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99-578: The Suda or Souda ( / ˈ s uː d ə / ; Medieval Greek : Σοῦδα , romanized :  Soûda ; Latin : Suidae Lexicon ) is a large 10th-century Byzantine encyclopedia of the ancient Mediterranean world , formerly attributed to an author called Soudas (Σούδας) or Souidas (Σουίδας). It is an encyclopedic lexicon , written in Greek , with 30,000 entries, many drawing from ancient sources that have since been lost, and often derived from medieval Christian compilers. The exact spelling of

198-567: A collection of heroic sagas from the 12th century that was later collated in a verse epic , was the first literary work completely written in the vernacular. The Greek vernacular verse epic appeared in the 12th century, around the time of the French romance novel, almost as a backlash to the Attic renaissance during the dynasty of the Komnenoi in works like Psellos 's Chronography (in the middle of

297-533: A digraph ⟨jh⟩ that represents [h] in words that correspond to [ʒ] in standard French. Similarly, Catalan has a digraph ⟨ix⟩ that represents [ʃ] in Eastern Catalan , but [jʃ] or [js] in Western Catalan – Valencian . The pair of letters making up a phoneme are not always adjacent. This is the case with English silent e . For example, the sequence a_e has

396-409: A digraph or a combination of letters. They are the most common combinations, but extreme regional differences exists, especially those of the eastern dialects . A noteworthy difference is the aspiration of ⟨rs⟩ in eastern dialects, where it corresponds to ⟨skj⟩ and ⟨sj⟩ . Among many young people, especially in the western regions of Norway and in or around

495-538: A doubled consonant serves to indicate that a preceding vowel is to be pronounced short. In modern English, for example, the ⟨pp⟩ of tapping differentiates the first vowel sound from that of taping . In rare cases, doubled consonant letters represent a true geminate consonant in modern English; this may occur when two instances of the same consonant come from different morphemes , for example ⟨nn⟩ in unnatural ( un + natural ) or ⟨tt⟩ in cattail ( cat + tail ). In some cases,

594-488: A lexicon by " Eudemus ," perhaps derived from the work On Rhetorical Language by Eudemus of Argos. The lexicon copiously draws from scholia to the classics ( Homer , Aristophanes , Thucydides , Sophocles , etc.), and for later writers, Polybius , Josephus , the Chronicon Paschale , George Syncellus , George Hamartolus , and so on. The Suda quotes or paraphrases these sources at length. Since many of

693-817: A prominent place. They comprise chronicles as well as classicist, contemporary works of historiography , theological documents, and saints' lives . Poetry can be found in the form of hymns and ecclesiastical poetry. Many of the Byzantine emperors were active writers themselves and wrote chronicles or works on the running of the Byzantine state and strategic or philological works. Furthermore, letters, legal texts, and numerous registers and lists in Medieval Greek exist. Concessions to spoken Greek can be found, for example, in John Malalas's Chronography from

792-470: A rule of Medieval Greek phonotactics that would persist into Early Modern Greek . When dialects started deleting unstressed /i/ and /u/ between two consonants (such as when Myzithras became Mystras ), new clusters were formed and similarly assimilated by sandhi; on the other hand it is arguable that the dissimilation of voiceless obstruents occurred before the loss of close vowels, as the clusters resulting from this development do not necessarily undergo

891-538: A single character may be a relic from an earlier period of the language when the digraph had a different pronunciation, or may represent a distinction that is made only in certain dialects , like the English ⟨ wh ⟩ . Some such digraphs are used for purely etymological reasons, like ⟨ ph ⟩ in French. In some orthographies, digraphs (and occasionally trigraphs ) are considered individual letters , which means that they have their own place in

990-567: A slate pencil. This cursive script already showed descenders and ascenders, as well as combinations of letters. In the third century, the Greek uncial developed under the influence of the Latin script because of the need to write on papyrus with a reed pen. In the Middle Ages, uncial became the main script for the Greek language. A common feature of the medieval majuscule script like the uncial

1089-405: A specific person. The work deals with biblical as well as pagan subjects, from which it is inferred that the writer was a Christian . In any case, it lacks definite guidelines besides some minor interest in religious matters. The standard printed edition was compiled by Danish classical scholar Ada Adler in the first half of the twentieth century. A modern collaborative English translation,

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1188-494: A specific place in the alphabet , separate from that of the sequence of characters that composes them, for purposes of orthography and collation : Most other languages, including most of the Romance languages, treat digraphs as combinations of separate letters for alphabetization purposes. English has both homogeneous digraphs (doubled letters) and heterogeneous digraphs (digraphs consisting of two different letters). Those of

1287-527: Is synizesis ("merging" of vowels). In many words with the combinations [ˈea] , [ˈeo] , [ˈia] and [ˈio] , the stress shifted to the second vowel, and the first became a glide [j] . Thus: Ῥωμαῖος [ro'meos] → Ῥωμιός [ro'mɲos] ('Roman'), ἐννέα [e'nea] → ἐννιά [e'ɲa] ('nine'), ποῖος ['pios] → ποιός ['pços] ('which'), τα παιδία [ta pe'ðia] → τα παιδιά [ta pe'ðʝa] ('the children'). This accentual shift

