110-472: Surgeon general ( pl. : surgeons general ) is a title used in several Commonwealth countries and most NATO nations to refer either to a senior military medical officer or to a senior uniformed physician commissioned by the government and entrusted with public health responsibilities. The title originated in the 17th century, as military units acquired their own physicians. In the United Kingdom,
220-413: A balanced conclusion, we need to discern quantitative and qualitative approaches to analyze and define a small state. As a matter of fact, smallness and greatness can evolve in time and as Vital points out all states possess aspects of strength and weakness. In a realistic approach to small states theory we could observe how small powers are mostly defined by their actual lack of power, which is of course not
330-480: A big role. Small states gain access to the markets that they depend on so more free trade and economic integration -leads to more states. The presence of international institutions to coordinate political and economic policies also plays a role as well as more comprehensive international law and better defined property rights. There is no one definition of small powers. Therefore, they have been defined in various ways. As Thorhallsson and Steinsson point out, shortage of
440-540: A combined gross domestic product of over $ 9 trillion, 78% of which is accounted for by the four largest economies: India ($ 3.737 trillion), United Kingdom ($ 3.124 trillion), Canada ($ 1.652 trillion), and Australia ($ 1.379 trillion). In 1997 the Commonwealth Heads of Government agreed that, to become a member of the Commonwealth, an applicant country should, as a rule, have had
550-684: A constitutional association with an existing Commonwealth member; that it should comply with Commonwealth values, principles and priorities as set out in the Harare Declaration ; and that it should accept Commonwealth norms and conventions. South Sudanese politicians have expressed interest in joining the Commonwealth. A senior Commonwealth source stated in 2006 that "many people have assumed an interest from Israel, but there has been no formal approach". Israel and Palestine are both potential candidates for membership. Small power List of forms of government The international system
660-404: A cost if small states look towards shelter by either organisations or larger states. The agreements small states have to make need to be beneficial for both them and the state providing the shelter, although the costs may differ between states. It is not always easy for the small states to negotiate on beneficial terms because "shelter providers may impose conditions on smaller states in exchange for
770-574: A former colony of the United Kingdom, but some have links to other countries, either exclusively or more directly (e.g., Bangladesh to Pakistan, Samoa to New Zealand, Papua New Guinea to Australia, and Singapore to Malaysia). Mozambique, in 1995, was the first country to join without such a constitutional connection, leading to the Edinburgh Declaration and the current membership guidelines. In 2009, Rwanda, formerly under Belgian and German rule, joined. Consideration for Rwanda's admission
880-455: A fundamental founding document of the organisation, laid out that membership required dominionhood. The 1949 London Declaration ended this, allowing republican and indigenous monarchic members on the condition that they recognised King George VI as " Head of the Commonwealth ". In the wake of the wave of decolonisation in the 1960s, these constitutional principles were augmented by political, economic, and social principles. The first of these
990-489: A greater role in an explanation of great power foreign policy. Generally speaking, great powers are faced with a lower level of external threat in comparison to small states and thus have more options for action. This increased range of choice will tend to make foreign policy formation more susceptible to domestic political influences. Consequently, unit level variables cannot be ignored when explaining great power foreign policy." She continues to quote Snyder where he points out
1100-485: A larger state is a larger market and more efficient provision of public goods. States can also grow to create larger internal markets to internalize the benefits of free trade opportunities. In a free trade regime, states can remain smaller. Historically times of war have led to state consolidation due to the cost and benefits of a centralized military. Larger states tend to correlate with stronger central governments while democratization tends to generate smaller states. From
1210-886: A multilateral institutionalized environment. Small states have less representational ability to engage with each international agenda item. Small states are at a disadvantage in the UN Security Council (UNSC) due to economic, administrative and military weaknesses. According to Baldur Thorhallsson these weaknesses are related to small territories, small economies and small populations. A Realist perspective takes little notice of small states. It focuses on hard power - military and economic resources. According to Realism small states will always be weak in negotiations. Small states are not powerful according to traditional measures of power and are primarily ignored or disregarded by larger powers. Liberal Institutionalism sees small states as actors with great potential. A lack of influence
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#17328024544691320-456: A report on potential amendments was presented by the Committee on Commonwealth Membership at the 2007 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting . New members were not admitted at this meeting, though applications for admission were considered at the 2009 CHOGM . New members must "as a general rule" have a direct constitutional link to an existing member. In most cases, this is due to being
1430-735: A republic in January 1950, it would remain in the Commonwealth and accept the British Sovereign as a "symbol of the free association of its independent member nations and as such the Head of the Commonwealth". Upon hearing this, King George VI told Menon : "So, I've become 'as such'". Some other Commonwealth countries that have since become republics have chosen to leave, whilst others, such as Guyana , Mauritius and Dominica , have remained members. India's inaugural prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru declared on 16 May 1949, shortly following
