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109-490: Sultan ( / ˈ s ʌ l t ən / ; Arabic: سلطان sulṭān , pronounced [sʊlˈtˤɑːn, solˈtˤɑːn] ) is a position with several historical meanings. Sultan Hassan may refer to: Sultan an-Nasir Hasan , Mamluk sultan of Egypt (1347–1351, 1355-1361) and namesake of the Mosque-Madrasa of Sultan Hasan and Sultan Hassan Secondary School Sultan Hassan Farah,

218-473: A revelation directly from God ( Allāh ). It is organized in 114 chapters ( surah , pl. suwer ) which consist of individual verses ( āyah ). Besides its religious significance, it is widely regarded as the finest work in Arabic literature , and has significantly influenced the Arabic language . It is the object of a modern field of academic research known as Quranic studies . Muslims believe

327-603: A bell" and A'isha reported, "I saw the Prophet being inspired Divinely on a very cold day and noticed the sweat dropping from his forehead (as the Inspiration was over)." Muhammad's first revelation, according to the Quran, was accompanied with a vision. The agent of revelation is mentioned as the "one mighty in power," the one who "grew clear to view when he was on the uppermost horizon. Then he drew nigh and came down till he

436-500: A bodily resurrection . In the Quran belief in the afterlife is often referred in conjunction with belief in God: "Believe in God and the last day" emphasizing what is considered impossible is easy in the sight of God. A number of suras such as 44, 56, 75, 78, 81 and 101 are directly related to the afterlife and warn people to be prepared for the "imminent" day referred to in various ways. It

545-554: A kind of moral authority or spiritual power (as opposed to political power), and it is used in this sense several times in the Qur'an . In the early Muslim world , ultimate power and authority was theoretically held by the caliph, who was considered the leader of the caliphate. The increasing political fragmentation of the Muslim world after the 8th century, however, challenged this consensus. Local governors with administrative authority held

654-467: A kind of prince. The best of sultans was elected as khan by people at Kurultai . In a number of post-caliphal states under Mongol or Turkic rule, there was a feudal type of military hierarchy. These administrations were often decimal (mainly in larger empires), using originally princely titles such as khan , malik , amir as mere rank denominations. In the Persian empire , the rank of sultan

763-409: A possessed man, a soothsayer , or a magician since his experiences were similar to those claimed by such figures well known in ancient Arabia . Welch additionally states that it remains uncertain whether these experiences occurred before or after Muhammad's initial claim of prophethood. The Quran describes Muhammad as " ummi ", which is traditionally interpreted as 'illiterate', but the meaning

872-631: A single folio of a very early Quran , dating back to 1370 years earlier, was discovered in the library of the University of Birmingham , England. According to the tests carried out by the Oxford University Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit, "with a probability of more than 95%, the parchment was from between 568 and 645". The manuscript is written in Hijazi script , an early form of written Arabic. This possibly

981-400: A special kind of prosody reserved for this purpose called tajwid . During the month of Ramadan, Muslims typically complete the recitation of the whole Quran during tarawih prayers. In order to extrapolate the meaning of a particular Quranic verse, Muslims rely on exegesis , or commentary rather than a direct translation of the text. The word qur'ān appears about 70 times in

1090-522: A square is set up and the king or lord of the day ;( māliki yawmi-d-dīn ) comes and shows his shin; looks are fearful, are invited to prostration; but those invited in the past but stayed away, cannot do this.( Al-Qalam 42-43) Some researchers have no hesitation that many doomsday concepts, some of which are also used in the Quran, such as firdaws , kawthar , jahannam , maalik have come from foreign cultures through historical evolution . According to M. Shamsher Ali , there are around 750 verses in

1199-519: A surah dedicated to his mother Mary in the Quran. According to As-Saff 6, while he is a harbinger of Muhammad, Sunnis understand that Jesus continues to live in a sky layer , as in the stories of ascension , preaches that he will return to the earth near apocalypse , join the Mahdi , will pray behind him and then kill the False Messiah ( Dajjal ). While belief in God and obedience to

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1308-580: Is "a sign of the hour." Despite the uncertainty of the time is emphasized with the statement that it is only in the presence of God,(43:61) there is a rich eschatological literature in the Islamic world and doomsday prophecies in the Islamic world are heavily associated with "round" numbers. Said Nursi interpreted the expressions in the Quran and hadiths as metaphorical or allegorical symbolizations and benefited from numerological methods applied to some ayah/hadith fragments in his own prophecies. In

1417-584: Is "widespread and well-funded". Individuals connected with the movement include Abdul Majeed al-Zindani , who established the Commission on Scientific Signs in the Quran and Sunnah ; Zakir Naik , the Indian televangelist; and Adnan Oktar , the Turkish creationist. Ismail al-Faruqi and Taha Jabir Alalwani are of the view that any reawakening of the Muslim civilization must start with the Quran; however,

1526-732: Is 'the Day of Judgment,' 'the Last Day,' 'the Day of Resurrection,' or simply 'the Hour.' Less frequently it is 'the Day of Distinction', 'the Day of the Gathering' or 'the Day of the Meeting'. "Signs of the hour" in the Quran are a " Beast of the Earth " will arise (27:82); the nations Gog and Magog will break through their ancient barrier wall and sweep down to scourge the earth (21:96-97); and Jesus