1386-615: Is a branch of Byzantine studies , the study of the history and culture of the Byzantine Empire. The beginning of Medieval Greek is occasionally dated back to as early as the 4th century, either to 330 AD, when the political centre of the Roman Empire was moved to Constantinople , or to 395 AD, the division of the empire. However, this approach is rather arbitrary as it is more an assumption of political, as opposed to cultural and linguistic, developments. Indeed, by this time

1485-538: Is a letter that represents a plosive most accurately pronounced by trying to say /g/ and /b/ at the same time. Modern Slavic languages written in the Cyrillic alphabet make little use of digraphs apart from ⟨дж⟩ for /dʐ/ , ⟨дз⟩ for /dz/ (in Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Bulgarian), and ⟨жж⟩ and ⟨зж⟩ for the uncommon Russian phoneme /ʑː/ . In Russian,

1584-504: Is a striking reduction of inflectional categories inherited from Indo-European , especially in the verbal system, and a complementary tendency of developing new analytical formations and periphrastic constructions. In morphology , the inflectional paradigms of declension , conjugation and comparison were regularised through analogy. Thus, in nouns, the Ancient Greek third declension, which showed an unequal number of syllables in

1683-480: Is already reflected in the metre of the 6th century hymns of Romanos the Melodist . In many cases, the vowel o disappeared in the endings -ιον [-ion] and -ιος [-ios] ( σακκίον [sa'cion] → σακκίν [sa'cin] , χαρτίον [xar'tion] → χαρτίν [xar'tin] , κύριος ['cyrios] → κύρις ['cyris] ). This phenomenon

1782-545: Is an abundance of abbreviations (e.g. ΧϹ for "Christos") and ligatures. Several letters of the uncial ( ϵ for Ε , Ϲ for Σ , Ѡ for Ω ) were also used as majuscules especially in a sacral context. The lunate sigma was adopted in this form as " С " in the Cyrillic script. The Greek uncial used the interpunct in order to separate sentences for the first time, but there were still no spaces between words. The Greek minuscule script, which probably emerged from

1881-483: Is assumed that most of the developments leading to the phonology of Modern Greek had either already taken place in Medieval Greek and its Hellenistic period predecessor Koine Greek , or were continuing to develop during this period. Above all, these developments included the establishment of dynamic stress , which had already replaced the tonal system of Ancient Greek during the Hellenistic period. In addition,

1980-956: Is attested to have begun earlier, in the Hellenistic Koine Greek papyri. The shift in the consonant system from voiced plosives /b/ ( β ), /d/ ( δ ), /ɡ/ ( γ ) and aspirated voiceless plosives /pʰ/ ( φ ), /tʰ/ ( θ ), /kʰ/ ( χ ) to corresponding fricatives ( /v, ð, ɣ/ and /f, θ, x/ , respectively) was already completed during Late Antiquity . However, the original voiced plosives remained as such after nasal consonants, with [mb] ( μβ ), [nd] ( νδ ), [ŋɡ] ( γγ ). The velar sounds /k, x, ɣ, ŋk, ŋɡ/ ( κ , χ , γ , γκ , γγ ) were realised as palatal allophones ( [c, ç, ʝ, ɲc, ɲɟ] ) before front vowels. The fricative /h/ , which had been present in Classical Greek, had been lost early on, although it continued to be reflected in spelling through

2079-709: Is capitalized ⟨Kj⟩ , while ⟨ ij ⟩ in Dutch is capitalized ⟨IJ⟩ and word initial ⟨dt⟩ in Irish is capitalized ⟨dT⟩ . Digraphs may develop into ligatures , but this is a distinct concept: a ligature involves the graphical fusion of two characters into one, e.g. when ⟨o⟩ and ⟨e⟩ become ⟨œ⟩ , e.g. as in French cœur "heart". Digraphs may consist of two different characters (heterogeneous digraphs) or two instances of

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2178-399: Is cattle, but cattle with a golden fleece] The Suda is somewhere between a grammatical dictionary and an encyclopedia in the modern sense. It explains the source, derivation, and meaning of words according to the philology of its period, using such earlier authorities as Harpocration and Helladios . It is a rich source of ancient and Byzantine history and life, although not every article

2277-412: Is grouped together with ε /e̞/ ; ει and η together with ι /i/ ; ο with ω /o̞/ , and οι with υ /y/ . At least in educated speech, the vowel /y/ , which had also merged with υι , likely did not lose lip-rounding and become /i/ until the 10th/11th centuries. Up to this point, transliterations into Georgian continue using a different letter for υ/οι than for ι/ει/η , and in

2376-431: Is of equal quality, and it is an "uncritical" compilation. Much of the work is probably interpolated, and passages that refer to Michael Psellos (c. 1017–1078) are deemed interpolations which were added in later copies. This lexicon contains numerous biographical notices on political, ecclesiastical, and literary figures of the Byzantine Empire to the tenth century, those biographical entries being condensations from

2475-403: Is reduced to the forms λαμβ- [lamb-] ( imperfective or present system) and λαβ- [lav-] ( perfective or aorist system). One of the numerous forms that disappeared was the dative . It was replaced in the 10th century by the genitive and the prepositional construction of εἰς [is] ('in, to') + accusative . In addition, nearly all the participles and

