of this practice of lowering luminance levels, leading to reduced visual performance. Additionally, there have been no formal specifications written around Photopic/Scotopic adjustments for different types of light sources, causing many municipalities and street departments to hold back on implementation of these new technologies until

7232-447: The dark than in daylight. At least in the 1980s and 1990s, when automobile crashes were far more common, street lighting was found to reduce pedestrian crashes by approximately 50%. Furthermore, in the 1970s, lighted intersections and highway interchanges tended to have fewer crashes than unlighted intersections and interchanges. Some say lighting reduces crime, as many would expect. However, others say any correlation (let alone causation)

7345-404: The effectiveness of those engines. While based in Cornwall, Murdoch had to deal with a wide range of mechanical problems related to steam engines, and this led him to make practical improvements to the basic steam engine designs used by Boulton and Watt. From 1782 there is evidence that Murdoch was discussing and collaborating with Watt on a number of inventions and improvements. There is, however,

7458-472: The end of the 19th century, arc lights passed out of use for street lighting, but remained in industrial use longer. The first street to be lit by an incandescent lightbulb was Mosley Street, in Newcastle . The street was lit for one night by Joseph Swan 's incandescent lamp on 3 February 1879. Consequently, Newcastle has the first city street in the world to be lit by electric lighting. The first city in

7571-461: The engine and boiler placed between the two larger back wheels with a spirit lamp underneath to heat the water and a tiller at the front turning the smaller front wheel. The mechanics of the model locomotive incorporated a number of innovations, such as a boiler safety valve , having the cylinder partly immersed in the boiler and using a new valve system on the lines of the D-slide valve. This model

7684-411: The field of chemistry and made a number of discoveries. One such was the discovery, first recorded in 1784, of iron cement made from sal ammoniac , or ammonium chloride and iron filings, apparently discovered when Murdoch observed that these two components had accidentally mixed in his tool bag and formed a solid mass. This iron cement was used to fix and harden the joints of steam engines, thus creating

7797-731: The firm of Boulton & Watt and worked for them in Cornwall , as a steam engine erector for ten years, spending most of the rest of his life in Birmingham , England. Murdoch was the inventor of the oscillating cylinder steam engine , and gas lighting is attributed to him in the early 1790s, as well as the term " gasometer ". However the Dutch-Belgian Academic Jean-Pierre Minckelers had already published on coal gasification and gas lighting in 1784, and had used gas to light his auditorium at

7910-402: The intellectual property of his employers, and frequently it was they who filed, and benefited from, patents on these inventions. One of Murdoch's most significant inventions, for which evidence exists to attribute it to him, was the sun and planet gear which allowed steam power to be used to "produce a continued Rotative or Circular Motion round an Axis or Centre, and thereby to give Motion to

8023-474: The lamp automatically when needed, at times when there is little-to-no ambient light, such as at dusk, dawn, or the onset of dark weather conditions. This function in older lighting systems could be performed with the aid of a solar dial . Many street light systems are being connected underground instead of wiring from one utility post to another. Street lights are an important source of public security lighting intended to reduce crime. Early lamps were used in

8136-425: The lampposts were a convenient place to hang aristocrats and other opponents. The first widespread system of street lighting used piped coal gas as fuel. Stephen Hales was the first person who procured a flammable fluid from the actual distillation of coal in 1726 and John Clayton, in 1735, called gas the "spirit" of coal and discovered its flammability by accident. William Murdoch (sometimes spelled "Murdock")

8249-594: The life of the remaining lamps. When the failed lamp was replaced, a new piece of film was installed, once again separating the contacts in the cutout. This system was recognizable by the large porcelain insulator separating the lamp and reflector from the mounting arm. This was necessary because the two contacts in the lamp's base may have operated at several thousand volts above ground. Today, street lighting commonly uses high-intensity discharge lamps . Low-pressure sodium (LPS) lamps became commonplace after World War II for their low power consumption and long life. Late in

8362-498: The lower portions to increase their visibility. High winds or accumulated metal fatigue also occasionally topple streetlights. Light pollution can hide the stars and interfere with astronomy . In settings near astronomical telescopes and observatories , low-pressure sodium lamps may be used. These lamps are advantageous over other lamps such as mercury and metal halide lamps because low-pressure sodium lamps emit lower intensity, monochromatic light. Observatories can filter

8475-550: The major boulevards. The first streets in London lit with the electrical arc lamp were by the Holborn Viaduct and the Thames Embankment in 1878. More than 4,000 were in use by 1881, though by then an improved differential arc lamp had been developed by Friedrich von Hefner-Alteneck of Siemens & Halske . The United States was quick in adopting arc lighting, and by 1890 over 130,000 were in operation in