1635-400: Is a great deal of Islamic pseudoscience attempting to reconcile this respect with religious beliefs. This is because, according to Edis, true criticism of the Quran is almost non-existent in the Muslim world. While Christianity is less prone to see its Holy Book as the direct word of God, fewer Muslims will compromise on this idea – causing them to believe that scientific truths must appear in

1744-413: Is a prominent prophet and messenger of God and the most frequently mentioned individual in the Quran, with his name being mentioned 136 times and his life being narrated and recounted more than that of any other prophet. Jesus is considered another important prophet with his fatherless birth,( 66:12 , 21:89 ) special with the expressions used for him, such as the "word" and "spirit" from God and

1853-463: Is a way and method of reciting the Qur'an was developed sometime afterwards. There are ten canonical recitations and they are not to be confused with ahruf. Shias recite the Quran according to the qira'at of Hafs on authority of ‘Asim , which is the prevalent qira'at in the Islamic world and believe that the Quran was gathered and compiled by Muhammad during his lifetime. It is claimed that

1962-692: Is also used in the Arabic language for other scriptures, such as the Torah and the Gospels. The term mus'haf ('written work') is often used to refer to particular Quranic manuscripts but is also used in the Quran to identify earlier revealed books. Islamic tradition relates that Muhammad received his first revelation in 610 CE in the Cave of Hira on the Night of Power during one of his isolated retreats to

2071-453: Is approved because of its familiarity for a certain society and its antithesis munkar means what is disapproved because it is unknown and extraneous. It also affirms family life by legislating on matters of marriage, divorce, and inheritance. A number of practices, such as usury and gambling, are prohibited. The Quran is one of the fundamental sources of Islamic law ( sharia ). Some formal religious practices receive significant attention in

2180-406: Is claimed that the provisions and contents in sources such as the Quran and hadith, apart from general purposes , are contents that reflect the general understanding and practices of that period, and it is brought up to replace the sharia practices that pose problems in terms of today's ethic values with new interpretations . The doctrine of the last day and eschatology (the final fate of

2289-448: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Sultan The term is distinct from king ( ملك malik ), though both refer to a sovereign ruler. The use of "sultan" is restricted to Muslim countries, where the title carries religious significance, contrasting the more secular king , which is used in both Muslim and non-Muslim countries. Brunei , Malaysia and Oman are

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2398-542: Is known as Raja Isteri with the title of Pengiran Anak suffixed, should the queen consort also be a royal princess. These are generally secondary titles, either lofty 'poetry' or with a message, e.g.: By the beginning of the 16th century, the title sultan was carried by both men and women of the Ottoman dynasty and was replacing other titles by which prominent members of the imperial family had been known (notably khatun for women and bey for men). This usage underlines

2507-535: Is rather more complex. Medieval commentators such as al-Tabari ( d.  923 ) maintained that the term induced two meanings: first, the inability to read or write in general; second, the inexperience or ignorance of the previous books or scriptures (but they gave priority to the first meaning). Muhammad's illiteracy was taken as a sign of the genuineness of his prophethood. For example, according to Fakhr al-Din al-Razi , if Muhammad had mastered writing and reading he possibly would have been suspected of having studied

2616-528: Is recited, listen to it and keep silent." The word may also assume the meaning of a codified scripture when mentioned with other scriptures such as the Torah and Gospel . The term also has closely related synonyms that are employed throughout the Quran. Each synonym possesses its own distinct meaning, but its use may converge with that of qur'ān in certain contexts. Such terms include kitāb ('book'), āyah ('sign'), and sūrah ('scripture');

2725-507: Is said to you that was not said to the messengers before you, that your lord has at his Command forgiveness as well as a most Grievous Penalty." Islam regards Abraham as a link in the chain of prophets that begins with Adam and culminates in Muhammad via Ishmael and mentioned in 35 chapters of the Quran , more often than any other biblical personage apart from Moses . Muslims regard him as an idol smasher, hanif , an archetype of

2834-682: The Quraysh who were taken prisoners at the Battle of Badr regained their freedom after they had taught some of the Muslims the simple writing of the time. Thus a group of Muslims gradually became literate . As it was initially spoken, the Quran was recorded on tablets, bones, and the wide, flat ends of date palm fronds. Most suras (also usually transliterated as Surah) were in use amongst early Muslims since they are mentioned in numerous sayings by both Sunni and Shia sources, relating Muhammad's use of

2943-529: The Sultanate of Women , as the position of main consort eroded over the course of the 17th century, with the main consort losing the title of "sultan", which was replaced by "kadin", a title related to the earlier "khatun". Henceforth, the mother of the reigning sultan was the only person of non imperial blood to carry the title "sultan". In Kazakh Khanate a Sultan was a lord from the ruling dynasty (a direct descendants of Genghis Khan ) elected by clans, i.e.

