102-1349: Peace of Prague [REDACTED] Swedish Empire [REDACTED] Saxony (from 1631) [REDACTED] Heilbronn League (from 1633) [REDACTED] Hesse-Kassel [REDACTED] Brandenburg-Prussia [REDACTED] Catholic League and allies: [REDACTED] Habsburg Monarchy [REDACTED] Gustav II Adolf † [REDACTED] Axel Oxenstierna [REDACTED] Johan Banér [REDACTED] Lennart Torstenson [REDACTED] Gustav Horn [REDACTED] Bernard of Saxe-Weimar [REDACTED] Alexander Leslie [REDACTED] John George I [REDACTED] George William [REDACTED] Albrecht von Wallenstein † [REDACTED] Count Tilly † [REDACTED] Ferdinand II [REDACTED] Ferdinand III [REDACTED] Gottfried Pappenheim † [REDACTED] Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand [REDACTED] Count Leganés 1630 : 70,600 13,000 men landing in Germany 24,600 men garrisoning Sweden 33,000 German allies and mercenaries 1632: 140,000 25,000 Swedes and Finns in Germany The Swedish invasion of
204-499: A different religion to peaceably move to land where their practices would be recognized and respected. There were also clauses in relation to ecclesiastical lords. When prelates who ruled an ecclesiastical fiefdom converted, the expectation was placed upon them to resign their temporal privileges. Some of these treaty stipulations would be violated on various occasions, as was the case with Gebhard Truchsess von Waldburg, Archbishop-Elector of Cologne . Despite various attempts to violate
306-419: A permanent peace were rejected by Sigismund. This period of peace with Poland benefited Sweden much, and Gustavus employed it advantageously. He established a military system that was to become the envy of Europe. He drew up a new military code. The new improvements to Sweden's military order even pervaded the state by fueling fundamental changes in the economy. The military reforms – among which tight discipline
408-650: A politico-military unity to the divided German Protestants. The Elector of Saxony's refusal of the Bohemian crown made the Elector Palatine the most senior Protestant available to the Bohemians. In addition to being a Protestant, albeit a Calvinist, Frederick V was married to Elizabeth Stuart and was thereby a son-in-law of the King of England , indisputably the most powerful Protestant monarch, and whose aid it
510-717: A powerful monarch of Europe who had many and powerful allies, and who was a scion of one of the most powerful dynasties in Europe who stood to inherit the entirety of the Emperor's dominions. The Bohemians made offers to the Duke of Savoy , Elector of Saxony (the preferred candidate) and even to the Prince of Transylvania . They also sought admission into the Protestant Union , a coalition of German Protestant states formed to give
612-656: A regular army of 80,000 was settled upon, in addition to an equally great force for the National Guard. During this time, irregular support had been provided by the Protestant (and non-Protestant) powers of Europe ( Kingdom of England , the Dutch Republic ) for the Protestant cause in Germany. Both Sweden and Denmark sought to receive aid in order to bring a powerful nation into the German conflict proper, but
714-479: A tribunal that was overseen by a regimental commander. The last appeal was brought before the king. Provost marshals were introduced and empowered to execute any soldier on the spot who resisted orders. All criminal trials concerning criminality and treason, were required to be tried outside, within the full view of a circle of fellow soldiers. Decimation was also introduced into regiments that were known to have committed crimes, including fleeing battle. The rest of
816-677: The Battle of Lützen (1632) , Sweden formed the Heilbronn League . Funded by France and composed of smaller German Protestant states, the League won a number of victories until defeat at Nördlingen in 1634 . One result of Nördlingen was to highlight strategic differences between individual Heilbronn members. Sweden competed with Prussia and the Dutch Republic over the lucrative Baltic trade , and sought to retain its post-1630 acquisition of Swedish Pomerania . To strengthen its borders in
918-506: The Battle of Lützen (1632) , Sweden formed the Heilbronn League . Funded by France and composed of smaller German Protestant states, the League won a number of victories until defeat at Nördlingen in 1634 . One result of Nördlingen was to highlight strategic differences between individual Heilbronn members. Sweden competed with Prussia and the Dutch Republic over the lucrative Baltic trade , and sought to retain its post-1630 acquisition of Swedish Pomerania . To strengthen its borders in
1020-506: The Battle of Stångebro , the Swedish nobility demanded that he rule Sweden from Sweden. Despite their demands, Sigismund returned to his Polish capital, Warsaw , and was deposed from the Swedish throne in 1599. Gustavus Adolphus' father, Charles IX of Sweden – the uncle of Sigisimund – also a Vasa, was awarded the throne, in part because he was an ardent Lutheran. Soon after, Sweden became engaged in wars with
1122-757: The Edict of Restitution , which required any property transferred since 1552 to be restored to its original owner, which was in nearly every case the Catholic Church . By effectively undoing the 1555 Peace of Augsburg , the edict forced moderate Protestants like John George of Saxony and George William of Brandenburg into opposition. That increased after 1627 by having a large Imperial army based on their lands, whose rarely-paid troops simply took what they wanted . In 1630, Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden invaded Pomerania with money from France and support from Saxony and Brandenburg-Prussia . After his death at