8588-420: The murky, winding streets of medieval towns. Before incandescent lamps, candle lighting was employed in cities. The earliest lamps required that a lamplighter tour the town at dusk, lighting each of the lamps. According to some sources, illumination was ordered in London in 1417 by Sir Henry Barton , Mayor of London though there is no firm evidence of this. Public street lighting was first developed in

8701-400: The next train. There are often loudspeakers as part of a public address (PA) system. The PA system is often used where dynamic timetables or electronic displays are not present. A variety of information is presented, including destinations and times (for all trains, or only the more important long-distance trains), delays, cancellations, platform changes, changes in routes and destinations,

8814-480: The nights. Due to the frequent problems which could occur with steam engines Murdoch was kept busy travelling around the area repairing and attempting to improve the performance of the engines under his care. In Cornwall at that time there were a number of engine erectors competing with each other, each with different technical methods of achieving the same ends. As a result, a great deal of copying of mechanical innovations and violation of patents went on, often through

8927-459: The number of carriages in the train and the location of first class or luggage compartments, and supplementary fee or reservation requirements. Some metro stations have platform screen doors between the platforms and the tracks. They provide more safety, and they allow the heating or air conditioning in the station to be separated from the ventilation in the tunnel, thus being more efficient and effective. They have been installed in most stations of

9040-484: The number of insects that depend on plants for food. Railway platform The world's longest station platform is at Hubballi Junction in India at 1,507 metres (4,944 ft). The Appalachian Trail station or Benson station in the United States, at the other extreme, has a platform which is only long enough for a single bench. Among some United States train conductors the word "platform" has entered usage as

9153-474: The open sea at night. Bats can be negatively impacted by streetlights, with evidence showing that red light can be least harmful. As a result, some areas have installed red LED streetlights to minimise disruption to bats. A study published in Science Advances reported that streetlights in southern England had detrimental impacts on local insect populations. Streetlights can also impact plant growth and

9266-500: The other. An island platform has through platforms on both sides; it may be indented on one or both ends, with bay platforms. To reach an island platform there may be a bridge, a tunnel , or a level crossing . A variant on the side platform is the spanish solution which has platforms on both sides of a single through track. Modern station platforms can be constructed from a variety of materials such as glass-reinforced polymer , pre-cast concrete or expanded polystrene , depending on

9379-571: The outside in a public display of gas lighting, the lights astonishing the local population. The first public street lighting with gas was demonstrated in Pall Mall , London on 4 June 1807 by Frederick Albert Winsor . In 1811, Engineer Samuel Clegg designed and built what is now considered the oldest extant gasworks in the world. Gas was used to light the worsted mill in the village of Dolphinholme in North Lancashire. The remains of

9492-454: The patent apparatus at Apothecary's Hall , by Taylor & Martineau . Farola fernandina is a traditional design of gas streetlight which remains popular in Spain. Essentially, it is a neoclassical French style of gas lamp dating from the late 18th century. It may be either a wall-bracket or standard lamp. The standard base is cast metal with an escutcheon bearing two intertwined letters 'F',

9605-728: The patent of the crank held by James Pickard , was patented in by James Watt in his own name in October 1781 (although Samuel Smiles, biographer of Boulton and Watt, attributes the invention to Murdoch; there also exists a drawing of the sun and planet system in Murdoch's hand dated August 1781)). Other evidence attributing this invention to Murdoch takes the form of a letter from Boulton to a colleague concerning Watt's forthcoming October patents in which he writes: He has another rotative scheme to add, which I could have told him of long ago when first invented by William Murdock but I do not think it

9718-423: The posts of streetlamps, other than children climbing them for recreational purposes. Streetlight stanchions (lampposts) pose a collision risk to motorists and pedestrians, particularly those affected by poor eyesight or under the influence of alcohol. This can be reduced by designing them to break away when hit (known as frangible , collapsible, or passively safe supports), protecting them by guardrails, or marking

9831-682: The presence of high luminance light sources. Outdoor Site-Lighting Performance (OSP) is a method for predicting and measuring three different aspects of light pollution: glow, trespass and glare. Using this method, lighting specifiers can quantify the performance of existing and planned lighting designs and applications to minimize excessive or obtrusive light leaving the boundaries of a property. Major advantages of street lighting include prevention of automobile accidents and increase in safety. Studies have shown that darkness results in numerous crashes and fatalities, especially those involving pedestrians; pedestrian fatalities are 3 to 6.75 times more likely in

9944-496: The principles of mechanics , practical experimentation and working in metal and wood by assisting in his father's work. Together with his father, he built a "wooden horse" about 1763. His "Wooden Horse on Wheels" was a tricycle propelled by hand cranks. There are reports that in his youth Murdoch was responsible for the construction of one of the bridges over the River Nith ; this possibly derives from his father's work in building