3052-458: The Uthmanic codex . That text became the model from which copies were made and promulgated throughout the urban centers of the Muslim world, and other versions are believed to have been destroyed. and the six other ahruf of the Qur'an fell out of use. The present form of the Quran text is accepted by Muslim scholars to be the original version compiled by Abu Bakr. Qira'at which

3161-554: The culture of Arabs and many nations in their historical neighbourhoods, especially Judeo-Christian stories , are included in the Quran with small allusions, references or sometimes small narratives such as jannāt ʿadn , jahannam , Seven sleepers , Queen of Sheba etc. However, some philosophers and scholars such as Mohammed Arkoun , who emphasize the mythological content of the Quran, are met with rejectionist attitudes in Islamic circles. The stories of Yusuf and Zulaikha , Moses , Family of Amram (parents of Mary according to

3270-763: The 16th century when the Ottoman Empire conquered the Mamluk Empire and became the indisputable leading Sunni Muslim power across most of the Middle East , North Africa , and Eastern Europe . The 16th-century Ottoman scholar and jurist, Ebüssuûd Mehmet Efendi , recognized the Ottoman sultan ( Suleiman the Magnificent at the time) as the caliph and universal leader of all Muslims. This conflation of sultan and caliph became more clearly emphasized in

3379-614: The 19th century during the Ottoman Empire's territorial decline, when Ottoman authorities sought to cast the sultan as the leader of the entire Muslim community in the face of European ( Christian ) colonial expansion . As part of this narrative, it was claimed that when Sultan Selim I captured Cairo in 1517, the last descendant of the Abbasids in Cairo formally passed on the position of caliph to him. This combination thus elevated

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3488-606: The 3rd Grand Sultan of the Isaaq Sultanate (1845 - 1870) and the father of Deria Hassan Sultan Hassan I of Morocco , Sultan of Morocco (1873–1894). King Mohammed V of Morocco (1927–1961), changed title of ruler from Sultan to King in 1957 Sultan Hassan I of the Maldives , Sultan of the Maldives (1388–1398) Sultan Hassan II of the Maldives , Sultan of the Maldives Sultan Hassan III of

3597-462: The Bible conveyed from any source are called Israʼiliyyat and are met with suspicion. The provisions that might arise from them, (such as the consumption of wine ) could only be "abrogated provisions" ( naskh ). The guidance of the Quran and Muhammad is considered absolute, universal and will continue until the end of time . However, today, this understanding is questioned in certain circles, it

3706-774: The Flood , struggle of Abraham with Nimrod , sacrifice of his son occupy a wide place in the Quran. The central theme of the Quran is monotheism . God is depicted as living, eternal, omniscient and omnipotent (see, e.g., Quran 2:20 , 2:29 , 2:255 ). God's omnipotence appears above all in his power to create. He is the creator of everything, of the heavens and the earth and what is between them (see, e.g., Quran 13:16 , 2:253 , 50:38 , etc.). All human beings are equal in their utter dependence upon God, and their well-being depends upon their acknowledging that fact and living accordingly. The Quran uses cosmological and contingency arguments in various verses without referring to

3815-517: The Maldives , Sultan of the Maldives (1443–1467) Sultan Hassan IV of the Maldives , Sultan of the Maldives (1480–1481) Sultan Hassan V of the Maldives , Sultan of the Maldives (1484–1485) Sultan Hassan Nooraddeen I , Sultan of the Maldives (1779–1799) Sultan Hassan Nooraddeen II , Sultan of the Maldives (1935–1943) Sultan Faiz-ul Hassan Shah , Pakistani Islamic scholar (1911–1984) Sultan Hassan (astrophysicist) , contemporary Sudanese computational astrophysicist. Topics referred to by

3924-425: The Ottoman conception of sovereign power as family prerogative. Western tradition knows the Ottoman ruler as "sultan", but Ottomans themselves used "padişah" (emperor) or "hünkar" to refer to their ruler. The emperor's formal title consisted of "sultan" together with "khan" (for example, Sultan Suleiman Khan). In formal address, the sultan's children were also entitled "sultan", with imperial princes (Şehzade) carrying

4033-435: The Qur'an as a crime of apostasy punishable by death under sharia , it seemed impossible to conduct studies on the Qur'an that went beyond textual criticism . Until the early 1970s, non-Muslim scholars of Islam —while not accepting traditional explanations for divine intervention— accepted the above-mentioned traditional origin story in most details. University of Chicago professor Fred Donner states that: [T]here

4142-407: The Qur'an was revealed to Muhammad in seven different ahruf (meaning letters; however, it could mean dialects, forms, styles or modes). Most Islamic scholars agree that these different ahruf are the same Qur'an revealed in seven different Arabic dialects and that they do not change the meaning of the Qur'an, the purpose of which was to make the Qur'an easy for recitation and memorization among

4251-500: The Quran and is an important part of Islamist / jihadist indoctrination today, as well as Shiite teachings, hence ma'ruf and munkar should be the key words in understanding the Quran in moral terms as a duty that the Quran imposes on believers. Although a common translation of the phrase is " Enjoining good and forbidding evil ", the words used by Islamic philosophy determining good and evil in discourses are " husn " and "qubh". The word ma’ruf literally means "known" or what

4360-400: The Quran as a call to Islam, the making of prayer and the manner of recitation. However, the Quran did not exist in book form at the time of Muhammad's death in 632 at age 61–62. There is agreement among scholars that Muhammad himself did not write down the revelation. Sahih al-Bukhari narrates Muhammad describing the revelations as, "Sometimes it is (revealed) like the ringing of

4469-515: The Quran became popularized as ijaz (miracle) literature, also called " Bucailleism ", and began to be distributed through Muslim bookstores and websites. The movement contends that the Quran abounds with "scientific facts" that appeared centuries before their discovery and promotes Islamic creationism . According to author Ziauddin Sardar , the ijaz movement has created a "global craze in Muslim societies", and has developed into an industry that