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#17327734112611224-672: The Holy Roman Empire known as the Peace of Augsburg . The peace was an agreement between Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and the Protestant powers of the Holy Roman Empire in the 16th century. It established the legitimacy of Lutheranism in Germany and allowed Dukes and high lords to determine the faith of their fiefdom as well as to expel non-conforming subjects from their territory, the principle known as Cuius regio, eius religio . Additionally, it permitted subjects of
1326-621: The Holy Roman Empire subsequently joined the treaty, and their exit was a key factor in Catholic France entering the war as an ally of Protestant Sweden. Although fighting continued until 1648, it is generally agreed Prague ended the war as primarily one of religion . The Thirty Years' War began in 1618 when the Protestant Frederick V of the Palatinate , accepted the crown of Bohemia . Most members of
1428-649: The Holy Roman Empire viewed it as an internal dynastic dispute. With Bavarian support, Emperor Ferdinand quickly suppressed the Bohemian Revolt . Troops under Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria invaded the Palatinate in 1622 and sent Frederick into exile. However, depriving a hereditary prince of his lands changed both the nature and the extent of the war. Christian IV of Denmark invaded Northern Germany in support of his fellow Protestants until forced to withdraw in 1629. Success led Ferdinand to pass
1530-544: The House of Vasa asserted its right of primogeniture to the Swedish throne – which indeed it had once held. However, when Sigismund III Vasa was elected by the nobles of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , he was elected on the condition that he be a Roman Catholic . Which he was, as he had a mother who was Roman Catholic and had abandoned the religion of his predecessors, however Lutheranism
1632-577: The Kingdom of Denmark–Norway and the Tsardom of Russia . Also, Sigismund III never renounced his claim to the Swedish throne, and for many years the primary direction of Poland's foreign policy was directed at reacquiring it. As a result, Sweden was hard pressed on almost all of its borders. Charles IX died in 1611, without achieving any conclusive result in Sweden's wars during the six years of his reign. At
1734-772: The Ottoman Empire , Rudolf ceded his Hungarian, Austrian and Moravian holdings to his brother, Matthias . Seeing weakness and discord in the ranks of their German overlords, his Bohemian subjects revolted. In 1609, Rudolf granted them concessions with the Letter of Majesty which included religious tolerance and a church for the Bohemian Estate controlled by the Protestant nobility. When the Protestant estates in Bohemia requested even more liberties, Rudolf sent in an army to quiet them. However, Matthias seized his brother at
1836-642: The Rhineland and Low Countries , France supported the Dutch against the Swedes in the Baltic, and also backed Maximilian of Bavaria, a leader of the anti-Swedish Catholic League . Most of their German allies wanted to restore the territorial position of 1618, which implied reversing French and Swedish gains. After 1632, Ferdinand accepted Catholicism could not be re-imposed by force and opened discussions on amending
1938-428: The Rhineland and Low Countries , France supported the Dutch against the Swedes in the Baltic, and also backed Maximilian of Bavaria, a leader of the anti-Swedish Catholic League . Most of their German allies wanted to restore the territorial position of 1618, which implied reversing French and Swedish gains. After 1632, Ferdinand accepted Catholicism could not be re-imposed by force and opened discussions on amending
2040-431: The anti-Imperial coalition led by Sweden . Other states within the Holy Roman Empire subsequently joined the treaty, and their exit was a key factor in Catholic France entering the war as an ally of Protestant Sweden. Although fighting continued until 1648, it is generally agreed Prague ended the war as primarily one of religion . The Thirty Years' War began in 1618 when the Protestant Frederick V of
2142-425: The "ecclessiastic reservation" provision to the peace of Augburg. Large portions of land which had been secularized by secular German Lords in the intervening period, but were previously ecclesiastical principalities held by prelates, would thereby revert to former catholic lords/prelates. The Archbishopric of Bremen and the free city of Magdeburg , 12 former or current bishoprics and hundreds of religious holdings in
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#17327734112612244-460: The 17th century, Louis XIV of France would establish a series of courts known as the " Chambers of Reunion " to determine which territories that France had possessed earlier – even as far as the Middle Ages – that were "supposed" to belong to it legally. Using a pretext of just this sort, the Swedes invaded Polish held territories. Sigismund was proving incorrigible as long as he did not retain