2574-459: Is some dispute as to when exactly this development took place but apparently it began during the Byzantine period. The graphemes μπ , ντ and γκ for /b/ , /d/ and /ɡ/ can already be found in transcriptions from neighboring languages in Byzantine sources, like in ντερβίσης [der'visis] , from Turkish : derviş (' dervish '). On the other hand, some scholars contend that post-nasal voicing of voiceless plosives began already in

2673-429: Is strictly differentiated from ἔρως [ˈeros] , ('physical love'). In everyday usage, some old Greek stems were replaced, for example, the expression for "wine" where the word κρασίον [kraˈsion] ('mixture') replaced the old Greek οἶνος [oînos] . The word ὄψον [ˈopson] (meaning 'something you eat with bread') combined with the suffix -αριον [-arion] , which

2772-488: Is the almost complete loss of the infinitive , which has been replaced by subordinate clauses with the particle να. Possibly transmitted through Greek, this phenomenon can also be found in the adjacent languages and dialects of the Balkans. Bulgarian and Romanian , for example, are in many respects typologically similar to medieval and present day Greek, although genealogically they are not closely related. Besides

2871-408: Is thus a matter of definition. Some letter pairs should not be interpreted as digraphs but appear because of compounding : hogshead and cooperate . They are often not marked in any way and so must be memorized as exceptions. Some authors, however, indicate it either by breaking up the digraph with a hyphen , as in hogs-head , co-operate , or with a trema mark , as in coöperate , but the use of

2970-553: The Armenian language , the digraph ու ⟨ou⟩ transcribes / u / , a convention that comes from Greek. The Georgian alphabet uses a few digraphs to write other languages. For example, in Svan , /ø/ is written ჳე ⟨we⟩ , and /y/ as ჳი ⟨wi⟩ . Modern Greek has the following digraphs: They are called "diphthongs" in Greek ; in classical times, most of them represented diphthongs , and

3069-544: The Crimean Peninsula remained Greek-speaking. The southern Balkans which would henceforth be contested between Byzantium and various Slavic kingdoms or empires. The Greek language spoken by one-third of the population of Sicily at the time of the Norman conquest 1060–1090 remained vibrant for more than a century, but slowly died out (as did Arabic) to a deliberate policy of Latinization in language and religion from

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3168-593: The Suda On Line, was completed on 21 July 2014. The Suda has a near-contemporaneous Islamic parallel, the Kitab al-Fehrest of Ibn al-Nadim . Compare also the Latin Speculum Maius , authored in the 13th century by Vincent of Beauvais . Medieval Greek language Medieval Greek (also known as Middle Greek , Byzantine Greek , or Romaic ) is the stage of the Greek language between

3267-532: The Tatar Cyrillic alphabet , for example, the letter ю is used to write both /ju/ and /jy/ . Usually the difference is evident from the rest of the word, but when it is not, the sequence ю...ь is used for /jy/ , as in юнь /jyn/ 'cheap'. The Indic alphabets are distinctive for their discontinuous vowels, such as Thai เ...อ /ɤː/ in เกอ /kɤː/ . Technically, however, they may be considered diacritics , not full letters; whether they are digraphs

3366-533: The alphabet and cannot be separated into their constituent places graphemes when sorting , abbreviating , or hyphenating words. Digraphs are used in some romanization schemes, e.g. ⟨ zh ⟩ as a romanisation of Russian ⟨ ж ⟩ . The capitalisation of digraphs can vary, e.g. ⟨sz⟩ in Polish is capitalized ⟨Sz⟩ and ⟨kj⟩ in Norwegian

3465-456: The comparative of adjectives ending in -ων , -ιον , [-oːn, -ion] which was partly irregular, was gradually replaced by the formation using the more regular suffix -τερος , -τέρα (-τερη) , -τερο(ν) , [-teros, -tera (-teri), -tero(n)] : µείζων [méːzdoːn] → µειζότερος [mi'zoteros] ('the bigger'). The enclitic genitive forms of the first and second person personal pronoun , as well as

3564-441: The contracted verbs ending in -άω [-aoː] , -έω [-eoː] etc., which earlier showed a complex set of vowel alternations, readopted the endings of the regular forms: ἀγαπᾷ [aɡapâːi] → ἀγαπάει [aɣaˈpai] ('he loves'). The use of the past tense prefix, known as augment , was gradually limited to regular forms in which the augment was required to carry word stress. Reduplication in

3663-418: The particles να and θενά , the negation particle δέν [ðen] ('not') was derived from Ancient Greek : oὐδέν [uːdén] ('nothing'). Lexicographic changes in Medieval Greek influenced by Christianity can be found for instance in words like ἄγγελος [ˈaɲɟelos] ('messenger') → heavenly messenger → angel) or ἀγάπη [aˈɣapi] 'love' → 'altruistic love', which

3762-412: The rough breathing , a diacritic mark added to vowels. Changes in the phonological system mainly affect consonant clusters that show sandhi processes. In clusters of two different plosives or two different fricatives , there is a tendency for dissimilation such that the first consonant becomes a fricative and/or the second becomes a plosive ultimately favoring a fricative-plosive cluster. But if