1540-720: A republic in accordance with the Irish Republic of Ireland Act 1948 ; in doing so, it also formally left the Commonwealth. Whilst Ireland had not actively participated in the Commonwealth since the early 1930s, other dominions wished to become republics without losing Commonwealth ties. The issue came to a head in April 1949 at a Commonwealth prime ministers' meeting in London . Under the London Declaration , as drafted by V. K. Krishna Menon , India agreed, when it became
1650-446: A single country. They argue that the number of states in the international system is likely to increase. They name a few reasons. Firstly, it is democratization. Dictators prefer large states so that they can extract greater rents. More democracies lead to more states. Peacefulness is also a reason. Small states can more easily survive and be stable in a peaceful world. Free trade and international economic integration also plays
1760-404: A state controls its internal affairs and borders and is recognized), political size (military and administrative capabilities, domestic cohesion, and foreign policy consensus), economic size (GDP, market size, and development), perceptual size (how a state is perceived by internal or external actors), and preference size (the ideas, ambitions, and priorities of domestic elites regarding their role in
1870-430: A sustainable state in the late 16th and 17th centuries, rather than a conquest driven effort of territorial acquisition. To answer the question of what constitutes a small state, many different criteria must be regarded. Many factors, both subjective and objective, can contribute to what is perceived as the size of a state, so there is no one entirely fulfilling definition. No matter how diverse criteria are used to define
1980-674: Is being done specifically on small states, how they develop their foreign policy, and how they are at some level completely different from larger states. Authors Alyson J.K. Bailes, Bradley A. Thayer, and Baldur Thorhallsson make the argument that small states differ from larger states in how they form alliances in their article Alliance theory and alliance 'Shelter': the complexities of small state alliance behavior . They acknowledge that small states are naturally more vulnerable than larger states, due to smaller militaries, economies, and overall population size. However, they also argue that small states are not without power, especially when viewed through
2090-458: Is for the most part made up by small powers or small states . While a small power in the international system may never equal or surpass the effect of larger powers, they can nevertheless influence the workings of the international system together with others. The formalization of the division between small and great powers came about with the signing of the Treaty of Chaumont in 1814. Before that
2200-409: Is not represented. Commonwealth citizens are eligible to apply for British emergency passports . Australia issues Documents of Identity in exceptional circumstances to resident Commonwealth citizens who are unable to obtain valid travel documents from their countries of origin and must travel urgently. The close association amongst Commonwealth countries is reflected in the diplomatic protocols of
2310-421: Is only evidence of a lack of cooperation - or collective action problems. International institutions can decrease the price of cooperation, facilitate information sharing and provide a venue for relationship building. Though a single definition has proved elusive due to the number of potential variables and their particular interpretation under given conditions, Asle Toje claims to have found recurring traits in
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#17328024544692420-520: Is symbolic, representing the free association of independent members, the majority of which (36) are republics , and five have monarchs of different royal houses ( Brunei , Eswatini , Lesotho , Malaysia and Tonga ). The main decision-making forum of the organisation is the biennial Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM), where Commonwealth Heads of Government , including (amongst others) prime ministers and presidents, assemble for several days to discuss matters of mutual interest. CHOGM
2530-692: Is the supreme court of 14 Commonwealth countries, including the Cook Islands and Niue which are under the Realm of New Zealand (though New Zealand itself does not make appeals to the Privy Council). Commonwealth nationals are eligible for appointment to the High Court of Fiji , with the Court relying on judges from other Commonwealth nations. Commonwealth citizens are eligible to serve in
2640-582: Is the successor to the Commonwealth Prime Ministers Meetings and, earlier, the Imperial Conferences and Colonial Conferences, dating back to 1887. There are also regular meetings of finance ministers, law ministers, health ministers and others. Members in arrears, as special members before them, are not invited to send representatives to either ministerial meetings or CHOGMs. The head of government hosting
2750-640: The British Armed Forces . According to the British Army , "Commonwealth soldiers are, and always will be, an important and valued part of the fabric of the British Army." Thousands of potential Commonwealth recruits have been turned away due to a lack of eligible vacancies. Gurkha soldiers from Nepal , though it is not a Commonwealth country, have long fought alongside British and Commonwealth troops. They continue to be recruited by
2860-701: The British Empire from which it developed. They are connected through their use of the English language and historical-cultural ties. The chief institutions of the organisation are the Commonwealth Secretariat , which focuses on intergovernmental relations, and the Commonwealth Foundation , which focuses on non-governmental relations between member nations. Numerous organisations are associated with and operate within
2970-701: The Harare Declaration was issued, dedicating the leaders to applying the Singapore principles to the completion of decolonisation, the end of the Cold War , and the end of apartheid in South Africa. The mechanisms by which these principles would be applied were created, and the manner clarified, by the 1995 Millbrook Commonwealth Action Programme , which created the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group (CMAG), which has
