Misplaced Pages

#499500

59-748: Sud Carangas province is one of the sixteen provinces in the Oruro Department. It is located between 18° 38' and 19° 09' South and between 66° 37' and 67° 34' West . The province borders Saucarí Province in the North, Carangas Province in the Northwest, Litoral Province in the West, Ladislao Cabrera Province in the South, Sebastián Pagador Province in the Southeast, Eduardo Avaroa Province in

118-484: A geographic coordinate system as defined in the specification of the ISO 19111 standard. Since there are many different reference ellipsoids , the precise latitude of a feature on the surface is not unique: this is stressed in the ISO standard which states that "without the full specification of the coordinate reference system, coordinates (that is latitude and longitude) are ambiguous at best and meaningless at worst". This

177-560: A 300-by-300-pixel sphere, so illustrations usually exaggerate the flattening. The graticule on the ellipsoid is constructed in exactly the same way as on the sphere. The normal at a point on the surface of an ellipsoid does not pass through the centre, except for points on the equator or at the poles, but the definition of latitude remains unchanged as the angle between the normal and the equatorial plane. The terminology for latitude must be made more precise by distinguishing: Geographic latitude must be used with care, as some authors use it as

236-447: A higher heart rate, and adjusting its blood chemistry. It can take days or weeks to adapt to high altitude. However, above 8,000 metres (26,000 ft), (in the " death zone "), altitude acclimatization becomes impossible. There is a significantly lower overall mortality rate for permanent residents at higher altitudes. Additionally, there is a dose response relationship between increasing elevation and decreasing obesity prevalence in

295-462: A location on the surface of the Earth. On its own, the term "latitude" normally refers to the geodetic latitude as defined below. Briefly, the geodetic latitude of a point is the angle formed between the vector perpendicular (or normal ) to the ellipsoidal surface from the point, and the plane of the equator . Two levels of abstraction are employed in the definitions of latitude and longitude. In

354-443: A survey but, with the advent of GPS , it has become natural to use reference ellipsoids (such as WGS84 ) with centre at the centre of mass of the Earth and minor axis aligned to the rotation axis of the Earth. These geocentric ellipsoids are usually within 100 m (330 ft) of the geoid. Since latitude is defined with respect to an ellipsoid, the position of a given point is different on each ellipsoid: one cannot exactly specify

413-555: A synonym for geodetic latitude whilst others use it as an alternative to the astronomical latitude . "Latitude" (unqualified) should normally refer to the geodetic latitude. The importance of specifying the reference datum may be illustrated by a simple example. On the reference ellipsoid for WGS84, the centre of the Eiffel Tower has a geodetic latitude of 48° 51′ 29″ N, or 48.8583° N and longitude of 2° 17′ 40″ E or 2.2944°E. The same coordinates on

472-476: Is a coordinate that specifies the north – south position of a point on the surface of the Earth or another celestial body. Latitude is given as an angle that ranges from −90° at the south pole to 90° at the north pole, with 0° at the Equator . Lines of constant latitude , or parallels , run east–west as circles parallel to the equator. Latitude and longitude are used together as a coordinate pair to specify

531-407: Is a distance measurement, usually in the vertical or "up" direction, between a reference datum and a point or object. The exact definition and reference datum varies according to the context (e.g., aviation, geometry, geographical survey, sport, or atmospheric pressure). Although the term altitude is commonly used to mean the height above sea level of a location, in geography the term elevation

590-411: Is also used in the current literature. The parametric latitude is related to the geodetic latitude by: The alternative name arises from the parameterization of the equation of the ellipse describing a meridian section. In terms of Cartesian coordinates p , the distance from the minor axis, and z , the distance above the equatorial plane, the equation of the ellipse is: The Cartesian coordinates of

649-484: Is determined by the shape of the ellipse which is rotated about its minor (shorter) axis. Two parameters are required. One is invariably the equatorial radius, which is the semi-major axis , a . The other parameter is usually (1) the polar radius or semi-minor axis , b ; or (2) the (first) flattening , f ; or (3) the eccentricity , e . These parameters are not independent: they are related by Many other parameters (see ellipse , ellipsoid ) appear in

SECTION 10

#1732783682500

708-453: Is determined with the meridian altitude method. More precise measurement of latitude requires an understanding of the gravitational field of the Earth, either to set up theodolites or to determine GPS satellite orbits. The study of the figure of the Earth together with its gravitational field is the science of geodesy . The graticule is formed by the lines of constant latitude and constant longitude, which are constructed with reference to