2346-608: The Dutch Republic, although ostensibly equally ardent for the Protestant cause as the French, were not keen on seeing the entirety of the Baltic coast fall into the hands of Sweden for economic reasons; which by Sweden's campaigns against Russia and Poland around the Baltic made that intent on the part of Sweden manifest. Lübeck and Hamburg did nothing more than pledge to exchange silver for Swedish copper. Bogislaw XIV, Duke of Pomerania , pledged his assistance as well, but he
2448-750: The Edict of Restitution in February 1633, eighteen months before Nördlingen. The execution of Imperial Commander Albrecht von Wallenstein in February 1634 removed a major obstacle since he had become an independent agent. With the Lutheran states of Denmark-Norway and Hesse-Darmstadt acting as mediators, the two parties agreed a preliminary draft in November 1634, known as the Pirnaer Noteln. Although subject to many corrections and revisions, this formed
2550-467: The Edict of Restitution in February 1633, eighteen months before Nördlingen. The execution of Imperial Commander Albrecht von Wallenstein in February 1634 removed a major obstacle since he had become an independent agent. With the Lutheran states of Denmark-Norway and Hesse-Darmstadt acting as mediators, the two parties agreed a preliminary draft in November 1634, known as the Pirnaer Noteln. Although subject to many corrections and revisions, this formed
2652-672: The Emperor, stormed Prague Castle and seized two imperial governors appointed by Ferdinand, Vilem Slavata of Chlum and Jaroslav Borzita of Martinice , and two imperial secretaries. The noblemen held a trial on the spot, found the Imperial officials guilty of violating the Letter of Majesty, and threw them out of a third-floor window of the Bohemian Chancellery. The entirety of these proceedings were without question illegal, not to mention reactionary and partisan in nature. There
2754-494: The Emperor. The various parties fought on in the hope of improving their position, and peace was not finally achieved until the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. Peace of Prague (1635) The Peace of Prague , dated 30 May 1635 Old Style , was a significant turning point in the Thirty Years' War . Signed by John George I, Elector of Saxony , and Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor , the terms ended Saxony 's support for
2856-459: The German states would thereby revert to Catholic control. The edict also allowed for the forcible conversion of Protestants to Catholicism, a direct violation of the Peace of Augsburg. While no definitive agreement had been brought about with Poland, Gustavus did not contemplate landing in Germany. He wanted to secure his base, Sweden, before he made landing in Germany. He finally settled on bringing
2958-598: The Holy Roman Empire or the Swedish Intervention in the Thirty Years' War is a historically accepted division of the Thirty Years' War. It was a military conflict that took place between 1630 and 1635, during the course of the Thirty Years' War. It was a major turning point of the war: the Protestant cause, previously on the verge of defeat, won several major victories and changed the direction of
3060-411: The Palatinate , accepted the crown of Bohemia . Most members of the Holy Roman Empire viewed it as an internal dynastic dispute. With Bavarian support, Emperor Ferdinand quickly suppressed the Bohemian Revolt . Troops under Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria invaded the Palatinate in 1622 and sent Frederick into exile. However, depriving a hereditary prince of his lands changed both the nature and
3162-523: The Peace of Augsburg could never be anything but a temporary cessation of hostilities. Its provisions contained an addendum that declared that it would only become active without reservation upon the meeting of a general council and a final attempt at the reunion of the two confessions. There was no reason to believe these would ever happen unless the Lutherans were forced to do so. Although genuine ideological differences did drive German Princes to convert,
Swedish intervention in the Thirty Years' War - Misplaced Pages Continue
3264-470: The Poles in their conflict with Sweden – although the two were at peace with each other. In addition to this the conference that had taken place at Lübeck – a conference that had sought to settle the issues that precipitated the war – had dismissed the Swedish envoys – at the behest of Wallenstien – out of hand. When they refused to leave, they were threatened with violence. This angered the king greatly. Lastly
3366-536: The Polish king to a permanent peace of any sort, but Sigismund concluded a truce and granted the section of Livonia that the Swedes had already captured as a guarantee of the truce. Accepting these terms, Gustavus returned to Stockholm in the later part of 1621. Gustavus had as yet no‑one to succeed him in the case of his untimely death, and his brother, the current heir to the Swedish throne, died in early 1622. Sigismund saw an opportunity in this for his claims on
3468-406: The Polish monarchy would attempt to do so, and fail against. The severity of discipline was not the only change that took place in the army. Soldiers were to be rewarded for meritorious service. Soldiers who had displayed courage and distinguished themselves in the line of duty were paid generously – in addition to being given pensions. The corps of engineers were the most modern of their age, and in