3080-525: The High Court case of Sue v Hill , the United Kingdom was held to be a "foreign power". Similarly, in Nolan v Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs , the nationals of other Commonwealth realms were held to be "aliens". Commonwealth citizens may receive consular assistance from other Commonwealth countries. In particular, British embassies and consulates may provide assistance to Commonwealth nationals in non-Commonwealth countries if their own country
3190-816: The Second World War . The British Commonwealth Air Training Plan was established for pilots from across the Empire and Dominions, created by the governments of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. Troops from Australia, Britain, the British Raj and New Zealand made up the British Commonwealth Occupation Force in post-war Japan. After the Second World War ended, the British Empire
3300-601: The Surgeon-General is the head of the military medical services. The post is held by the senior of the three individual service medical directors and carries the rank of vice admiral , lieutenant general , or air marshal . In the United States, the chief public health officer is the Surgeon General of the United States , and a small number of states have state surgeons general . Moreover, three of
3410-657: The U.S. military services have their own surgeon general, namely the Surgeon General of the United States Army , Surgeon General of the United States Navy , and Surgeon General of the United States Air Force . Commonwealth of Nations The Commonwealth of Nations , often simply referred to as the Commonwealth , is an international association of 56 member states , the vast majority of which are former territories of
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3520-547: The United Nations General Assembly by the secretariat as an observer . The secretariat organises Commonwealth summits, meetings of ministers, consultative meetings and technical discussions; it assists policy development and provides policy advice, and facilitates multilateral communication amongst the member governments. It also provides technical assistance to help governments in the social and economic development of their countries and in support of
3630-470: The rule of law , as promoted by the quadrennial Commonwealth Games . A majority of Commonwealth countries are small states , with small island developing states constituting almost half its membership. Queen Elizabeth II , in her address to Canada on Dominion Day in 1959, pointed out that the Confederation of Canada on 1 July 1867 had been the birth of the "first independent country within
3740-464: The 14th to 17th century European city-states were unified around politics and economics and had many of the characteristics of modern small, democratic countries. Industrialization and a search for larger markets and inter-regional trade led to regional consolidation. Professionalization of the European military and innovation in military technology increased the financial cost of wars. This increased
3850-605: The British Army ( Brigade of Gurkhas ), Indian Army ( Gorkha regiments ) and Royal Brunei Armed Forces ( Gurkha Reserve Unit ), as well the Gurkha Contingent of the Singapore Police Force . Most members of Brunei's Gurkha Reserve Unit are veterans from the British Army and Singaporean police. The criteria for membership of the Commonwealth of Nations have developed over time from a series of separate documents. The Statute of Westminster 1931 , as
3960-468: The British Empire". She declared: "So, it also marks the beginning of that free association of independent states which is now known as the Commonwealth of Nations." As long ago as 18 January 1884 Lord Rosebery , while visiting Adelaide , South Australia , had described the changing British Empire, as some of its colonies became more independent , as a "Commonwealth of Nations". Conferences of British and colonial prime ministers occurred periodically from
4070-451: The CHOGM is called the chair-in-office (CIO) and retains the position until the following CHOGM. The Commonwealth Secretariat , established in 1965, is the main intergovernmental agency of the Commonwealth, facilitating consultation and co-operation amongst member governments and countries. It is responsible to member governments collectively. The Commonwealth of Nations is represented in
4180-471: The Commonwealth countries. For example, when engaging bilaterally with one another, Commonwealth governments exchange high commissioners instead of ambassadors . Further institutional connections exist between Commonwealth countries. These include, between some, connections to other parts of the Commonwealth in their judicial and military institutions. The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council
4290-413: The Commonwealth had a population of 2.5 billion. The Commonwealth is the largest association of ' Third World ' or ' Global South ' countries. With a population of 1.4 billion, India is the most populous Commonwealth country. Tuvalu is the smallest member, with about 12,000 people. The status of "member in arrears" is used to denote those that are in arrears in paying subscription dues. The status
4400-432: The Commonwealth to reflect its changing nature. Burma (Myanmar since 1989) and Aden (now part of Yemen) are the only states that were British colonies at the time of the war not to have joined the Commonwealth upon independence. Former British protectorates and mandates that did not become members of the Commonwealth are Egypt (independent in 1922), Iraq (1932), Transjordan (1946), Palestine (part of which became
4510-641: The Commonwealth's fundamental political values. The secretariat is headed by the Commonwealth secretary-general , who is elected by the Commonwealth heads of government for no more than two four-year terms. The secretary-general and two deputy secretaries-general direct the divisions of the Secretariat. The present secretary-general is Patricia Scotland, Baroness Scotland of Asthal , from Dominica, who took office on 1 April 2016, succeeding Kamalesh Sharma of India (2008–2016). The first secretary-general