3861-652: The 11th century) or the Alexiad , the biography of Emperor Alexios I Komnenos written by his daughter Anna Komnena about a century later. In fifteen-syllable blank verse (versus politicus), the Digenes Akritas deals with both ancient and medieval heroic sagas, but also with stories of animals and plants. The Chronicle of the Morea , a verse chronicle from the 14th century, is unique. It has also been preserved in French, Italian and Aragonese versions, and covers

3960-410: The 13th century, examples of texts written in vernacular Greek are very rare. They are restricted to isolated passages of popular acclamations , sayings, and particularly common or untranslatable formulations which occasionally made their way into Greek literature. Since the end of the 11th century, vernacular Greek poems from the literary realm of Constantinople are documented. The Digenes Akritas ,

4059-689: The 6th century, the Chronicle of Theophanes the Confessor (9th century) and the works of Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus (mid-10th century). These are influenced by the vernacular language of their time in choice of words and idiom , but largely follow the models of written Koine in their morphology and syntax . The spoken form of Greek was called γλῶσσα δημώδης ( glōssa dēmōdēs 'vernacular language'), ἁπλοελληνική ( haploellēnikē 'basic Greek'), καθωμιλημένη ( kathōmilēmenē 'spoken') or Ῥωμαιϊκή ( Rhōmaiïkē 'Roman language'). Before

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4158-688: The Black Sea coast of Asia Minor, and Cappadocian , spoken in central Asia Minor, began to diverge. In Griko , a language spoken in the southern Italian exclaves , and in Tsakonian , which is spoken on the Peloponnese, dialects of older origin continue to be used today. Cypriot Greek was already in a literary form in the late Middle Ages, being used in the Assizes of Cyprus and the chronicles of Leontios Makhairas and Georgios Boustronios . It

4257-614: The Greek language, for example ὁσπίτιον [oˈspition] ( Latin : hospitium , 'hostel', therefore "house", σπίτι [ˈspiti] in Modern Greek ), σέλλα [ˈsela] ('saddle'), ταβέρνα [taˈverna] ('tavern'), κανδήλιον [kanˈdilion] ( Latin : candela , 'candle'), φούρνος [ˈfurnos] ( Latin : furnus , 'oven') and φλάσκα [ˈflaska] ( Latin : flasco , 'wine bottle'). Other influences on Medieval Greek arose from contact with neighboring languages and

4356-531: The Koine , as interchanges with β , δ , and γ in this position are found in the papyri. The prenasalized voiced spirants μβ , νδ and γγ were still plosives by this time, causing a merger between μβ/μπ , νδ/ντ and γγ/γκ , which would remain except within educated varieties, where spelling pronunciations did make for segments such as [ɱv, n̪ð, ŋɣ] Many decisive changes between Ancient and Modern Greek were completed by c.  1100 AD. There

4455-478: The Modern Greek future particle θα Medieval Greek : [θa] , which replaced the old future forms. Ancient formations like the genitive absolute , the accusative and infinitive and nearly all common participle constructions were gradually substituted by the constructions of subordinate clauses and the newly emerged gerund . The most noticeable grammatical change in comparison to ancient Greek

4554-598: The Roman Corpus Iuris Civilis were gradually translated into Greek. Under the rule of Emperor Heraclius (610–641 AD), who also assumed the Greek title Basileus ( Greek : βασιλεύς , 'monarch') in 610, Greek became the official language of the Eastern Roman Empire . This was in spite of the fact that the inhabitants of the empire still considered themselves Rhomaioi ('Romans') until its end in 1453, as they saw their State as

4653-415: The apostrophe is seen in pinyin where 嫦娥 is written Chang'e because the g belongs to the final (-ang) of the first syllable, not to the initial of the second syllable. Without the apostrophe, Change would be understood as the syllable chan (final -an) followed by the syllable ge (initial g-). In some languages, certain digraphs and trigraphs are counted as distinct letters in themselves, and assigned to

4752-812: The change to [fricative + stop], e.g. κ(ου)τί as [kti] not [xti] . The resulting clusters were: For plosives: For fricatives where the second was not /s/ : For fricatives where the second was /s/ : The disappearance of /n/ in word-final position, which had begun sporadically in Late Antiquity, became more widespread, excluding certain dialects such as South Italian and Cypriot. The nasals /m/ and /n/ also disappeared before voiceless fricatives, for example νύμφη ['nyɱfi] → νύφη ['nifi] , ἄνθος ['an̪θos] → ἄθος ['aθos] . A new set of voiced plosives [(m)b] , [(n)d] and [(ŋ)ɡ] developed through voicing of voiceless plosives after nasals . There

4851-454: The constituent sounds ( morae ) are usually indicated by digraphs, but some are indicated by a single letter, and some with a trigraph. The case of ambiguity is the syllabic ん , which is written as n (or sometimes m ), except before vowels or y where it is followed by an apostrophe as n’ . For example, the given name じゅんいちろう is romanized as Jun’ichirō, so that it is parsed as "Jun-i-chi-rou", rather than as "Ju-ni-chi-rou". A similar use of