767-410: Is due to two competing physical effects: gravity, which causes the air to be as close as possible to the ground; and the heat content of the air, which causes the molecules to bounce off each other and expand. The temperature profile of the atmosphere is a result of an interaction between radiation and convection . Sunlight in the visible spectrum hits the ground and heats it. The ground then heats

826-472: Is known as the adiabatic lapse rate , which is approximately 9.8 °C per kilometer (or 5.4 °F [3.0 °C] per 1000 feet) of altitude. The presence of water in the atmosphere complicates the process of convection. Water vapor contains latent heat of vaporization . As air rises and cools, it eventually becomes saturated and cannot hold its quantity of water vapor. The water vapor condenses (forming clouds ), and releases heat, which changes

885-466: Is of great importance in accurate applications, such as a Global Positioning System (GPS), but in common usage, where high accuracy is not required, the reference ellipsoid is not usually stated. In English texts, the latitude angle, defined below, is usually denoted by the Greek lower-case letter phi ( ϕ or φ ). It is measured in degrees , minutes and seconds or decimal degrees , north or south of

944-580: Is often preferred for this usage. In aviation, altitude is typically measured relative to mean sea level or above ground level to ensure safe navigation and flight operations. In geometry and geographical surveys, altitude helps create accurate topographic maps and understand the terrain's elevation. For high-altitude trekking and sports, knowing and adapting to altitude is vital for performance and safety. Higher altitudes mean reduced oxygen levels, which can lead to altitude sickness if proper acclimatization measures are not taken. Vertical distance measurements in

1003-451: Is the angle between the equatorial plane and the normal to the surface at that point: the normal to the surface of the sphere is along the radial vector. The latitude, as defined in this way for the sphere, is often termed the spherical latitude, to avoid ambiguity with the geodetic latitude and the auxiliary latitudes defined in subsequent sections of this article. Besides the equator, four other parallels are of significance: The plane of

1062-421: Is the meridional radius of curvature . The quarter meridian distance from the equator to the pole is For WGS84 this distance is 10 001 .965 729  km . The evaluation of the meridian distance integral is central to many studies in geodesy and map projection. It can be evaluated by expanding the integral by the binomial series and integrating term by term: see Meridian arc for details. The length of

1121-444: Is the process of convection . Convection comes to equilibrium when a parcel of air at a given altitude has the same density as its surroundings. Air is a poor conductor of heat, so a parcel of air will rise and fall without exchanging heat. This is known as an adiabatic process , which has a characteristic pressure-temperature curve. As the pressure gets lower, the temperature decreases. The rate of decrease of temperature with elevation

1180-508: Is the transition altitude). When flying at a flight level, the altimeter is always set to standard pressure (29.92  inHg or 1013.25  hPa ). On the flight deck, the definitive instrument for measuring altitude is the pressure altimeter , which is an aneroid barometer with a front face indicating distance (feet or metres) instead of atmospheric pressure . There are several types of altitude in aviation: These types of altitude can be explained more simply as various ways of measuring

1239-522: The Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica , in which he proved that a rotating self-gravitating fluid body in equilibrium takes the form of an oblate ellipsoid. (This article uses the term ellipsoid in preference to the older term spheroid .) Newton's result was confirmed by geodetic measurements in the 18th century. (See Meridian arc .) An oblate ellipsoid is the three-dimensional surface generated by

SECTION 20

#1732783682500

1298-435: The troposphere (up to approximately 11 kilometres (36,000 ft) of altitude) in the Earth's atmosphere undergoes notable convection; in the stratosphere , there is little vertical convection. Medicine recognizes that altitudes above 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) start to affect humans, and there is no record of humans living at extreme altitudes above 5,500–6,000 metres (18,000–19,700 ft) for more than two years. As

1357-580: The zenith ). On map projections there is no universal rule as to how meridians and parallels should appear. The examples below show the named parallels (as red lines) on the commonly used Mercator projection and the Transverse Mercator projection . On the former the parallels are horizontal and the meridians are vertical, whereas on the latter there is no exact relationship of parallels and meridians with horizontal and vertical: both are complicated curves. \ In 1687 Isaac Newton published

1416-455: The "down" direction are commonly referred to as depth . The term altitude can have several meanings, and is always qualified by explicitly adding a modifier (e.g. "true altitude"), or implicitly through the context of the communication. Parties exchanging altitude information must be clear which definition is being used. Aviation altitude is measured using either mean sea level (MSL) or local ground level (above ground level, or AGL) as