3570-589: The Protestants and would do anything in their power to harm the Protestant cause. It was established by practice that the Pope had the power to relieve members of his flock of the most solemn oaths, and it was a matter of principle among Catholics that faith was never to be kept with heretics . On the other hand, Catholics maintained a similar understanding of the Protestants. The avarice displayed by Protestants for Church property could not fail to go unnoticed by even
3672-481: The Roman Catholic Church to preserve themselves against Catholic encroachment and eventual Catholic hegemony. However, the Protestants were divided. Lutherans held to articles of faith that were mutually exclusive with the articles espoused by Calvinists . The Roman Catholic Church did everything in its power to sow controversy and intrigue between the two major Protestant factions. As a result, there
3774-513: The Spanish crown. Additionally, the Swedish crown was avowedly Protestant, and allied with Dutch Republic , which was actively opposed to Spain at the time. With such supporters, and such measures taken in support of Sigismund's claim, it would be difficult indeed to procure a long-term agreement to cease hostilities. As a result of his inability to bring the Polish king to some sort of arrangement, war between Sweden and Poland broke out again and
3876-403: The Swedes the right to do this, landed again. The Emperor sent some forces to support the Poles in their efforts against Gustavus, and it was only at costly results that the Swedes were able to drive this force back and bring a conclusive settlement with Poland. Sigismund agreed to a 5 years truce. Although the Protestants had initially had some successes, the Emperor commanded all of Germany with
3978-407: The Swedish landed near the city of Riga with 158 ships, and proceeded to besiege the city. The city itself was not favorable to the Poles, as they were not Catholic. In addition to this difficulty that the Poles faced, Sigismund's attention was focused on his southern borders, where the Ottoman Empire was making inroads into his kingdom. Embarrassed as he was by this difficulty, he could not relieve
4080-456: The Swedish standard of discipline. The king called a convocation of the most eminent men of the state, and after arguing his case before them, it was agreed that Sweden should intervene in the pseudo-religious conflict in Germany. It was his belief that after Ferdinand had settled affairs in Germany to his satisfaction, Sweden would be next on his programme. There were several pretexts for landing in Germany as well. The Habsburgs had actively aided
4182-544: The Swedish throne. He had no navy to invade Sweden with, but was eyeing Danzig , a member of the Hanseatic towns . This city was one of the great trading emporiums of the Baltic at the time, and with this city in his power he figured that he could construct a fleet. The Holy Roman Emperor of the time, Ferdinand II , who had the ear of Sigismund and was his brother-in-law, encouraged him in this ambition. The king, perceiving
Swedish intervention in the Thirty Years' War - Misplaced Pages Continue
4284-491: The Swedish throne. Sigismund had much support on the continent for his claim to the Swedish throne. Among those supporters being the Habsburg king of Spain, Philip III of Spain and Ferdinand II were united to him by bonds of marriage. They were also Catholics. Through intermediaries, Sigismund was able to secure a declaration from Philip's government that all Swedish shipping in Spanish ports were legitimate and lawful prizes of
4386-474: The Swedish. Although little favored the Protestant cause at the time, there was unrest in the entirety of Germany as a result of the horrible atrocities that the catholic armies incurred, on Catholic and Protestant states alike. Everyone alike in Germany, as well as elsewhere in Europe – France, always fearful of the Habsburgs – feared Ferdinand II and the increasing resources that he could bring to bear. France
4488-599: The Thirty Years War as an active belligerent . While his elder brother William, Duke of Saxe-Weimar joined the Peace, Bernard of Saxe-Weimar and his army were employed by France against Spanish possessions in Lorraine and in the Rhineland. In 1642, Sweden won a decisive victory at Breitenfeld , and overran Saxony. Many German states responded by shifting towards neutrality, and negotiating independently from
4590-420: The Thirty Years War as an active belligerent . While his elder brother William, Duke of Saxe-Weimar joined the Peace, Bernard of Saxe-Weimar and his army were employed by France against Spanish possessions in Lorraine and in the Rhineland. In 1642, Sweden won a decisive victory at Breitenfeld , and overran Saxony. Many German states responded by shifting towards neutrality, and negotiating independently from
4692-514: The War. The Habsburg-Catholic coalition, previously in the ascendant, was significantly weakened as a result of the gains the Protestant cause made. It is sometimes considered to be an independent conflict by historians. Following the Edict of Restitution by Emperor Ferdinand II on the height of his and the Catholic League 's military success in 1629, Protestantism in the Holy Roman Empire
4794-525: The advantages that Sigismund would thus gain, in June sailed with a fleet to Danzig and compelled the city to pledge itself to neutrality in the conflict between Poland and Sweden. With Danzig's pledge, Sigismund proposed a renewal of the armistice. Extensions of this armistice would be agreed upon over the course of the next three years. During this peace, which was to last until 1625, the king worked further in reforming Sweden's military establishment, among which