4950-489: The contemporary spoken vernacular, but in different degrees. They ranged from a moderately archaic style employed for most every-day writing and based mostly on the written Koine of the Bible and early Christian literature, to a highly artificial learned style, employed by authors with higher literary ambitions and closely imitating the model of classical Attic, in continuation of the movement of Atticism in late antiquity. At

5049-558: The cursive writing in Syria , appears more and more frequently from the 9th century onwards. It is the first script that regularly uses accents and spiritus, which had already been developed in the 3rd century BC. This very fluent script, with ascenders and descenders and many possible combinations of letters, is the first to use gaps between words. The last forms which developed in the 12th century were Iota subscript and word-final sigma ( ς ). The type for Greek majuscules and minuscules that

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5148-432: The diaeresis has declined in English within the last century. When it occurs in names such as Clapham , Townshend, and Hartshorne, it is never marked in any way. Positional alternative glyphs may help to disambiguate in certain cases: when round, ⟨s⟩ was used as a final variant of long ⟨ſ⟩ , and the English digraph for /ʃ/ would always be ⟨ſh⟩ . In romanization of Japanese ,

5247-407: The different cases, was adjusted to the regular first and second declension by forming a new nominative form out of the oblique case forms: Ancient Greek ὁ πατήρ [ho patɛ́ːr] → Modern Greek ὁ πατέρας [o pa'teras] , in analogy to the accusative form τὸν πατέρα [tom ba'tera] . Feminine nouns ending in -ις [-is] and -ας [-as] formed

5346-601: The doubling of ⟨z⟩ , which corresponds to /ts/ , is replaced by the digraph ⟨tz⟩ . Some languages have a unified orthography with digraphs that represent distinct pronunciations in different dialects ( diaphonemes ). For example, in Breton there is a digraph ⟨zh⟩ that represents [z] in most dialects, but [h] in Vannetais. Similarly, the Saintongeais dialect of French has

5445-581: The end of classical antiquity in the 5th–6th centuries and the end of the Middle Ages , conventionally dated to the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453. From the 7th century onwards, Greek was the only language of administration and government in the Byzantine Empire . This stage of language is thus described as Byzantine Greek. The study of the Medieval Greek language and literature

5544-422: The entry under " Adam " which is appended with a brief chronology of the world. At any rate, the work must have appeared by the 12th century, since it is frequently quoted from and alluded to by Eustathius who lived from about 1115 AD to about 1195 or 1196. It has also been stated that the work was a collective work , thus not having had a single author, and that the name which it is known under does not refer to

5643-431: The first consonant was a fricative and the second consonant was /s/ , the first consonant instead became a plosive, favoring a plosive- /s/ cluster. Medieval Greek also had cluster voicing harmony favoring the voice of the final plosive or fricative; when the resulting clusters became voiceless, the aforementioned sandhi would further apply. This process of assimilation and sandhi was highly regular and predictable, forming

5742-403: The genitive forms of the third person demonstrative pronoun , developed into unstressed enclitic possessive pronouns that were attached to nouns: µου [mu] , σου [su] , του [tu] , της [tis] , µας [mas] , σας [sas] , των [ton] . Irregularities in verb inflection were also reduced through analogy. Thus,

5841-748: The history of Frankish feudalism on the Peloponnese during the Latinokratia of the Principality of Achaea , a crusader state set up after the Fourth Crusade and the 13th century fall of Constantinople . The earliest evidence of prose vernacular Greek exists in some documents from southern Italy written in the tenth century. Later prose literature consists of statute books, chronicles and fragments of religious, historical and medical works. The dualism of literary language and vernacular

5940-461: The history of Greek, distinct diphthongs or vowels) according to a system (formerly common in many languages) called antistoichia ( ἀντιστοιχία ); namely the letters follow phonetically in order of sound according the pronunciation of the tenth century, which was similar to that of Modern Greek. The order is: α, β, γ, δ, αι, ε, ζ, ει, η, ι, θ, κ, λ, μ, ν, ξ, ο, ω, π, ρ, σ, τ, οι, υ, φ, χ, ψ In addition, double letters are treated as single for

6039-513: The imperative forms of the 3rd person were lost. The subjunctive was replaced by the construction of subordinate clauses with the conjunctions ὅτι [ˈoti] ('that') and ἵνα [ˈina] ('so that'). ἵνα first became ἱνά [iˈna] and was later shortened to να [na] . By the end of the Byzantine era, the construction θέλω να [ˈθelo na] ('I want that…') + subordinate clause developed into θενά [θeˈna] . Eventually, θενά became

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6138-426: The imperial court's life like Αὔγουστος [ˈavɣustos] ('Augustus'), πρίγκιψ [ˈpriɲɟips] ( Latin : princeps , 'Prince'), μάγιστρος [ˈmaʝistros] ( Latin : magister , 'Master'), κοιαίστωρ [cyˈestor] ( Latin : quaestor , 'Quaestor'), ὀφφικιάλος [ofiˈcalos] ( Latin : officialis , 'official'). In addition, Latin words from everyday life entered