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4578-522: The Quran dealing with natural phenomena and many verses of the Quran ask mankind to study nature, and this has been interpreted to mean an encouragement for scientific inquiry, and of the truth. Some include, "Travel throughout the earth and see how He brings life into being" ( Q29:20 ), "Behold in the creation of the heavens and the earth, and the alternation of night and day, there are indeed signs for men of understanding ..." ( Q3:190 ) The astrophysicist Nidhal Guessoum writes: "The Qur'an draws attention to

4687-407: The Quran including the salat and fasting in the month of Ramadan . As for the manner in which the prayer is to be conducted, the Quran refers to prostration . The term chosen for charity, zakat , literally means purification implies that it is a self-purification. In fiqh , the term fard is used for clear imperative provisions based on the Quran. However, it is not possible to say that

4796-456: The Quran itself, assuming various meanings. It is a verbal noun ( maṣdar ) of the Arabic verb qara'a ( قرأ ‎ ) meaning 'he read' or 'he recited'. The Syriac equivalent is qeryānā ( ܩܪܝܢܐ ), which refers to 'scripture reading' or 'lesson'. While some Western scholars consider the word to be derived from the Syriac, the majority of Muslim authorities hold the origin of

4905-435: The Quran was orally revealed by God to the final Islamic prophet Muhammad through the angel Gabriel incrementally over a period of some 23 years, beginning on the Night of Power , when Muhammad was 40, and concluding in 632, the year of his death. Muslims regard the Quran as Muhammad's most important miracle , a proof of his prophethood , and the culmination of a series of divine messages starting with those revealed to

5014-505: The Quran were considered mutashabihat -"no one knows its interpretation except God" (Quran 3:7 )- by later scholars stating that God was free from resemblance to humans in any way. In Islam, God speaks to people called prophets through a kind of revelation called wahy , or through angels .( 42:51 ) nubuwwah ( Arabic : نبوة 'prophethood') is seen as a duty imposed by God on individuals who have some characteristics such as intelligence, honesty, fortitude and justice: "Nothing

5123-405: The Quran with explanations for some cryptic Quranic narratives, and rulings that also provide the basis for Islamic law in most denominations of Islam, are hadiths —oral and written traditions believed to describe words and actions of Muhammad. During prayers , the Quran is recited only in Arabic. Someone who has memorized the entire Quran is called a hafiz . Ideally, verses are recited with

5232-594: The Quran) and mysterious hero Dhul-Qarnayn ("the man with two horns") who built a barrier against Gog and Magog that will remain until the end of time are more detailed and longer stories. Apart from semi-historical events and characters such as King Solomon and David , about Jewish history as well as the exodus of the Israelites from Egypt , tales of the hebrew prophets accepted in Islam , such as Creation ,

5341-414: The Quran. The Quran consists of 114 chapters of varying lengths, known as a sūrah . Each sūrah consists of verses, known as āyāt , which originally means a 'sign' or 'evidence' sent by God. The number of verses differs from sūrah to sūrah. An individual verse may be just a few letters or several lines. The total number of verses in the most popular Hafs Quran is 6,236; however, the number varies if

5450-462: The Quran. Muslim critics of the movement include Indian Islamic theologian Maulana Ashraf ‘Ali Thanvi , Muslim historian Syed Nomanul Haq , Muzaffar Iqbal , president of Center for Islam and Science in Alberta, Canada, and Egyptian Muslim scholar Khaled Montaser. Taner Edis wrote many Muslims appreciate technology and respect the role that science plays in its creation. As a result, he says there

5559-561: The Shia had more than 1,000 hadiths ascribed to the Shia Imams which indicate the distortion of the Quran and according to Etan Kohlberg, this belief about Quran was common among Shiites in the early centuries of Islam. In his view, Ibn Babawayh was the first major Twelver author "to adopt a position identical to that of the Sunnis " and the change was a result of the "rise to power of

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5668-613: The Sunni ' Abbasid caliphate ," whence belief in the corruption of the Quran became untenable vis-a-vis the position of Sunni "orthodoxy". Alleged distortions have been carried out to remove any references to the rights of Ali, the Imams and their supporters and the disapproval of enemies, such as Umayyads and Abbasids. Other personal copies of the Quran might have existed including Ibn Mas'ud 's and Ubay ibn Ka'b 's codex, none of which exist today. Since Muslims could regard criticism of

5777-637: The Sunni Muslim world. As protectors of the line of the Abbasid caliphs, the Mamluks recognized themselves as sultans and the Muslim scholar Khalil al-Zahiri argued that only they could hold that title. Nonetheless, in practice, many Muslim rulers of this period were now using the title as well. Mongol rulers (who had since converted to Islam) and other Turkish rulers were among those who did so. The position of sultan and caliph began to blend together in

5886-567: The apocalyptic scenes, clues are included regarding the nature, structure and dimensions of the celestial bodies as perceived in the Quran: While the stars are lamps illuminating the sky in ordinary cases, turns into stones ( Al-Mulk 1-5) or (shahap; meteor, burning fire) ( al-Jinn 9) thrown at demons that illegally ascend to the sky; When the time of judgment comes, they spill onto the earth, but this does not mean that life on earth ends; People run left and right in fear.( At-Takwir 1-7) Then