4896-444: The age of just 17, Gustavus was granted a special dispensation to assume the Swedish crown – and thereby inherited his father's conflicts. The surrounding powers smelled blood, assuming that such a youth could not maintain the gains that the father had won for Sweden. However, Gustavus had first entered the army at the age of 11, and had first-hand knowledge how to govern a kingdom. His training at statecraft had begun at
4998-549: The basis of the 1635 agreement. The treaty was a bilateral agreement between Ferdinand and John George, and other states joined later. Negotiations took eight days and were held in Prague Castle , the site of the Defenestrations of Prague , which had begun the war in 1618. Its terms included the following; Many other states and rulers subsequently acceded to the treaty , including: Some exceptions: Some of
5100-423: The basis of the 1635 agreement. The treaty was a bilateral agreement between Ferdinand and John George, and other states joined later. Negotiations took eight days and were held in Prague Castle , the site of the Defenestrations of Prague , which had begun the war in 1618. Its terms included the following; Many other states and rulers subsequently acceded to the treaty , including: Some exceptions: Some of
5202-414: The campaigns in Germany the population repeatedly expressed surprise at the extensive nature of the entrenchment and the elaborate nature of the equipment. There was a special corps of miners, but the entire army was drilled in the construction of entrenched positions and in constructing pontoon bridges. The first establishment of a general staff took place. Numerous constitutional changes were introduced to
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#17327734112615304-541: The conflict. The Dutch Republic , Charles Emmanuel of Savoy and even the Republic of Venice – a traditional enemy of the Pope – sent letters to Frederick informing him that they would not offer him assistance if he accepted the Bohemian crown – but nonetheless, he did. Gustavus Adolphus had been well informed of the war for some time, but his hands were tied because of the constant enmity of Poland. The Polish royal family,
5406-454: The crowns exchequer. Although the crown had been in debt, including the debt taken on to finance wars by the king's predecessors, the king decided to default on all debts which had not been spoken for by the creditors before 1598. The king's father had published an edict in this year which stated all creditors should make their claims on the government known at the risk of forfeiture and proscription. New loans were negotiated from Dutch Republic at
5508-475: The day. Sweden was becoming what had not existed since the days of the Romans, a military monarchy. By introducing this new nobility, the monarchy introduced a center of support in contradistinction to the traditional, landed aristocracy, which thereby allowed it to undercut the authority and privilege of the traditionally independent landed nobility. Sweden succeeded at centralizing, against the very same forces that
5610-418: The edict forced moderate Protestants like John George of Saxony and George William of Brandenburg into opposition. That increased after 1627 by having a large Imperial army based on their lands, whose rarely-paid troops simply took what they wanted . In 1630, Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden invaded Pomerania with money from France and support from Saxony and Brandenburg-Prussia . After his death at
5712-770: The element of his genius." Stralsund , a member of the Hanseatic towns, was being hard pressed by the Imperials. This area could not be left to the Catholics without leaving the serious possibility of the Holy Roman Emperor invading Sweden. As long as he was not personally on the scene to prevent such an acquisition, it was only a matter of time that these areas should be seized. The Emperor had 170,000 troops, of various qualities to be sure, in Germany. Such an army could not be prevented from seizing these places with
5814-474: The era had: in addition to having the best military force of her day, it also had the most efficiently governed monarchy of Europe. Even there however, there were deficits. Sweden's annual revenues only amounted to 12 million rix dollars per year. This situation was ameliorated as the king's reign went on by increasing imposts, and the reversion of lucrative fiefdoms back to the crown on the passage of its holder. However, several measures were taken to increase
5916-648: The exception of some of the free towns on the North German coast. Including France at this time, there was no concert of action between the Protestant/Anti-Habsburg alliance. This lack of unity contributed to the failure of the Protestant cause. There were no ardent powers fighting for the Protestant cause, all of them only seeking to empower themselves while simultaneously being willing to come to terms with Ferdinand. France promised subsidies to Denmark, but had provided them irregularly. In addition,
6018-405: The extent of the war. Christian IV of Denmark invaded Northern Germany in support of his fellow Protestants until forced to withdraw in 1629. Success led Ferdinand to pass the Edict of Restitution , which required any property transferred since 1552 to be restored to its original owner, which was in nearly every case the Catholic Church . By effectively undoing the 1555 Peace of Augsburg ,