6237-554: The inhabitants of the southern Balkan Peninsula , south of the Jireček Line , and all of the inhabitants of Asia Minor , where the native tongues ( Phrygian , Lycian , Lydian , Carian etc.), except Armenian in the east, had become extinct and replaced by Greek by the 5th century. In any case, all cities of the Eastern Roman Empire were strongly influenced by the Greek language. In the period between 603 and 619,

6336-461: The languages of Venetian, Frankish and Arab conquerors. Some of the loanwords from these languages have been permanently retained in Greek or in its dialects: Middle Greek used the 24 letters of the Greek alphabet which, until the end of antiquity, were predominantly used as lapidary and majuscule letters and without a space between words and with diacritics. The first Greek script, a cursive script, developed from quick carving into wax tablets with

6435-576: The latter type include the following: Digraphs may also be composed of vowels. Some letters ⟨a, e, o⟩ are preferred for the first position, others for the second ⟨i, u⟩ . The latter have allographs ⟨y, w⟩ in English orthography . In Serbo-Croatian : Note that in the Cyrillic orthography , those sounds are represented by single letters (љ, њ, џ). In Czech and Slovak : In Danish and Norwegian : In Norwegian , several sounds can be represented only by

6534-537: The major cities, the difference between / ç / and / ʃ / has been completely wiped away and are now pronounced the same. In Catalan : In Dutch : In French : See also French phonology . In German : In Hungarian : In Italian : In Manx Gaelic , ⟨ch⟩ represents /χ/ , but ⟨çh⟩ represents /tʃ/ . In Polish : In Portuguese : In Spanish : In Welsh : The digraphs listed above represent distinct phonemes and are treated as separate letters for collation purposes. On

6633-529: The mid-1160s. From the late 11th century onwards, the interior of Anatolia was invaded by Seljuq Turks, who advanced westwards. With the Ottoman conquests of Constantinople in 1453, the Peloponnese in 1459 or 1460, the Empire of Trebizond in 1461, Athens in 1465, and two centuries later the Duchy of Candia in 1669, the Greek language lost its status as a national language until the emergence of modern Greece in

6732-511: The name has stuck. Ancient Greek also had the "diphthongs" listed above although their pronunciation in ancient times is disputed. In addition, Ancient Greek also used the letter γ combined with a velar stop to produce the following digraphs: Tsakonian has a few additional digraphs: In addition, palatal consonants are indicated with the vowel letter ι , which is, however, largely predictable. When /n/ and /l/ are not palatalized before ι , they are written νν and λλ . In Bactrian ,

6831-561: The nominative according to the accusative -ιδα [-iða] -αδα [-aða] , as in ἐλπίς [elpís] → ἐλπίδα [elˈpiða] ('hope'), πατρίς [patrís] → πατρίδα [paˈtriða] ('homeland'), and in Ἑλλάς [hellás] → Ἑλλάδα [eˈlaða] ('Greece'). Only a few nouns remained unaffected by this simplification, such as τὸ φῶς [to fos] (both nominative and accusative ), τοῦ φωτός [tu fo'tos] ( genitive ). The Ancient Greek formation of

6930-551: The original ones. Doubled consonant letters can also be used to indicate a long or geminated consonant sound. In Italian , for example, consonants written double are pronounced longer than single ones. This was the original use of doubled consonant letters in Old English , but during the Middle English and Early Modern English period, phonemic consonant length was lost and a spelling convention developed in which

7029-501: The originals are lost, the Suda serves as an invaluable repository of literary history, and this preservation of the "literary history" is more vital than the lexicographical compilation itself, by some estimation. The lexicon is arranged alphabetically with some slight deviations from common vowel order and place in the Greek alphabet (including at each case the homophonous digraphs , e.g. αι, ει, οι , that had been previously, earlier in

7128-559: The other hand, the digraphs ⟨ mh ⟩ , ⟨ nh ⟩ , and the trigraph ⟨ ngh ⟩ , which stand for voiceless consonants but occur only at the beginning of words as a result of the nasal mutation , are not treated as separate letters, and thus are not included in the alphabet. Daighi tongiong pingim , a transcription system used for Taiwanese Hokkien , includes or that represents /ə/ ( mid central vowel ) or /o/ ( close-mid back rounded vowel ), as well as other digraphs. In Yoruba , ⟨gb⟩

7227-488: The perpetuation of Roman rule. Latin continued to be used on the coinage until the ninth century and in certain court ceremonies for even longer. Despite the absence of reliable demographic figures, it has been estimated that less than one third of the inhabitants of the Eastern Roman Empire, around eight million people, were native speakers of Greek. The number of those who were able to communicate in Greek may have been far higher. The native Greek speakers consisted of many of

7326-443: The purposes of collation (as gemination had ceased to be distinctive). The system is not difficult to learn and remember, but some editors—for example, Immanuel Bekker – rearranged the Suda alphabetically. Little is known about the compiler of the Suda . He probably lived in the second half of the 10th century, because the death of emperor John I Tzimiskes and his succession by Basil II and Constantine VIII are mentioned in