5995-596: The biggest obstacle on this route is the "centuries old heritage of tafseer and other disciplines which inhibit a "universal conception" of the Quran's message. Author Rodney Stark argues that Islam's lag behind the West in scientific advancement after (roughly) 1500 AD was due to opposition by traditional ulema to efforts to formulate systematic explanation of natural phenomenon with " natural laws ." He claims that they believed such laws were blasphemous because they limit "God's freedom to act" as He wishes. Enthusiasts of

6104-488: The book in one volume so that it could be preserved. Zayd ibn Thabit ( d.  655 ) was the person to collect the Quran since "he used to write the Divine Inspiration for Allah's Apostle". Thus, a group of scribes, most importantly Zayd, collected the verses and produced a hand-written manuscript of the complete book. The manuscript according to Zayd remained with Abu Bakr until he died. Zayd's reaction to

6213-479: The books of the ancestors. Some scholars such as W. Montgomery Watt prefer the second meaning of ummi —they take it to indicate unfamiliarity with earlier sacred texts. The final verse of the Quran was revealed on the 18th of the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah in the year 10 A.H. , a date that roughly corresponds to February or March 632. The verse was revealed after the Prophet finished delivering his sermon at Ghadir Khumm . According to Islamic tradition,

6322-665: The capital of the Abbasid caliphs . The early Seljuk leader Tughril Bey was the first leader to adopt the epithet "sultan" on his coinage . While the Seljuks acknowledged the caliphs in Baghdad formally as the universal leader of the Muslim community , their own political power clearly overshadowed the latter. This led to various Muslim scholars – notably Al-Juwayni and Al-Ghazali – attempting to develop theoretical justifications for

6431-567: The crisis that followed the destruction of Baghdad by the Mongols in 1258, which eliminated the remnants of Abbasid political power. Henceforth, the surviving descendants of the Abbasid caliphs lived in Cairo under the protection of the Mamluks and were still nominally recognized by the latter. However, from this time on they effectively had no authority and were not universally recognized across

6540-433: The danger of conjecturing without evidence ( And follow not that of which you have not the knowledge of... 17:36 ) and in several different verses asks Muslims to require proofs ( Say: Bring your proof if you are truthful 2:111 )." He associates some scientific contradictions that can be seen in the Quran with a superficial reading of the Quran. Starting in the 1970s and 80s, the idea of presence of scientific evidence in

6649-487: The date of writing of the text. For example, sources based on some archaeological data give the construction date of Masjid al-Haram , an architectural work mentioned 16 times in the Quran, as 78 AH an additional finding that sheds light on the evolutionary history of the Quran mentioned, which is known to continue even during the time of Hajjaj , in a similar situation that can be seen with al-Aksa , though different suggestions have been put forward to explain. In 2015,

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6758-500: The different Arab tribes . While Sunni Muslims believe in the seven ahruf , some Shia reject the idea of seven Qur'anic variants. A common misconception is that The seven ahruf and the Qira'at are the same. Following Muhammad's death in 632, a number of his companions who memorized the Quran were killed in the Battle of al-Yamama by Musaylima . The first caliph, Abu Bakr ( r.  632–634 ), subsequently decided to collect

6867-429: The dominant tradition over the lifetime of Muhammad c.  570 to 632 CE and used as evidence to support conventional wisdom and to refute the revisionists' views that expresses findings and views different from the traditional approach to the early history of the Quran and Islam . The Quranic content is concerned with basic Islamic beliefs including the existence of God and the resurrection . Narratives of

6976-640: The early prophets , ethical and legal subjects, historical events of Muhammad's time, charity and prayer also appear in the Quran. The Quranic verses contain general exhortations regarding right and wrong and historical events are related to outline general moral lessons. The style of the Quran has been called " allusive ", with commentaries needed to explain what is being referred to—"events are referred to, but not narrated; disagreements are debated without being explained; people and places are mentioned, but rarely named." While tafsir in Islamic sciences expresses

7085-621: The early evolution of the term is complicated and difficult to establish. The first major figure to clearly grant himself this title was the Ghaznavid ruler Mahmud (r. 998–1030 CE) who controlled an empire over present-day Afghanistan and the surrounding region. Soon after, the Great Seljuks adopted this title after defeating the Ghaznavid Empire and taking control of an even larger territory which included Baghdad ,

7194-488: The effort to understand the implied and implicit expressions of the Quran, fiqh refers to the efforts to expand the meaning of expressions , especially in the verses related to the provisions , as well as understanding it. Quranic studies state that, in the historical context, the content of the Quran is related to Rabbinic , Jewish-Christian , Syriac Christian and Hellenic literature, as well as pre-Islamic Arabia . Many places, subjects and mythological figures in

7303-539: The existence and unity of God , they may have adopted different attitudes that have changed and developed throughout history regarding his nature (attributes) , names and relationship with creation. Rabb is an Arabic word to refers to God meaning Lord and the Quran cites in several places as in the Al-Fatiha ; "All Praise and Gratitude is due to God, Lord of all the Universe". Mustafa Öztürk points out that

7412-428: The first Islamic prophet Adam , including the Islamic holy books of the Torah , Psalms , and Gospel . The Quran is believed by Muslims to be God's own divine speech providing a complete code of conduct across all facets of life. This has led Muslim theologians to fiercely debate whether the Quran was " created or uncreated ." According to tradition, several of Muhammad's companions served as scribes, recording