10057-493: The process of switching from platform to track numbers, i.e. the Czech Republic and Poland. In locations where track numbers are used an island platform would be described as one platform with two tracks. Many stations also have numbered tracks which are used only for through traffic and do not have platform access. Some of the station facilities are often located on the platforms. Where the platforms are not adjacent to

10170-411: The reporting of casual conversations between engineers and practical observations of engine modifications. The risk of his patents being infringed was something which particularly exercised Watt, and so Murdoch was, in addition to his other activities, called upon to make reports and swear out affidavits for legal actions against Boulton & Watt's competitors. In the close knit and clannish Cornwall of

10283-495: The roads on dark nights.' A much-improved oil lantern, called a réverbère , was introduced in 1745 and improved in subsequent years. The light shed from these réverbères was considerably brighter, enough that some people complained of glare. These lamps were attached to the top of lampposts; by 1817, there were 4,694 lamps on the Paris streets. During the French Revolution (1789–1799), the revolutionaries found that

10396-439: The same height. Therefore, Murdoch's skill in getting the most out of his engines directly impacted upon Boulton and Watts profits. This he did so successfully that by 1782 Boulton was writing: We want more Murdocks, for of all others he is the most active man and best engine erector I ever saw...When I look at the work done it astonishes me & is entirely owing to the spirit and activity of Murdoch who hath not gone to bed 3 of

10509-408: The same letter Boulton also secretly urged Watt to include a scheme for a steam-powered carriage in his patent application, which Watt did shortly thereafter. I have given such descriptions of engines for wheel carriages as I could do in the time and space I could allow myself; but it is very defective and can only serve to keep other people from similar patents. By this time Murdoch had already built

10622-441: The same year. Shortly after this birth, and with a second model already built, Murdoch took steps to patent his steam locomotive. However, at Exeter on the way to London he was met by Boulton who persuaded him to return to Cornwall without registering the patent. As Boulton wrote to Watt on 2 September 1795: He said He was going to London to get Men but I soon found he was going there with his Steam Carg to shew it & to take out

10735-432: The sodium wavelength out of their observations and virtually eliminate the interference from nearby urban lighting. Full cutoff streetlights also reduce light pollution by reducing the amount of light that is directed at the sky, which also improves the luminous efficiency of the light. Streetlights can impact biodiversity and ecosystems—for instance, disrupting the migration of some nocturnally migrating bird species. In

10848-546: The standards are updated. Eastbourne in East Sussex, UK is currently undergoing a project to see 6000 of its streetlights converted to LED and will be closely followed by Hastings in early 2014. Many UK councils are undergoing mass-replacement schemes to LED, and though streetlights are being removed along many long stretches of UK motorways (as they are not needed and cause light pollution), LEDs are preferred in areas where lighting installations are necessary. Milan , Italy,

10961-599: The third of seven children and the first son to survive beyond infancy. A son of John Murdoch, a former Hanoverian artillery gunner and a Millwright and tenant of Bello Mill on the estate of James Boswell in Auchinleck , he was educated until the age of ten at the Old Cumnock Kirk School before attending Auchinleck school under William Halbert, author of a highly regarded arithmetic textbook. Murdoch excelled in mathematics. Murdoch also learned

11074-409: The time this was sometimes at his own risk. As one of his colleagues stated to Watt: If he makes an Affidavit against Carpenter or Penandrea, there will be no safety for him in Redruth. This early industrial espionage did not operate all in one direction and Murdoch was often required to undertake inspections of competitors' engines, either to determine whether patents had been infringed or to assess

11187-479: The underlying substructure. Most stations have their platforms numbered consecutively from 1; a few stations, including Cardiff Central , Haymarket , King's Cross , Stockport , and Gravesend (in the UK); and Lidcombe, Sydney (Australia), start from 0. At Bristol Temple Meads platforms 3 through to 12 are split along their length with odd numbered platforms facing north and east and even facing south and west, with

11300-496: The wheel carriage engine which worked with strong steam and no vacuum. This was immediately shown to them in a working state. In any event without the support of Boulton and Watt, who appear to have opposed Murdoch's work due to the need to use high pressure steam which Watt distrusted, Murdoch was unable to develop or gain publicity for his invention and it was left to Trevithick and others to develop it commercially later. In addition to his mechanical work Murdoch also experimented in

11413-402: The word platform refers to the physical structure, while the place where a train can arrive is referred to as a "track" (e.g. "The train is arriving on Track 5"). In other countries, such as the UK and Ireland, platform refers specifically to the place where the train stops, which means that in such a case island platforms are allocated two separate numbers, one for each side. Some countries are in