7425-467: The same character (homogeneous digraphs). In the latter case, they are generally called double (or doubled ) letters . Doubled vowel letters are commonly used to indicate a long vowel sound. This is the case in Finnish and Estonian , for instance, where ⟨uu⟩ represents a longer version of the vowel denoted by ⟨u⟩ , ⟨ää⟩ represents a longer version of

7524-579: The same class, adopted a new set of endings modelled on the passive of regular verbs, as in the following examples: In most cases, the numerous stem variants that appeared in the Ancient Greek system of aspect inflection were reduced to only two basic stem forms, sometimes only one. Thus, in Ancient Greek the stem of the verb λαμβάνειν [lambáneːn] ('to take') appears in the variants λαμβ- [lamb-] , λαβ- [lab-] , ληψ- [lɛːps-] , ληφ- [lɛːpʰ-] and λημ- [lɛːm-] . In Medieval Greek, it

7623-641: The same original phoneme had merged with /i/ in mainstream varieties at roughly the same time (the same documents also transcribe υ/οι with ი /i/ very sporadically). In the original closing diphthongs αυ , ευ and ηυ , the offglide [u] had developed into a consonantal [v] or [f] early on (possibly through an intermediate stage of [β] and [ɸ] ). Before [n] , υ turned to [m] ( εὔνοστος ['evnostos] → ἔμνοστος ['emnostos] , χαύνος ['xavnos] → χάμνος ['xamnos] , ἐλαύνω [e'lavno] → λάμνω ['lamno] ), and before [m] it

7722-425: The same time, the spoken vernacular language developed on the basis of earlier spoken Koine, and reached a stage that in many ways resembles present-day Modern Greek in terms of grammar and phonology by the turn of the first millennium AD. Written literature reflecting this Demotic Greek begins to appear around 1100. Among the preserved literature in the Attic literary language, various forms of historiography take

7821-493: The sequence sh could mean either ša or saha. However, digraphs are used for the aspirated and murmured consonants (those spelled with h- digraphs in Latin transcription) in languages of South Asia such as Urdu that are written in the Arabic script by a special form of the letter h , which is used only for aspiration digraphs, as can be seen with the following connecting (kh) and non-connecting (ḍh) consonants: In

7920-552: The sequences ⟨дж⟩ and ⟨дз⟩ do occur (mainly in loanwords) but are pronounced as combinations of an implosive (sometimes treated as an affricate) and a fricative; implosives are treated as allophones of the plosive /d̪/ and so those sequences are not considered to be digraphs. Cyrillic has few digraphs unless it is used to write non-Slavic languages, especially Caucasian languages . Because vowels are not generally written, digraphs are rare in abjads like Arabic. For example, if sh were used for š, then

8019-458: The sound /eɪ/ in English cake. This is the result of three historical sound changes: cake was originally /kakə/ , the open syllable /ka/ came to be pronounced with a long vowel , and later the final schwa dropped off, leaving /kaːk/ . Later still, the vowel /aː/ became /eɪ/ . There are six such digraphs in English, ⟨a_e, e_e, i_e, o_e, u_e, y_e⟩ . However, alphabets may also be designed with discontinuous digraphs. In

8118-454: The sound represented by a doubled consonant letter is distinguished in some other way than length from the sound of the corresponding single consonant letter: In several European writing systems, including the English one, the doubling of the letter ⟨c⟩ or ⟨k⟩ is represented as the heterogeneous digraph ⟨ck⟩ instead of ⟨cc⟩ or ⟨kk⟩ respectively. In native German words,

8217-504: The southern and eastern parts of the empire ( Syria , Egypt , North Africa ) were occupied by Persian Sassanids and, after being recaptured by Heraclius in the years 622 to 628, were conquered by the Arabs in the course of the Muslim conquests a few years later. Alexandria , a centre of Greek culture and language, fell to the Arabs in 642. During the seventh and eighth centuries, Greek

8316-581: The spoken language, particularly pronunciation, had already shifted towards modern forms. The conquests of Alexander the Great , and the ensuing Hellenistic period , had caused Greek to spread to peoples throughout Anatolia and the Eastern Mediterranean, altering the spoken language's pronunciation and structure. Medieval Greek is the link between this vernacular , known as Koine Greek , and Modern Greek . Though Byzantine Greek literature

8415-454: The supposed author of the Lexicon; and Hans Gerstinger's explanation which points at Russian sudá "here", as the answer to the question "τί ποῦ κεῖται;" "what is it and where is it?". The most recent explanation as of 2024 has been advanced by Claudia Nuovo , who defended Σοῦδα on palaeographical, philological and historical grounds. pecus est Suidas, sed pecus aurei velleris [Suidas

8514-553: The title is disputed. The transmitted title ( paradosis ) is "Suida", which is also attested in Eustathius ' commentary on Homer 's epic poems; several conjectures has been made, both defending it and trying to correct it in "Suda". Other suggestions include Jan Sajdak's theory that σοῦδα / σουίδα may derive from sanskrit suvidyā (which he translated into Latin: perfecta cumulataque scientia , "collected and systemized knowledge"); Giuseppe Scarpat's link to an unidentified Judas,