1475-450: The Earth's orbit about the Sun is called the ecliptic , and the plane perpendicular to the rotation axis of the Earth is the equatorial plane. The angle between the ecliptic and the equatorial plane is called variously the axial tilt, the obliquity, or the inclination of the ecliptic, and it is conventionally denoted by i . The latitude of the tropical circles is equal to i and the latitude of

1534-559: The East, and Poopó Province in the Northeast. The province borders Poopó Lake in the East. The province extends over 60 km from North to South, and 100 km from East to West. The main language of the province is Aymara , spoken by 96.5%, while 78.1% of the population speak Spanish and 46.0% Quechua (1992). The population increased from 4,028 inhabitants (1992 census ) to 6,136 (2001 census), an increase of 52%. - 41.1% of

1593-691: The Sun is overhead at some point of the Tropic of Capricorn . The south polar latitudes below the Antarctic Circle are in daylight, whilst the north polar latitudes above the Arctic Circle are in night. The situation is reversed at the June solstice, when the Sun is overhead at the Tropic of Cancer. Only at latitudes in between the two tropics is it possible for the Sun to be directly overhead (at

1652-597: The United States. In addition, the recent hypothesis suggests that high altitude could be protective against Alzheimer's disease via action of erythropoietin, a hormone released by kidney in response to hypoxia. However, people living at higher elevations have a statistically significant higher rate of suicide. The cause for the increased suicide risk is unknown so far. For athletes, high altitude produces two contradictory effects on performance. For explosive events (sprints up to 400 metres, long jump , triple jump )

1711-571: The WGS84 spheroid is The variation of this distance with latitude (on WGS84 ) is shown in the table along with the length of a degree of longitude (east–west distance): A calculator for any latitude is provided by the U.S. Government's National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA). The following graph illustrates the variation of both a degree of latitude and a degree of longitude with latitude. There are six auxiliary latitudes that have applications to special problems in geodesy, geophysics and

1770-414: The air at the surface. If radiation were the only way to transfer heat from the ground to space, the greenhouse effect of gases in the atmosphere would keep the ground at roughly 333 K (60 °C; 140 °F), and the temperature would decay exponentially with height. However, when air is hot, it tends to expand, which lowers its density. Thus, hot air tends to rise and transfer heat upward. This

1829-441: The altitude increases, atmospheric pressure decreases, which affects humans by reducing the partial pressure of oxygen . The lack of oxygen above 2,400 metres (8,000 ft) can cause serious illnesses such as altitude sickness , high altitude pulmonary edema , and high altitude cerebral edema . The higher the altitude, the more likely are serious effects. The human body can adapt to high altitude by breathing faster, having

Sud Carangas Province - Misplaced Pages Continue

1888-439: The altitude: The Earth's atmosphere is divided into several altitude regions. These regions start and finish at varying heights depending on season and distance from the poles. The altitudes stated below are averages: The Kármán line , at an altitude of 100 kilometres (62 mi) above sea level , by convention defines represents the demarcation between the atmosphere and space . The thermosphere and exosphere (along with

1947-425: The angle subtended at the centre by the meridian arc from the equator to the point concerned. If the meridian distance is denoted by m ( ϕ ) then where R denotes the mean radius of the Earth. R is equal to 6,371 km or 3,959 miles. No higher accuracy is appropriate for R since higher-precision results necessitate an ellipsoid model. With this value for R the meridian length of 1 degree of latitude on

2006-584: The centre of the Earth and perpendicular to the rotation axis intersects the surface at a great circle called the Equator . Planes parallel to the equatorial plane intersect the surface in circles of constant latitude; these are the parallels. The Equator has a latitude of 0°, the North Pole has a latitude of 90° North (written 90° N or +90°), and the South Pole has a latitude of 90° South (written 90° S or −90°). The latitude of an arbitrary point

2065-408: The datum ED50 define a point on the ground which is 140 metres (460 feet) distant from the tower. A web search may produce several different values for the latitude of the tower; the reference ellipsoid is rarely specified. The length of a degree of latitude depends on the figure of the Earth assumed. On the sphere the normal passes through the centre and the latitude ( ϕ ) is therefore equal to

2124-402: The ellipsoid to that point Q on the surrounding sphere (of radius a ) which is the projection parallel to the Earth's axis of a point P on the ellipsoid at latitude ϕ . It was introduced by Legendre and Bessel who solved problems for geodesics on the ellipsoid by transforming them to an equivalent problem for spherical geodesics by using this smaller latitude. Bessel's notation, u ( ϕ ) ,