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4620-639: The Commonwealth. The Commonwealth dates back to the first half of the 20th century with the decolonisation of the British Empire through increased self-governance of its territories. It was originally created as the British Commonwealth of Nations through the Balfour Declaration at the 1926 Imperial Conference , and formalised by the United Kingdom through the Statute of Westminster in 1931. The current Commonwealth of Nations
4730-587: The Crown, and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations". The term ' Commonwealth ' was officially adopted to describe the community. These aspects to the relationship were formalised by the Statute of Westminster in 1931, which applied to Canada without the need for ratification, but Australia, New Zealand and Newfoundland had to ratify the statute for it to take effect. Newfoundland never did as due to economic hardship and
4840-569: The Declaration, during the Constituent Assembly Debates that: We join the Commonwealth obviously because we think it is beneficial to us and to certain causes in the world that we wish to advance. The other countries of the Commonwealth want us to remain there because they think it is beneficial to them. It is mutually understood that it is to the advantage of the nations in the Commonwealth and therefore they join. At
4950-766: The Dominions as well as the United Kingdom. The term first received imperial statutory recognition in the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921, when the term British Commonwealth of Nations was substituted for British Empire in the wording of the oath taken by members of parliament of the Irish Free State . In the Balfour Declaration at the 1926 Imperial Conference , the United Kingdom and its dominions agreed they were "equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by common allegiance to
5060-560: The EU which uses a system of weighted voting, which gives bigger states a greater political leverage than smaller states. On the other hand, a lot of International Organisations use a "one state, one vote" principle which may appear to secure equality between states of various sizes. However, even if the formal voting itself is equal what happens in the background is not. Small states face size-related difficulties during negotiation processes in IO's such as
5170-634: The State of Israel in 1948), Sudan (1956), British Somaliland (which united with the former Italian Somaliland in 1960 to form the Somali Republic ), Kuwait (1961), Bahrain (1971), Oman (1971), Qatar (1971) and the United Arab Emirates (1971). The post-war Commonwealth was given a fresh mission by Queen Elizabeth II in her Christmas Day 1953 broadcast, in which she envisioned the Commonwealth as "an entirely new conception – built on
5280-718: The Statute of Westminster for it to take effect, two laws — the Status of the Union Act, 1934 , and the Royal Executive Functions and Seals Act, 1934 — were passed by the Parliament of South Africa to confirm South Africa's status as a sovereign state, and to incorporate the Statute of Westminster into the law of South Africa . Commonwealth countries and the Empire were involved in every major theatre of
5390-581: The UK (especially in the 1960s and 1970s) to refer to recently decolonised countries, predominantly non- white and developing countries. It was often used in debates regarding immigration from these countries. The United Kingdom and the pre-1945 dominions became informally known as the Old Commonwealth, or more pointedly as the 'white Commonwealth', in reference to what had been known as the 'White Dominions'. On 18 April 1949, Ireland formally became
5500-737: The UN because they often possess fewer administrative, financial and economic resources, which hinders them in participating in the negotiation process at the same level as the larger states. They are simply spread too thin across various issues and therefore resort to concentrating all their resources towards the issue of highest significance. Therefore, small states are forced to choose between their interests in negotiations. They also produce better results if they use persuasion based strategies rather than bargaining ones because they lack bargaining leverage. In addition, delegates from smaller states tend to have speaking points for fewer issues and smaller budgets than
5610-533: The US defence force out of the country. It seems that the UK were not willing to go as far as the Icelandic government to win the dispute even though they had the military power to do so. According to Sverrir Steinsson, it seems that the simple liberal explanation is not enough on its own to explain the difference between the nations in a satisfactory way. Even though many Icelandic officials did not want to leave NATO over
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#17328024544695720-577: The United Kingdom's cosmopolitan role in world affairs became increasingly limited, especially with the losses of India and Singapore. Whilst British politicians at first hoped that the Commonwealth would preserve and project British influence, they gradually lost their enthusiasm, argues Krishnan Srinivasan . Early enthusiasm waned as British policies came under fire at Commonwealth meetings. Public opinion became troubled as immigration from non-white member states became large-scale (see also: Commonwealth diaspora ). The term New Commonwealth gained usage in
5830-480: The United Kingdom, have preferential citizenship acquisition or residency policies for Commonwealth citizens. Initially, Commonwealth countries were not considered to be "foreign" to each other as their citizens were British subjects . Citizenship laws have evolved independently in each Commonwealth country. For example, in Australia, for the purpose of considering certain constitutional and legal provisions in
5940-485: The activities of small states within international organisations particularly when it comes to influencing policy outcomes. Small states encounter size-related obstacles in different negotiation settings (the negotiation settings ranging between everything from the UN and the EU to the WTO) as well as in capacity-building and shaping strategies used to influence negotiation outcomes. A size-related obstacle would for example be