7521-502: The first Muslims believed that this god lived in the sky with the following words of Ahmad Ibn Hanbal : "Whoever says that Allah is everywhere is a heretic, an infidel. He should be invited to repent, but if he does not, be killed." This understanding changes later and gives way to the understanding that "God cannot be assigned a place and He is everywhere." Also actions and attributes suh as coming, going, sitting, satisfaction, anger and sadness etc. similar to humans used for this God in

7630-451: The holy book. In 1983, Keith L. Moore , had a special edition published of his widely used textbook on Embryology ( The Developing Human: Clinically Oriented Embryology ), co-authored by Abdul Majeed al-Zindani with Islamic Additions, interspersed pages of "embryology-related Quranic verse and hadith" by al-Zindani into Moore's original work. Ali A. Rizvi studying the textbook of Moore and al-Zindani found himself "confused" by "why Moore

7739-541: The largest Shi'a Muslim state of this era, mainly used the Persian title shah , a tradition which continued under subsequent dynasties. The term sultan , by contrast, was mainly given to provincial governors within their realm. A feminine form of sultan , used by Westerners, is sultana or sultanah and this title has been used legally for some (not all) Muslim women monarchs and sultan's mothers and chief consorts. However, Turkish and Ottoman Turkish also uses sultan for imperial lady, as Turkish grammar uses

7848-436: The latter two terms also denote units of revelation. In the large majority of contexts, usually with a definite article ( al- ), the word is referred to as the waḥy ('revelation'), that which has been "sent down" ( tanzīl ) at intervals. Other related words include: dhikr ('remembrance'), used to refer to the Quran in the sense of a reminder and warning; and ḥikmah ('wisdom'), sometimes referring to

7957-418: The manuscripts, which he dated to the early part of the 8th century. Puin has noted unconventional verse orderings, minor textual variations, and rare styles of orthography, and suggested that some of the parchments were palimpsests which had been reused. Puin believed that this implied an evolving text as opposed to a fixed one. It is also possible that the content of the Quran itself may provides data regarding

8066-542: The material" Abu Bakr worked with "had already been assembled", which since he was the first caliph, would mean they were collected when Muhammad was still alive. Around the 650s, the Islamic expansion beyond the Arabian Peninsula and into Perisa , the Levant and North Africa , as well as the use of the seven ahruf , had caused some confusion and differences in the pronunciation of the Qur'an, and conflict

8175-402: The mountains. Thereafter, he received revelations over a period of 23 years. According to hadith (traditions ascribed to Muhammad) and Muslim history , after Muhammad and his followers immigrated to Medina and formed an independent Muslim community, he ordered many of his companions to recite the Quran and to learn and teach the laws, which were revealed daily. It is related that some of

8284-416: The movement argue that among the miracles found in the Quran are "everything, from relativity , quantum mechanics , Big Bang theory , black holes and pulsars , genetics , embryology , modern geology , thermodynamics , even the laser and hydrogen fuel cells ". Zafar Ishaq Ansari terms the modern trend of claiming the identification of "scientific truths" in the Quran as the "scientific exegesis" of

8393-462: The only sovereign states which retain the title "sultan" for their monarchs. In recent years, the title has been gradually replaced by "king" by contemporary hereditary rulers who wish to emphasize their secular authority under the rule of law. A notable example is Morocco , whose monarch changed his title from sultan to king in 1957. The word derives from the Arabic and Semitic root salaṭa "to be hard, strong". The noun sulṭān initially designated

8502-543: The perfect Muslim, and revered prophet and builder of the Kaaba in Mecca. The Quran consistently refers to Islam as 'the religion of Abraham' ( millat Ibrahim ). Besides Isaac and Jacob , Abraham is commonly considered an ideal father by Muslims. In Islam, Eid-al-Adha is celebrated to commemorate Abraham's attempt to sacrifice his son by surrendering in line with his dream,( As-Saaffat ; 100–107) which he accepted as

8611-460: The political authority of the Seljuk sultans within the framework of the formal supreme authority of the recognized caliphs. In general, the theories maintained that all legitimate authority derived from the caliph, but that it was delegated to sovereign rulers whom the caliph recognized. Al-Ghazali, for example, argued that while the caliph was the guarantor of Islamic law ( shari'a ), coercive power

8720-502: The prophets (Khidr-Moses story Quran 18:65–82 ) and even employ jinn (Dhulqarnayn). Those who "spend their wealth" on people who are in need because they devoted their lives to the way of Allah and whose situation is unknown because they are ashamed to ask, will be rewarded by Allah. ( Al Baqara ; 272-274) In the story of Qārūn , the person who avoids searching for the afterlife with his wealth and becomes arrogant will be punished, arrogance befits only God. ( Al Mutakabbir ) Characters of

8829-427: The prophets are the main emphasis in the prophetic stories, there are also non-prophetic stories in the Quran that emphasize the importance of humility and having profound-inner knowledge ( hikmah ) besides trusting in God. This is the main theme in the stories of Khidr , Luqman and Dhulqarnayn. According to the later ascriptions to these stories, it is possible for those with this knowledge and divine support to teach

8938-534: The reader's familiarity with major narratives recounted in the Biblical and apocryphal texts . It summarizes some, dwells at length on others and, in some cases, presents alternative accounts and interpretations of events. The Quran describes itself as a book of guidance for humankind ( 2:185 ). It sometimes offers detailed accounts of specific historical events, and it often emphasizes the moral significance of an event over its narrative sequence. Supplementing