6120-435: The government in order to foster concord and cooperation. A system of social hierarchy was introduced, and given form under the "House of Nobles". The purpose of this organ was to give more rigid structure to the already existing social order, and aid in effective representation of the respective bodies; those being nobles, clergy, burghers and peasants. To exclude vested and powerful interests from exercising undue influence over
6222-440: The government with certain returns on their exchanges. Salt, copper and later the grain trade were controlled by the government for these exact ends. On the whole, the system of taxation was aggressive, and caused internal turmoil within the kingdom. Taxation improved, leading to an increase in realized revenues. In addition to the financial difficulties, there were other difficulties confronting Sweden in its race to become one of
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#17327734112616324-475: The government, the nobles were excluded from holding representation in more than one body. Peers were excluded from debating on motions brought before the body – their attendance was mandatory and they were expected to deliberate on motions in silence. Despite watering down the traditional nobility with a healthy leaven of new nobles based on meritorious military service, the nobility had during Gustavus' reign more channels awarded to it through which it could leverage
6426-418: The issues with Poland to a conclusion. To this effect, in 1625 he again set sail for Livonia. As Danzig, weak to its trust, had allowed a Polish force to garrison it, Gustavus immediately marched his army towards that city. He besieged it in spite of the fact that and they fought off several efforts to relieve the siege. During this campaign though, the king, wounded on two different occasions, once very severely,
6528-414: The king attended the duel himself and informed the combatants to fight to the death, and that he had a provost marshal on hand to execute the survivor. Although many of Sweden's soldiers descended from the ranks of the traditional landed nobility, a new nobility was being established alongside the traditional nobility of the past. The soldier of merit stood in as high standing as any of the Swedish nobles of
6630-407: The king, as well as the nation, did feel deep concern for the Protestants who were being ruthlessly oppressed. One historian says, "Ferdinand had also insulted the Swedish flag, and intercepted the king's dispatches to Transylvania. He also threw every obstacle in the way of peace between Poland and Sweden, supported the pretensions of Sigismund to the Swedish throne, and denied the right of Gustavus to
6732-419: The minimal resources that were at the command of the Protestant holdouts. Peace of Prague (1635) The Peace of Prague , dated 30 May 1635 Old Style , was a significant turning point in the Thirty Years' War . Signed by John George I, Elector of Saxony , and Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor , the terms ended Saxony 's support for the anti-Imperial coalition led by Sweden . Other states within
6834-506: The money that the crown gained, the crown was greatly empowered. In spite of this, he retained his mother's Roman Catholicism as his religion. Although he guaranteed the rights of this religion to the people in his Swedish domains, this was a subject of great contention for the kingdom. Sigismund's right to the throne became a further subject of contention due to his support for the Counter-Reformation. After Sigismund's defeat in
6936-584: The most indulgent Catholic observer. With such mutual antipathy prevailing between the Protestants and Catholics of Germany, nothing that could would fail to be misunderstood. The Thirty Years' War arose out of a regional dispute between Bohemian Protestants and their Habsburg monarchs. Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor was an obstinate and stubborn monarch. His policies forced him into an increasingly weak position with his heterogenous subjects, his court and his family. Forced to make concessions to his Hungarian subjects in order to appease them for his indecisive war with
7038-651: The operation of the government. On the whole though, the king maintained a monopoly on power within the government. The government refrained from the debilitating but common practice in Europe, Simony , which benefited the state greatly. It was with this military establishment that the Swedes were to bring about a conclusive end to the wars with Poland as well as land in and have so much success in Germany. The Swedish royal family had held for some time claims to Livonia – such claims were of dubious legality but were common in Europe. They were constantly employed by monarchs to justify their attempts to acquire more land. Later in
7140-416: The pre‑eminent economic and military powers of Europe. Only a million and a half people were living in the country at the time. As a result of this, as his campaign progressed in Germany, he came to increasingly rely on German mercenaries. Although these German mercenaries were well known for their atrocious conduct towards the local population, under the Swedish military system they were later brought to