6050-552: The assumption had been that all independent states were in theory equal regardless of actual strength and responsibilities. According to a 2017 review study, "What scholars can agree on is that small states generally prefer multilateralism as both a path to influence and a means to restrain larger states. Studies of influential small states indicate that they are able to develop issue-specific power to make up for what they lack in aggregate structural power. Small states can, therefore, develop power disproportionate relative to their size on
6160-473: The beginning of the modern Commonwealth. Following India's precedent, other nations became republics, or constitutional monarchies with their own monarchs. Whilst some countries retained the same monarch as the United Kingdom, their monarchies developed differently and soon became essentially independent of the British monarchy. The monarch is regarded as a separate legal personality in each realm, even though
6270-475: The benefits and power of a larger state. Outside of Europe empires (China, the Ottoman Empire and India) tended to expand with the incentive to tax and support the elite. However, history has demonstrated that expansion often was the downfall of empires and that there was a more optimal size for states. The inherent geographical constraint on England is partially credited with the effective development of
6380-403: The benefits of being a large state included (but were not limited too) being less economically vulnerable, militarily powerful, cheaper public goods, greater administrative strength and greater diplomatic power. Small countries can enter into military alliances, but, in general, size determines the extent of military power. It makes sense that a small state foreign policy would be formed to overcome
6490-559: The big difference between European, and for example Latin American or African countries. The states in Latin America unquestionably have larger populations, but that still does not really affect their placement in the category of small states, because their weakness in the international system is still noticeable and influences the way the states are seen as “small”. This is an important approach, since it makes it clear how aside from
6600-410: The capacity for violence: "If the notion of war were unknown in international relations, the definition of ‘small power’ would have no significance; just as in the domestic life of a nation it has no significance whether a man is less tall or has a weaker physique than his fellow citizen." Most of the small-state studies that make up the backbone of the small power research tradition were carried out in
6710-458: The case. They are for instance quite relevant in the IR area, both to the political and social aspect. This could be, according to Chong and Maass (2010) an indicator of power, more precisely "foreign policy power". For example, Thorhallsson proposes a framework that intertwines multiple factors. In that regard, factors such as fixed size (population and territory), sovereignty size (the degree to which
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#17328024544696820-570: The country sought closer ties with the Anglophone world . Under the formula of the London Declaration , Charles III is the Head of the Commonwealth . However, when the monarch dies, the successor to the crown does not automatically become the new head of the Commonwealth. Despite this, at their meeting in April 2018, Commonwealth leaders agreed that Prince Charles should succeed his mother Elizabeth II as head after her death . The position
6930-419: The country to hold new elections before a full suspension of Commonwealth membership would be considered. Prior to Togo's admission at the 2022 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting , Togolese Foreign Minister Robert Dussey said that he expected Commonwealth membership to provide opportunities for Togolese citizens to learn English and access new educational and cultural resources. He also remarked that
7040-588: The death of his mother, Elizabeth II , the position is not technically hereditary. Member states have no legal obligations to one another, though some have institutional links to other Commonwealth nations. Citizenship of a Commonwealth country affords benefits in some member countries, particularly in the United Kingdom , and Commonwealth countries are represented to one another by high commissions rather than embassies. The Commonwealth Charter defines their shared values of democracy , human rights and
7150-399: The decision if a small state is considered small, but the actual parameters used for that approach can be rather complicated. They go on to explain how a state that has a population below one million falls into the category of a micro-state, but a state with a population over ten million would be better described as a medium-sized state. Also, that number is not necessarily the only one used for
7260-433: The delegates from the larger nations; This gives the larger states a better position to influence outcomes both in weighted and equal weight voting systems. There are a number of ways that small states can try to counter size-related obstacles. Small states can engage in capacity-building, for example through contacts with or through joining coalitions. Capacity building can increase a state's ideational capacities and amplify
7370-467: The different approaches used when small states are identified: "One axis considers whether the factors involved are endogenous or exogenous: that is to say, whether the smallness lies in the internal aspects of a country itself (such as its population or Gross Domestic Product [GDP]) or in its relations with other states (such as the size of its armed forces or its alliance status). The other axis involves objective and subjective evaluations: that is, whether
7480-444: The effectiveness of persuasion-based strategies. Coalitions have burden-sharing effects and can increase the discursive leverage of its members Secondly small states can also use shaping strategies. Shaping strategies can include either legal, moral or normative argumentation applied in different negotiation settings. Framing and reframing is for example important for small states if there is a high number of delegations participating in