9047-404: The relevant verses are understood in the same way by all segments of Islamic commentators; For example, Hanafis accept 5 daily prayers as fard. However, some religious groups such as Quranists and Shiites , who do not doubt that the Quran existing today is a religious source, infer from the same verses that it is clearly ordered to pray 2 or 3 times, not 5 times. About six verses adress to

9156-409: The revelation or part of it. The Quran describes itself as 'the discernment' ( al-furqān ), 'the mother book' ( umm al-kitāb ), 'the guide' ( huda ), 'the wisdom' ( hikmah ), 'the remembrance' ( dhikr ), and 'the revelation' ( tanzīl ; 'something sent down', signifying the descent of an object from a higher place to lower place). Another term is al-kitāb ('The Book'), though it

9265-476: The revelations. Shortly after Muhammad's death, the Quran was compiled on the order of the first caliph Abu Bakr ( r.  632–634 ) by the companions, who had written down or memorized parts of it. Caliph Uthman ( r.  644–656 ) established a standard version, now known as the Uthmanic codex , which is generally considered the archetype of the Quran known today. There are, however, variant readings , with some differences in meaning. The Quran assumes

9374-496: The same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Sultan Hassan . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sultan_Hassan&oldid=1258231872 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Articles containing Arabic-language text Pages with Arabic IPA Short description

9483-533: The same words for both women and men (such as Hurrem Sultan and Sultan Suleiman Han ( Suleiman the Magnificent )). The female leaders in Muslim history are correctly known as "sultanas". However, the wife of the sultan in the Sultanate of Sulu is styled as the "panguian" while the sultan's chief wife in many sultanates of Indonesia and Malaysia are known as "permaisuri", "Tunku Ampuan", "Raja Perempuan", or "Tengku Ampuan". The queen consort in Brunei especially

9592-406: The standard copy from her. According to historian Michael Cook , early Muslim narratives about the collection and compilation of the Quran sometimes contradict themselves: "Most ... make Uthman little more than an editor, but there are some in which he appears very much a collector, appealing to people to bring him any bit of the Quran they happen to possess." Some accounts also "suggest that in fact

9701-477: The stories can be closed-mythical, (khidr) demi-mythologic or combined characters, and it can also be seen that they are Islamized. While some believe he was a prophet, some researchers equate Luqman with the Alcmaeon of Croton or Aesop . Commanding ma’ruf and forbidding munkar (Ar. ٱلْأَمْرُ بِٱلْمَعْرُوفِ وَٱلنَّهْيُ عَنِ ٱلْمُنْكَرِ) is repeated or referred to in nearly 30 verses in different contexts in

9810-579: The sultan's religious or spiritual authority, in addition to his formal political authority. During this later period, the title of sultan was still used outside the Ottoman Empire as well, as with the examples of the Somali aristocrats , Malay nobles and the sultans of Morocco (such as the Alaouite dynasty founded in the 17th century). It was, however, not used as a sovereign title by Shi'a Muslim rulers. The Safavid dynasty of Iran , who controlled

9919-463: The task and the difficulties in collecting the Quranic material from parchments, palm-leaf stalks, thin stones (collectively known as suhuf , any written work containing divine teachings) and from men who knew it by heart is recorded in earlier narratives. In 644, Muhammad's widow Hafsa bint Umar was entrusted with the manuscript until the third caliph, Uthman ( r.  644–656 ), requested

10028-447: The terms to prove the existence of God . Therefore, the universe is originated and needs an originator, and whatever exists must have a sufficient cause for its existence. Besides, the design of the universe is frequently referred to as a point of contemplation: "It is He who has created seven heavens in harmony. You cannot see any fault in God's creation; then look again: Can you see any flaw?" Even though Muslims do not doubt about

10137-530: The text has been washed off to make the parchment reusable again—a practice which was common in ancient times due to the scarcity of writing material. However, the faint washed-off underlying text ( scriptio inferior ) is still barely visible. Studies using radiocarbon dating indicate that the parchments are dated to the period before 671 CE with a 99 percent probability. The German scholar Gerd R. Puin has been investigating these Quran fragments for years. His research team made 35,000 microfilm photographs of

10246-458: The text of the Quran have ceased to be transmitted, some still are. There has been no critical text produced on which a scholarly reconstruction of the Quranic text could be based. In 1972, in a mosque in the city of Sana'a , Yemen , manuscripts "consisting of 12,000 pieces" were discovered that were later proven to be the oldest Quranic text known to exist at the time. The Sana'a manuscripts contain palimpsests , manuscript pages from which

10355-559: The title before their given name, and imperial princesses carrying it after. For example: Şehzade Sultan Mehmed and Mihrimah Sultan , son and daughter of Suleiman the Magnificent. Like imperial princesses, the living mother and main consort of the reigning sultan also carried the title after their given names, for example: Hafsa Sultan , Suleiman's mother and first valide sultan , and Hürrem Sultan , Suleiman's chief consort and first haseki sultan . The evolving usage of this title reflected power shifts among imperial women, especially between

10464-474: The title of amīr ( أمير , traditionally "commander" or " emir ", later also "prince") and were appointed by the caliph, but in the 9th century some of these became de facto independent rulers who founded their own dynasties, such as the Aghlabids and Tulunids . Towards the late 10th century, the term "sultan" begins to be used to denote an individual ruler with practically sovereign authority, although