2183-517: The equator. For navigational purposes positions are given in degrees and decimal minutes. For instance, The Needles lighthouse is at 50°39.734′ N 001°35.500′ W. This article relates to coordinate systems for the Earth: it may be adapted to cover the Moon, planets and other celestial objects ( planetographic latitude ). For a brief history, see History of latitude . In celestial navigation , latitude

2242-483: The first step the physical surface is modeled by the geoid , a surface which approximates the mean sea level over the oceans and its continuation under the land masses. The second step is to approximate the geoid by a mathematically simpler reference surface. The simplest choice for the reference surface is a sphere , but the geoid is more accurately modeled by an ellipsoid of revolution . The definitions of latitude and longitude on such reference surfaces are detailed in

2301-438: The following sections. Lines of constant latitude and longitude together constitute a graticule on the reference surface. The latitude of a point on the actual surface is that of the corresponding point on the reference surface, the correspondence being along the normal to the reference surface, which passes through the point on the physical surface. Latitude and longitude together with some specification of height constitute

2360-399: The geocentric latitude ( θ ) and the geodetic latitude ( ϕ ) is: For points not on the surface of the ellipsoid, the relationship involves additionally the ellipsoidal height h : where N is the prime vertical radius of curvature. The geodetic and geocentric latitudes are equal at the equator and at the poles but at other latitudes they differ by a few minutes of arc. Taking the value of

2419-465: The higher parts of the mesosphere) are regions of the atmosphere that are conventionally defined as space. Regions on the Earth 's surface (or in its atmosphere) that are high above mean sea level are referred to as high altitude . High altitude is sometimes defined to begin at 2,400 meters (8,000 ft) above sea level. At high altitude, atmospheric pressure is lower than that at sea level. This

Sud Carangas Province - Misplaced Pages Continue

2478-563: The lapse rate from the dry adiabatic lapse rate to the moist adiabatic lapse rate (5.5 °C per kilometer or 3 °F [1.7 °C] per 1000 feet). As an average, the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) defines an international standard atmosphere (ISA) with a temperature lapse rate of 6.49 °C per kilometer (3.56 °F per 1,000 feet). The actual lapse rate can vary by altitude and by location. Finally, only

2537-451: The latitude and longitude of a geographical feature without specifying the ellipsoid used. Many maps maintained by national agencies are based on older ellipsoids, so one must know how the latitude and longitude values are transformed from one ellipsoid to another. GPS handsets include software to carry out datum transformations which link WGS84 to the local reference ellipsoid with its associated grid. The shape of an ellipsoid of revolution

2596-907: The letter "A". Athletes also can take advantage of altitude acclimatization to increase their performance. The same changes that help the body cope with high altitude increase performance back at sea level. These changes are the basis of altitude training which forms an integral part of the training of athletes in a number of endurance sports including track and field, distance running, triathlon, cycling and swimming. Decreased oxygen availability and decreased temperature make life at high altitude challenging. Despite these environmental conditions, many species have been successfully adapted at high altitudes . Animals have developed physiological adaptations to enhance oxygen uptake and delivery to tissues which can be used to sustain metabolism. The strategies used by animals to adapt to high altitude depend on their morphology and phylogeny . For example, small mammals face

2655-538: The meridian arc between two given latitudes is given by replacing the limits of the integral by the latitudes concerned. The length of a small meridian arc is given by When the latitude difference is 1 degree, corresponding to ⁠ π / 180 ⁠ radians, the arc distance is about The distance in metres (correct to 0.01 metre) between latitudes ϕ {\displaystyle \phi }  − 0.5 degrees and ϕ {\displaystyle \phi }  + 0.5 degrees on

2714-483: The point are parameterized by Cayley suggested the term parametric latitude because of the form of these equations. The parametric latitude is not used in the theory of map projections. Its most important application is in the theory of ellipsoid geodesics, ( Vincenty , Karney ). The rectifying latitude , μ , is the meridian distance scaled so that its value at the poles is equal to 90 degrees or ⁠ π / 2 ⁠ radians: Altitude Altitude

2773-463: The polar circles is its complement (90° - i ). The axis of rotation varies slowly over time and the values given here are those for the current epoch . The time variation is discussed more fully in the article on axial tilt . The figure shows the geometry of a cross-section of the plane perpendicular to the ecliptic and through the centres of the Earth and the Sun at the December solstice when