7590-693: The effects of foreign-policy mistakes are much bigger, since the bigger states have a larger margin of time and error. So in some ways statesmen in small states have to watch more closely for external constraints. Using that reasoning, IR-theorists tend to believe that the foreign-policy of small states is more greatly influenced by the international system rather than their domestic politics. Miriam Fendius Elman talks about this in her article The foreign policies of small states: challenging neorealism in its own backyard , adding that foreign policy of bigger states tends to be more influenced by their domestic politics: "By contrast, domestic politics will necessarily play
7700-585: The end of the Suez Crisis. The first member to be admitted without having any constitutional link to the British Empire was Mozambique in 1995 following its first democratic elections. Mozambique was a former Portuguese colony . Its entry preceded the Edinburgh Declaration and the current membership guidelines. In 2009, Rwanda became the second country to be admitted to the Commonwealth not to have any constitutional links to Britain. It
7810-595: The few issues of utmost importance to them. In addition to prioritization, small states have successfully employed the strategies of coalition-building and image-building. Even though small state administrations lack the resources of their larger counterparts, their informality, flexibility, and the autonomy of their diplomats can prove advantageous in negotiations and within institutional settings." Almost all studies of power in international relations focus on great power politics and it will for this reason not be discussed here. For, as László Réczei noted, power status hinges on
7920-492: The first one in 1887 , leading to the creation of the Imperial Conferences in 1911. The Commonwealth developed from the imperial conferences. A specific proposal was presented by Jan Smuts in 1917 when he coined the term "the British Commonwealth of Nations" and envisioned the "future constitutional relations and readjustments in essence" at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 , attended by delegates from
8030-635: The fishing dispute, they had enormous pressure from the public to do so if the dispute would not end, while the UK had much less public pressure over the issue. According to Steinsson's result it seems that small powers are much more affected by domestic view than bigger powers which can increase the chances of a small state leaving an international organisation. Small states' power can be categorized as particular-intrinsic , derivative and collective . Through one of these three types of power can small states best seek their needs and interests. Middle or great powers are not precluded from these types of power, only
8140-470: The foreign policies of small states, Snyder does not expect domestic political theories to fit as well. Whereas 'great powers adapt their foreign strategies to their domestic circumstances', small states are more 'exposed to the vagaries of international security and economic competition'. Since small state foreign policy strategies will reflect an attentiveness to external exigencies, international/structural explanations should suffice." More and more research
8250-549: The former rules were consolidated into a single document. These requirements are that members must accept and comply with the Harare principles , be fully sovereign states , recognise King Charles III as head of the Commonwealth, accept the English language as the means of Commonwealth communication, and respect the wishes of the general population with regard to Commonwealth membership. These requirements had undergone review, and
8360-434: The geographical and population size, the country's GDP, the ranking of a state in the international system, the political, economical and military power play an important role in putting a state somewhere on the spectrum. Small states are usually more vulnerable to changes in the international system since they are more focused on survival than the bigger states. The costs of being exploited are way higher for small states and
8470-463: The heyday of non-alignment by scholars such as David Vital, Robert Rothstein, Maurice East and Robert Keohane. The weakening of the non-alignment movement during the 1970s coincided with a gradual decline in small-state studies, culminating in Peter Baehr's critical appraisal of the research tradition in which he questioned smallness as a useful framework for analysis. The small-power category
8580-479: The highest qualities of the Spirit of Man: friendship, loyalty, and the desire for freedom and peace". However, the British treasury was so weak that it could not operate independently of the United States. Furthermore, the loss of defence and financial roles undermined Joseph Chamberlain's early 20th-century vision of a world empire that could combine Imperial preference, mutual defence and social growth. In addition,
8690-538: The importance of the size of state when its foreign policy is being analysed: "Similarly, Snyder assumes that the study of small state and great power behaviour require different analytical foci. He points out that 'among the great powers, domestic pressures often outweigh international ones in the calculations of national leaders'.'1 Since great powers 'enjoy a substantial buffer from the pressures of international competition', domestic political explanations are good predictors of their foreign policy strategies. When studying
8800-486: The influence of middle powers moderately greater than those of small powers. Additionally, small states barely have the capabilities to influence the international system. It is quite clear that this “smallness” is not systematic, but as Long among others states, reduced size really depends on context. The concept of state as well as that of power are therefore not consequential to just one factor, but to many such as markers of population, GDP, or military indicators. To find
8910-404: The international system) are given equal value as opposed to just a single factor. The size of small states is affected by several variables. These tend to result in a balance between the diversity of the population and the benefits of a larger state. The costs of the diversity within the population occurs from different needs and preferences within the population. These include: A benefit of
9020-420: The lack of capabilities the states battle within these areas. Take for example economic power where larger states can transfer money from boom regions to bust regions which most small states can't, which makes them more vulnerable to temporary volatility and economic fluctuation. Alesina and Spolaore state that if there were only benefits from size, then the tendency should be for the entire world to be organized in