7242-438: The primary motivation of many was often the acquisition of easy riches and territory at the expense of their defenceless Catholic neighbours and subjects. Princes would convert on the grounds that they would be empowered to seize precious land and property from the Roman Catholic Church, and turn that wealth to their own enrichment. The Protestants understood and accepted as an article of faith that they would have to unite against
7344-566: The principle of cuius regio, eius religio . By renouncing their right to create alliances and handing over control of armed forces, the Imperial estates, in return, acknowledged the supremacy of the Emperor. However, those principles were not universally followed and hostilities continued. They included internal struggles between Imperial states, such as the Hessian War , as well as intervention by foreign powers. The war expanded on 19 May 1635, when France declared war on Spain , and entered
7446-507: The principle of cuius regio, eius religio . By renouncing their right to create alliances and handing over control of armed forces, the Imperial estates, in return, acknowledged the supremacy of the Emperor. However, those principles were not universally followed and hostilities continued. They included internal struggles between Imperial states, such as the Hessian War , as well as intervention by foreign powers. The war expanded on 19 May 1635, when France declared war on Spain , and entered
7548-504: The provisions in the Peace of Augsburg no general European or German conflagration would erupt as a result of the violations. At the end of the conflicts, it was agreed that the provisions of the Peace of Augsburg would once again be adhered to. "All that the Lutheran church gained by the Peace of Augsburg was toleration; all that the [Roman] church conceded was a sacrifice to necessity, not an offering to justice" says one historian. However,
7650-476: The rate of 6 1 ⁄ 2 percent. Domestic loans were negotiated for 10 percent. The government was required to provide security on these loans – for obvious reasons. Mortgages were taken out on the crown estates, and the revenues derived from those estates also. The government also legislated monopolies on certain goods, and either collected profits through conducting industry outright through government agents, or through agents who were prescribed to provide
7752-406: The regiment was then disgraced by being ordered to perform menial tasks. Violence towards women was punished with death. Prostitutes were absolutely forbidden from camp – especially in the German campaign, as many of them had ties to the German camp as well and divided loyalties could be problematical to Swedish operations. Dueling was forbidden. On one occasion – when two men requested leave to duel –
7854-665: The request of the Protestant Bohemians, only releasing him once he abdicated his Bohemian crown to Matthias. Rudolf II died a couple of months later in 1612, at which point his brother Matthias acquired the rest of his titles, including that of Holy Roman Emperor. Being without heirs, in 1617 Matthias had his cousin Ferdinand of Styria elected King of Bohemia , a gesture which amounted to naming him as his successor. They were related through their paternal grandfather Ferdinand I . Ferdinand of Styria, or Ferdinand II as he
7956-493: The same age, when later that year his father permitted him to sit in on meetings of the council of state. The neighbouring powers had not assessed the new king accurately. The new king was able to bring about conclusive results to the conflicts he had inherited. By 1613 Gustavus had compelled the Danes out of the war after landing on Swedish territory only 10 kilometres (6 mi) from the capital. By 1617 he had forced Russia out of
8058-481: The siege taking place. After four weeks, the siege was concluded after the garrison surrendered the city. He started to march into Poland proper – as the Lithuanian–Polish commonwealth was significantly larger than modern Poland when Sigismund proposed another truce. He did not have the resources necessary to engage in war simultaneously in the northwest and the south of his kingdom. Gustavus could not persuade
8160-567: The states that later acceded to the Peace of Prague received minor concessions: Brandenburg-Prussia was confirmed as holder of Farther Pomerania , previously a possession of the last Duke Bogislaw XIV . In 1623, Saxony occupied the Bohemian crown lands of Lower and Upper Lusatia in return for its support during the Bohemian Revolt . Under the Traditionsrezess annex of 1636, Ferdinand ceded both territories in perpetuity, plus
8262-446: The states that later acceded to the Peace of Prague received minor concessions: Brandenburg-Prussia was confirmed as holder of Farther Pomerania , previously a possession of the last Duke Bogislaw XIV . In 1623, Saxony occupied the Bohemian crown lands of Lower and Upper Lusatia in return for its support during the Bohemian Revolt . Under the Traditionsrezess annex of 1636, Ferdinand ceded both territories in perpetuity, plus
8364-404: The terms on which Gustavus proposed had some very definite clauses, and as Christian of Denmark effectively underbid him, support was provided to him. The sum of the Danes' effort was although they achieved some initial inroads into Roman Catholic territory, the Catholic League , under the able General Albrecht von Wallenstein (who is reported on one occasion to have told Ferdinand that Gustavus
8466-400: The title of king.... So many personal motives, supported by important considerations, both of policy and religion, and seconded by pressing invitations from Germany, had their full weight with a prince, who was naturally the more jealous of his royal prerogative the more it was questioned, who was flattered by the glory he hoped to gain as Protector of the oppressed, and passionately loved war as