10573-457: The universe) may be considered the second great doctrine of the Quran. It is estimated that approximately one-third of the Quran is eschatological, dealing with the afterlife in the next world and with the day of judgment at the end of time. The Quran does not assert a natural immortality of the human soul , since man's existence is dependent on the will of God: when he wills, he causes man to die; and when he wills, he raises him to life again in

10682-638: The way a woman should dress when walk in public; Muslim scholars have differed as how to understand these verses, with some stating that a Hijab is a command ( fard ) to be fulfilled and others say simply not. Research shows that the rituals in the Quran, along with laws such as qisas and tax ( zakat ), developed as an evolution of pre-Islamic Arabian rituals. Arabic words meaning pilgrimage ( hajj ), prayer ( salāt ) and charity (zakāt) can be seen in pre-Islamic Safaitic-Arabic inscriptions, and this continuity can be observed in many details, especially in hajj and umrah . Whether temporary marriage , which

10791-485: The will of God. In Judaism, the story is perceived as a narrative designed to replace child sacrifice with animal sacrifice in general or as a metaphor describing "sacrific[ing one's] animalistic nature", Orthodox Islamic understanding considers animal sacrifice as a mandatory or strong sunnah for Muslims who meet certain conditions, on a certain date determined by the Hijri calendar every year. In Islam, Moses

10900-442: The word is qara'a itself. Regardless, it had become an Arabic term by Muhammad's lifetime. An important meaning of the word is the 'act of reciting', as reflected in an early Quranic passage: "It is for Us to collect it and to recite it ( qur'ānahu )." In other verses, the word refers to 'an individual passage recited [by Muhammad]'. Its liturgical context is seen in a number of passages, for example: "So when al-qur'ān

11009-557: Was (distant) two bows' length or even nearer." The Islamic studies scholar Welch states in the Encyclopaedia of Islam that he believes the graphic descriptions of Muhammad's condition at these moments may be regarded as genuine, because he was severely disturbed after these revelations. According to Welch, these seizures would have been seen by those around him as convincing evidence for the superhuman origin of Muhammad's inspirations. However, Muhammad's critics accused him of being

11118-520: Was a pre-Islamic Arabic tradition and was widely practiced among Muslims during the lifetime of Muhammad, was abolished in Islam is also an area where Sunni and Shiite understandings conflict as well as the translation / interpretation of the related verse Quran 4:24 and ethical - religious problems regarding it. Although it is believed in Islam that the pre-Islamic prophets provided general guidance and that some books were sent down to them, their stories such as Lot and story with his daughters in

11227-497: Was a very early attempt to establish a uniform consonantal text of the Qurʾān from what was probably a wider and more varied group of related texts in early transmission.… After the creation of this standardized canonical text, earlier authoritative texts were suppressed, and all extant manuscripts—despite their numerous variants —seem to date to a time after this standard consonantal text was established. Although most variant readings of

11336-416: Was arising between different Arab tribes due to some claiming to be more superior to other Arab tribes and non-Arabs based on dialect, which Uthman noticed. In order to preserve the sanctity of the text, he ordered a committee headed by Zayd to use Abu Bakr's copy and prepare a standard text of the Quran. Thus, within 20 years of Muhammad's death in 632, the complete Quran was committed to written form as

11445-456: Was one of the earliest extant exemplars of the Quran, but as the tests allow a range of possible dates, it cannot be said with certainty which of the existing versions is the oldest. Saudi scholar Saud al-Sarhan has expressed doubt over the age of the fragments as they contain dots and chapter separators that are believed to have originated later. The Birmingham manuscript caused excitement amongst believers because of its potential overlapping with

11554-485: Was required to enforce the law in practice and the leader who exercised that power directly was the sultan. The position of sultan continued to grow in importance during the period of the crusades , when leaders who held the title of "sultan" (such as Salah ad-Din and the Ayyubid dynasty ) led the confrontation against the crusader states in the Levant . Views about the office of the sultan further developed during

11663-579: Was roughly equivalent to that of a modern-day captain in the West; socially in the fifth-rank class, styled ' Ali Jah . Apparently derived from the Arabic malik , this was the alternative native style of the sultans of the Kilwa Sultanate in Tanganyika (presently the continental part of Tanzania). Mfalume is the (Ki) Swahili title of various native Muslim rulers, generally rendered in Arabic and in western languages as Sultan: This

11772-603: Was so 'astonished by'" the Quranic references, which Rizvi found "vague", and insofar as they were specific, preceded by the observations of Aristotle and the Ayr-veda , or easily explained by "common sense". Critics argue, verses that proponents say explain modern scientific facts, about subjects such as biology , the origin and history of the Earth, and the evolution of human life , contain fallacies and are unscientific. As of 2008, both Muslims and non-Muslims have disputed whether there actually are "scientific miracles" in

11881-635: Was the native ruler's title in the Tanzanian state of Uhehe. In Indonesia (formerly in the Dutch East Indies ): In Malaysia : In Brunei : In China : In the Philippines : In Thailand : Sultans of sovereign states Sultans in federal monarchies Sultan with power within republics Quran The Quran , also romanized Qur'an or Koran , is the central religious text of Islam , believed by Muslims to be

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