2832-582: The population are younger than 15 years old (1992). 99.9% of the population have no access to electricity , 98.7% have no sanitary facilities (1992). 77.9% of the population are employed in agriculture , 4.1% in industry , 18.0% in general services (2001). 74.8% of the population are Catholics , 18.9% are Protestants (1992). The province comprises two municipalities which are further subdivided into cantons . 18°53′S 67°06′W  /  18.883°S 67.100°W  / -18.883; -67.100 Latitude In geography , latitude

2891-630: The reduction in atmospheric pressure signifies less atmospheric resistance, which generally results in improved athletic performance. For endurance events (races of 5,000 metres or more) the predominant effect is the reduction in oxygen which generally reduces the athlete's performance at high altitude. Sports organizations acknowledge the effects of altitude on performance: the International Association of Athletic Federations (IAAF), for example, marks record performances achieved at an altitude greater than 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) with

2950-457: The reference datum. Pressure altitude divided by 100 feet (30 m) is the flight level , and is used above the transition altitude (18,000 feet (5,500 m) in the US, but may be as low as 3,000 feet (910 m) in other jurisdictions). So when the altimeter reads the country-specific flight level on the standard pressure setting the aircraft is said to be at "Flight level XXX/100" (where XXX

3009-509: The reference ellipsoid to the plane or in calculations of geodesics on the ellipsoid. Their numerical values are not of interest. For example, no one would need to calculate the authalic latitude of the Eiffel Tower. The expressions below give the auxiliary latitudes in terms of the geodetic latitude, the semi-major axis, a , and the eccentricity, e . (For inverses see below .) The forms given are, apart from notational variants, those in

SECTION 50

#1732783682500

3068-473: The rotation axis of the Earth. The primary reference points are the poles where the axis of rotation of the Earth intersects the reference surface. Planes which contain the rotation axis intersect the surface at the meridians ; and the angle between any one meridian plane and that through Greenwich (the Prime Meridian ) defines the longitude: meridians are lines of constant longitude. The plane through

3127-417: The rotation of an ellipse about its shorter axis (minor axis). "Oblate ellipsoid of revolution" is abbreviated to 'ellipsoid' in the remainder of this article. (Ellipsoids which do not have an axis of symmetry are termed triaxial .) Many different reference ellipsoids have been used in the history of geodesy . In pre-satellite days they were devised to give a good fit to the geoid over the limited area of

3186-519: The semi-major axis and the inverse flattening, ⁠ 1 / f ⁠ . For example, the defining values for the WGS84 ellipsoid, used by all GPS devices, are from which are derived The difference between the semi-major and semi-minor axes is about 21 km (13 miles) and as fraction of the semi-major axis it equals the flattening; on a computer monitor the ellipsoid could be sized as 300 by 299 pixels. This would barely be distinguishable from

3245-420: The sphere is 111.2 km (69.1 statute miles) (60.0 nautical miles). The length of one minute of latitude is 1.853 km (1.151 statute miles) (1.00 nautical miles), while the length of 1 second of latitude is 30.8 m or 101 feet (see nautical mile ). In Meridian arc and standard texts it is shown that the distance along a meridian from latitude ϕ to the equator is given by ( ϕ in radians) where M ( ϕ )

3304-403: The squared eccentricity as 0.0067 (it depends on the choice of ellipsoid) the maximum difference of ϕ − θ {\displaystyle \phi {-}\theta } may be shown to be about 11.5 minutes of arc at a geodetic latitude of approximately 45° 6′. The parametric latitude or reduced latitude , β , is defined by the radius drawn from the centre of

3363-458: The standard reference for map projections, namely "Map projections: a working manual" by J. P. Snyder. Derivations of these expressions may be found in Adams and online publications by Osborne and Rapp. The geocentric latitude is the angle between the equatorial plane and the radius from the centre to a point of interest. When the point is on the surface of the ellipsoid, the relation between

3422-472: The study of geodesy, geophysics and map projections but they can all be expressed in terms of one or two members of the set a , b , f and e . Both f and e are small and often appear in series expansions in calculations; they are of the order ⁠ 1 / 298 ⁠ and 0.0818 respectively. Values for a number of ellipsoids are given in Figure of the Earth . Reference ellipsoids are usually defined by

3481-407: The theory of map projections: The definitions given in this section all relate to locations on the reference ellipsoid but the first two auxiliary latitudes, like the geodetic latitude, can be extended to define a three-dimensional geographic coordinate system as discussed below . The remaining latitudes are not used in this way; they are used only as intermediate constructs in map projections of

#499500