11526-553: The works, including a chimney and gas plant, have been put on the National Heritage List for England. Clegg's installation saved the building's owners the cost of up to 1,500 candles every night. It also lit the mill owner's house and the street of millworkers' houses in Dolphinholme. In 1812, Parliament granted a charter to the London and Westminster Gas Light and Coke Company , and the first gas company in

11639-486: The world came into being. Less than two years later, on 31 December 1813, the Westminster Bridge was lit by gas. Following this success, gas lighting spread outside London, both within Britain and abroad. The first place outside London in England to have gas lighting, was Preston, Lancashire in 1816, where Joseph Dunn 's Preston Gaslight Company introduced a new, brighter gas lighting. Another early adopter

11752-581: The world's first mine in 1854 and the world's first kerosene refinery in 1856 in Jasło , Poland. In Paris, public street lighting was first installed on a covered shopping street, the Passage des Panoramas , in 1817, private interior gas lighting having been previously demonstrated in a house on the rue Saint-Dominique seventeen years prior. The first gas lamps on the main streets of Paris appeared in January 1829 on

11865-464: Was chosen as a Smart City partner for this project. In the United States, the city of Ann Arbor , Michigan was the first metropolitan area to fully implement LED street lighting in 2006. Since then, sodium-vapor lamps were slowly being replaced by LED lamps . Photovoltaic-powered LED luminaires are gaining wider acceptance. Preliminary field tests show that some LED luminaires are energy-efficient and perform well in testing environments. In 2007,

11978-432: Was equipped with a device that ensured that the circuit would remain intact. Early series streetlights were equipped with isolation transformers. that would allow current to pass across the transformer whether the bulb worked or not. Later, the film cutout was invented. This was a small disk of insulating film that separated two contacts connected to the two wires leading to the lamp. If the lamp failed (an open circuit ),

12091-500: Was needed was a more effective design. The earliest mention of Murdoch's thoughts and plans for this method of transport was in March 1784 when his colleague in Cornwall, Thomas Wilson, wrote to Watt on Murdoch's "new scheme": It is no less than drawing carriages upon the road with steam engines...he says that what he proposes, is different from anything you ever thought of, and that he is positively certain of its answering and that there

12204-404: Was not the only one made by Murdoch as he continued experimenting with the design and by August 1786 had made at least one other model, of a different size, which we know of. Apart from this Murdoch does not appear to have worked much on his ideas from 1784 to 1786, because of the continuing high volume of work for Boulton and Watt, his marriage in 1785, and the birth of his and his wife's twins in

12317-520: Was sent to Redruth in Cornwall as a senior engine erector, responsible for the erection, maintenance & repair of Boulton & Watt engines. These were used for pumping water out of the Cornish Tin mines, and therefore the efficiency and efficacy of the engines was an important factor in the amount of tin, and money, which could be extracted from a mine. At that time steam engines were not simply sold to customers but operated, and maintained by

12430-727: Was the city of Baltimore , where the gaslights were first demonstrated at Rembrandt Peale 's Museum in 1816, and Peale's Gas Light Company of Baltimore provided the first gas streetlights in the United States. In the 1860s, streetlights were started in the Southern Hemisphere in New Zealand . Kerosene streetlamps were invented by Polish pharmacist Ignacy Łukasiewicz in the city of Lemberg ( Austrian Empire ), in 1853. His kerosene lamps were later widely used in Bucharest, Paris, and other European cities. He went on to open

12543-496: Was the first city in the Austrian-Hungarian Monarchy to have electric public lighting, on 12 November 1884; 731 lamps were used. On 9 December 1882, Brisbane , Queensland, Australia was introduced to electricity by having a demonstration of 8 arc lights, erected along Queen Street Mall . The power to supply these arc lights was taken from a 10 hp Crompton DC generator driven by a Robey steam engine in

12656-543: Was the first to use this gas for the practical application of lighting. In the early 1790s, while overseeing the use of his company's steam engines in tin mining in Cornwall, Murdoch began experimenting with various types of gas, finally settling on coal-gas as the most effective. He first lit his own house in Redruth , Cornwall in 1792. In 1798, he used gas to light the main building of the Soho Foundry and in 1802 lit

12769-399: Was writing to Watt: I think Wm. Murdock a valuable man and deserves every civility and encouragement. On his first solo job erecting an engine at Wanlockhead Mine, Murdoch made the first of many improvements to the standard Boulton and Watt engine by rearranging the gears to enable the steam valve to be worked automatically by the action of the exhaust shaft. In September 1779 Murdoch

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