8613-419: The verb stem, which was a feature of the old perfect forms, was gradually abandoned and only retained in antiquated forms. The small ancient Greek class of irregular verbs in -μι [-mi] disappeared in favour of regular forms ending in -ω [-oː] ; χώννυμι [kʰóːnnymi] → χώνω ['xono] ('push'). The auxiliary εἰμί [eːmí] ('be'), originally part of

8712-478: The vowel denoted by ⟨ä⟩ , and so on. In Middle English , the sequences ⟨ee⟩ and ⟨oo⟩ were used in a similar way, to represent lengthened "e" and "o" sounds respectively; both spellings have been retained in modern English orthography , but the Great Vowel Shift and other historical sound changes mean that the modern pronunciations are quite different from

8811-494: The vowel system was gradually reduced to five phonemes without any differentiation in vowel length, a process also well begun during the Hellenistic period. Furthermore, Ancient Greek diphthongs became monophthongs . The Suda , an encyclopedia from the late 10th century, gives some indication of the vowel inventory. Following the antistoichic system, it lists terms alphabetically but arranges similarly pronounced letters side by side. In this way, for indicating homophony , αι

8910-470: The works of Hesychius of Miletus , as the author himself avers. Other sources were the encyclopedia of Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus (reigned 912–959) for the figures in ancient history, excerpts of John of Antioch (seventh century) for Roman history , the chronicle of Hamartolus ( Georgios Monachos , 9th century) for the Byzantine age, the biographies of Diogenes Laërtius , and the works of Athenaeus and Philostratus . Other principal sources include

9009-482: The year 1030, Michael the Grammarian could still make fun of the bishop of Philomelion for confusing ι for υ . In the 10th century, Georgian transliterations begin using the letter representing /u/ ( უ ) for υ/οι , in line with the alternative development in certain dialects like Tsakonian , Megaran and South Italian Greek where /y/ reverted to /u/ . This phenomenon perhaps indirectly indicates that

9108-587: The year 1821. Language varieties after 1453 are referred to as Modern Greek. As early as in the Hellenistic period , there was a tendency towards a state of diglossia between the Attic literary language and the constantly developing vernacular Koine . By late antiquity, the gap had become impossible to ignore. In the Byzantine era, written Greek manifested itself in a whole spectrum of divergent registers , all of which were consciously archaic in comparison with

9207-563: Was borrowed from the Latin -arium , became 'fish' ( ὀψάριον [oˈpsarion] ), which after apheresis, synizesis and the loss of final ν [n] became the new Greek ψάρι [ˈpsari] and eliminated the Old Greek ἰχθύς [ikʰtʰýs] , which became an acrostic for Jesus Christ and a symbol for Christianity. Especially at the beginning of the Byzantine Empire , Medieval Greek borrowed numerous words from Latin , among them mainly titles and other terms of

9306-597: Was developed in the 17th century by a printer from the Antwerp printing dynasty, Wetstein, eventually became the norm in modern Greek printing. Digraph (orthography) Some digraphs represent phonemes that cannot be represented with a single character in the writing system of a language, like ⟨ ch ⟩ in Spanish chico and ocho . Other digraphs represent phonemes that can also be represented by single characters. A digraph that shares its pronunciation with

9405-456: Was dropped ( θαῦμα ['θavma] → θάμα ['θama] ). Before [s] , it occasionally turned to [p] ( ἀνάπαυση [a'napafsi] → ἀνάπαψη [a'napapsi] ). Words with initial vowels were often affected by apheresis : ἡ ἡμέρα [i i'mera] → ἡ μέρα [i 'mera] ('the day'), ἐρωτῶ [ero'to] → ρωτῶ [ro'to] ('(I) ask'). A regular phenomenon in most dialects

9504-756: Was gradually replaced by Arabic as an official language in conquered territories such as Egypt, as more people learned Arabic. Thus, the use of Greek declined early on in Syria and Egypt. The invasion of the Slavs into the Balkan Peninsula reduced the area where Greek and Latin was spoken (roughly north of a line from Montenegro to Varna on the Black Sea in Bulgaria ). Sicily and parts of Magna Graecia , Cyprus, Asia Minor and more generally Anatolia, parts of

9603-451: Was not officially a capital until 359. Nonetheless, the imperial court resided there and the city was the political centre of the eastern parts of the Roman Empire where Greek was the dominant language. At first, Latin remained the language of both the court and the army. It was used for official documents, but its influence waned. From the beginning of the 6th century, amendments to the law were mostly written in Greek. Furthermore, parts of

9702-663: Was still strongly influenced by Attic Greek , it was also influenced by vernacular Koine Greek, which is the language of the New Testament and the liturgical language of the Greek Orthodox Church . Constantine (the Great) moved the capital of the Roman Empire to Byzantium (renamed Constantinople) in 330. The city, though a major imperial residence like other cities such as Trier , Milan and Sirmium ,

9801-549: Was to persist until well into the 20th century, when the Greek language question was decided in favor of the vernacular in 1976. The persistence until the Middle Ages of a single Greek speaking state, the Byzantine Empire, meant that, unlike Vulgar Latin , Greek did not split into separate languages. However, with the fracturing of the Byzantine state after the turn of the first millennium, newly isolated dialects such as Mariupol Greek , spoken in Crimea, Pontic Greek , spoken along

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