9130-447: The likelihood of a small powers survival does not mean that a state cannot use its buffer location as an advantage. In the cod wars (a fishing dispute over a 20-year period between Iceland and the UK) the micro nation of Iceland was able to use both its small size and location as an advantage and won the conflict. One of the reasons is the threat by Icelandic authorities to leave NATO and remove
9240-581: The limitations of the small states force them to rely on them more. Small states have different goals and different bases, i.e., ideational, material and relational bases. Bases are the resources that a state has and can exploit in order to affect another's behavior. This variation of small states' bases lead to a variety of means of power. Means in this context are the ways a state utilizes its base. The three categories of power all have different bases and therefore different means, best understood as small states' properties and its actions. Small states lack many of
9350-619: The measurement, mostly because of the similar sizes of some states. They use the examples of Central European states such as the Czech Republic and Hungary and the Benelux states, the original ten million margin would more logically be moved to twelve, so that it could include these countries on the small state spectrum. The exploration of these parameters is a big part of the small state debate, especially in Europe. The authors also mention
9460-435: The most important issues, engage in capacity-building activities to maximise their ideational resources, if they make use of institutional opportunity structures such as chairing meetings and engaging in agenda-setting, and if they individually or collectively apply persuasion strategies from early on". The majority of the states in the world can be considered small states, but somehow there is less than ideal information about
9570-468: The need for financial assistance from London, Newfoundland voluntarily accepted the suspension of self-government in 1934 and governance reverted to direct control from London. Newfoundland later joined Canada as its tenth province in 1949. Australia and New Zealand ratified the statute in 1942 and 1947 respectively. Although the Union of South Africa was not amongst the Dominions that needed to adopt
9680-401: The negotiations. These strategies help small states compete, but they are not always enough for them to compete successfully. The location of a small power can be very important for its survival. If a small power is working as a so call "buffer state" between two bigger rival power then it is more likely for that state to cease to exist. Despite the fact that the buffer location can decrease
9790-496: The other would get grouped together. In their article Introduction: Small states and the European Union Clive Archer and Neill Nugent mention Raimo Väyrynen's definition of the axes along which the properties of small states had been measured in international relations literature by the time of Väyrynen's survey's publication in 1971. Although not perfect, it remains useful now despite its age, to capture
9900-406: The population, there is not an agreement of how populous states should be to be defined as small or middle powers. Although states with less than 10 or 15 million inhabitants are regarded as small by most academics, states with up to 30 million inhabitants are sometimes considered small. Others, however, think of size as a relative concept where the influence of great powers is seen as far greater and
10010-612: The power to rule on whether members meet the requirements for membership under the Harare Declaration. Also in 1995, an Inter-Governmental Group was created to finalise and codify the full requirements for membership. Upon reporting in 1997, as adopted under the Edinburgh Declaration , the Inter-Governmental Group ruled that any future members would "as a rule" have to have a direct constitutional link with an existing member. In addition to this new rule,
10120-494: The reputation of the Commonwealth and confirm the opinion of many people and civic organisations that the leaders of its governments do not really care for democracy and human rights, and that its periodic, solemn declarations are merely hot air." In 2022, the former French territories of Togo and Gabon joined the Commonwealth. The Commonwealth comprises 56 countries, across all inhabited continents. 33 members are small states, including 25 small island developing states. In 2023,
10230-547: The research literature regarding the behavioural patterns of small powers on the international stage: Small states can under some circumstances have a disproportionately great influence. According to Diana Panke, "Small states tend to be most likely to punch above their weight if the negotiations take place in an institutionalised arena with majority-based decision-making rules in which each state has one vote or in contexts in which decisions are made unanimously, if they are selective in negotiations and concentrate their capacities on
10340-402: The resources and capabilities that determine power and influence are central to most definitions of small powers. The most common factor for defining state size, however, they continue is population size. Besides the size of population, other variables such as territory, economy, and military capabilities are also used. Even though the most common factor for defining small powers is the size of
10450-526: The same person is monarch of each realm. At a time when Germany and France, together with Belgium, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands, were planning what later became the European Union , and newly independent African countries were joining the Commonwealth, new ideas were floated to prevent the United Kingdom from becoming isolated in economic affairs. British trade with the Commonwealth
10560-410: The same time, it is made perfectly clear that each country is completely free to go its own way; it may be that they may go, sometimes go so far as to break away from the Commonwealth...Otherwise, apart from breaking the evil parts of the association, it is better to keep a co-operative association going which may do good in this world rather than break it. The London Declaration is often seen as marking
10670-484: The shelter, reducing the small partner's freedom of manoeuvre and choice." In Europe there are various important and inexpensive shelters available for small states. A traditional, realist view of small states is that they are disadvantaged within the international system. A Liberal Institutionalist view emphasizes the institutionalization of the international system through international cooperation. According to Diana Panke, small states can be strategically benefited by
10780-420: The size of states, no one method will suffice to group the states of the world today because of their diversity. For example, the easiest and most often used indicators of the size of a state, population and geographical area, already pose a problem if the world's states are to be grouped in two: small or large. In that case, extremely different countries like San Marino and Sweden on one hand and Italy and China on
10890-409: The smallness is seen in terms of ‘measureable’ elements (such as geographical area or size of the diplomatic corps) or ‘impressionistic’ elements (notably views held and/or expressed by practitioners and commentators either at home or abroad)." In the same paper, they mention the difficulty of categorizing a state as a small state based only on its size. They argue how the population size can determine
11000-589: The theory of alliance of shelter. In comparison with the more traditional international relations view that small states will always be obligated to seek protection from more powerful neighboring states and form alliances with them, the theory of alliance of shelter expands on and differs from this claim and viewpoint in six key ways. Baldur Thorhallsson and Alyson J. K. Bailes take the shelter theory even further and talk about how small states have three vulnerabilities, political, economic and societal. It needs to be taken into account that these vulnerabilities come with
11110-535: The time of the Suez Crisis in 1956, and in the face of colonial unrest and international tensions, French prime minister Guy Mollet proposed to British prime minister Anthony Eden that their two countries be joined in a "union" . When that proposal was turned down, Mollet suggested that France join the Commonwealth, possibly with "a common citizenship arrangement on the Irish basis ". These ideas faded away with
11220-474: Was Arnold Smith of Canada (1965–1975), followed by Sir Shridath Ramphal of Guyana (1975–1990), Chief Emeka Anyaoku of Nigeria (1990–1999), and Don McKinnon of New Zealand (2000–2008). Some member states grant particular rights to Commonwealth citizens. The United Kingdom and several others, mostly in the Caribbean , grant the right to vote to resident Commonwealth citizens. Some countries, including
11330-586: Was a Belgian trust territory that had been a district of German East Africa until World War I . In 2022, Togo , a former French mandate territory, and Gabon , a former French colony, joined the Commonwealth, despite never having been under British rule. Gabon was partially suspended from the Commonwealth in September 2023 following a military coup , with two years given by the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group for
11440-611: Was considered an "exceptional circumstance" by the Commonwealth Secretariat . Rwanda was permitted to join despite the Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative (CHRI) finding that "the state of governance and human rights in Rwanda does not satisfy Commonwealth standards", and that it "does not therefore qualify for admission". CHRI commented that: "It does not make sense to admit a state that already does not satisfy Commonwealth standards. This would tarnish
11550-452: Was first taken into serious account with David Mitrany's study on world government ( pax oecumenica ) in 1933. Mitrany argued that the international community consisted only of two tiers of state powers: great and small. Asle Toje takes a view where great powers and small powers distinguish themselves through patterns of behaviour. Small powers are not down scaled great powers – or oversized microstates. Alesina and Spolaore presented that
11660-448: Was formally constituted by the London Declaration in 1949, which modernised the community and established the member states as "free and equal". It continues to be known colloquially as the British Commonwealth . The Head of the Commonwealth is Charles III . He is king of 15 member states, known as the Commonwealth realms , whilst 36 other members are republics , and five others have different monarchs. Although he became head upon
11770-427: Was four times larger than its trade with Europe. In 1956 and 1957, the British government, under Prime Minister Anthony Eden , considered a "Plan G" to create a European free trade zone whilst also protecting the favoured status of the Commonwealth. The United Kingdom also considered inviting Scandinavian and other European countries to join the Commonwealth, so that it would become a major economic common market. At
11880-399: Was gradually dismantled. Most of its components have become independent countries, whether Commonwealth realms or republics, and members of the Commonwealth. There remain the 14 mainly self-governing British overseas territories which retain some political association with the United Kingdom. In April 1949, following the London Declaration , the word "British" was dropped from the title of
11990-475: Was originally known as " special membership ", but was renamed on the Committee on Commonwealth Membership 's recommendation. There are currently no members in arrears. The most recent member in arrears, Nauru, returned to full membership in June 2011. Nauru had alternated between special and full membership since joining the Commonwealth, depending on its financial situation. In 2019, the Commonwealth members had
12100-592: Was set out in 1961, when it was decided that respect for racial equality would be a requirement for membership, leading directly to the withdrawal of South Africa's re-application (which they were required to make under the formula of the London Declaration upon becoming a republic). The 14 points of the 1971 Singapore Declaration dedicated all members to the principles of world peace , liberty , human rights , equality , and free trade . These criteria were unenforceable for two decades, until, in 1991,
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