8568-535: The towns of Jüterbog , Dahme and Burg Querfurt. John George also received the Archbishopric of Magdeburg and Halberstadt , after agreeing not to secularise them; these were transferred to Brandenburg-Prussia in 1648. While Ferdinand continued the Counter-Reformation in his own lands, it is generally agreed the Peace of Prague ended it as an internal religious conflict and re-established
8670-403: The towns of Jüterbog , Dahme and Burg Querfurt. John George also received the Archbishopric of Magdeburg and Halberstadt , after agreeing not to secularise them; these were transferred to Brandenburg-Prussia in 1648. While Ferdinand continued the Counter-Reformation in his own lands, it is generally agreed the Peace of Prague ended it as an internal religious conflict and re-established
8772-405: The war. In consequence, the Emperor made peace with most of his German opponents in the Peace of Prague – essentially revoking the Edict of Restitution – while France directly intervened against him to prevent the Habsburg dynasty from gaining too much power at its eastern border. Sweden was able to fight on until the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 in which the Emperor
8874-465: The wars and compelled her to cede territory to Sweden. Gustavus also settled a number of truces with Sigismund – who agreed to them only because of internal strife within Poland. This respite, which lasted 5 years gave Gustavus a free hand to act against the two other powers which had designs on Swedish land. In 1617, he sought to establish a permanent peace with Poland. However, all advances by Sweden for
8976-424: Was a "...stranger in the camp..." All soldiers who were caught looting were to be court-marshalled and then shot, nepotism and other forms of favoritism were unknown in the Swedish army. In addition, the system of magazines (a.k.a. supply depots) was brought up to an efficiency unknown in the period. The baggage of soldiers and officers alike – for the speed of movement – was restricted significantly. Garrison duty
9078-487: Was desperately isolated. The Margraviate of Baden as well as William of Hesse also pledged their support. However, even once the Swedes were in Germany they expressed a great deal of reluctance and had to be constantly cajoled and browbeaten into contributing their resources to the cause. The only ardent supporters of the Protestant cause were the dukes of Hesse-Kassel and Brunswick-Lüneburg . These evangelical princes held themselves in complete readiness to join hands with
9180-543: Was forced to accept the "German liberties" of the Imperial Estates and Sweden obtained Western Pomerania as an Imperial Estate. The Thirty Years' War was a religious conflict between Protestants and Catholics in Germany . It originated in the co-mingling of politics and religion that was common in Europe at the time. Its distal causes reside in the previous century, at the political-religious settlement of
9282-447: Was in favor of Swedish intervention, but because France was also Catholic, and Cardinal Richelieu , France's de facto prime minister, did not desire to openly declare against Catholicism, only offered monetary contributions. However, France refused Gustavus' demands for contributions. He demanded a lump sum upfront, and 600,000 Rixdollars (or 400,000 talers) per year subsequently. Although Sweden lacked many qualities that great powers of
9384-419: Was no political unity of German Protestant states that could coordinate actions against a Catholic interloper. It was regularly maintained by both religious parties that the other regularly encroached on the spirit or the letter of the Peace of Augsburg. Indeed, it was understood by Protestants that Catholic officials (especially imperial or church officials) were vicious and jealous of the privileges acquired by
9486-472: Was not unreasonable to hope for. However the act of unseating Ferdinand – the legitimately chosen monarch of Bohemia- put the Bohemian revolt in a difficult position with the other political powers of Germany and Europe. John George I of Saxony refused the election, and discouraged the nascent revolt. In September of the same year, the Protestant Union met and called on Frederick not to intervene in
9588-409: Was nothing even legitimate about the court itself, that it was a lawfully constituted body or that it even had any jurisdiction over the case in question. By happenstance, the imperial officials' lives were saved by them landing in a pile of manure. The implications of the event were immediately apparent to both sides, who started to seek support from their allies. The Bohemians were friendless, against
9690-399: Was one of the prevailing principles – brought the Swedish military to the highest levels of military readiness and were to become the standard that European states would strive for. The code drawn up encouraged the highest level of personal frugality. In the camp, no silver or gold were permitted anywhere. The King's tent was not exempted from this prohibition. According to one historian, luxury
9792-446: Was required by everyone alike, there were no exceptions. Other reforms were introduced as well, a chaplain was attached to every regiment. Prayers were offered up on every occasion before battle. It is related how strange it was to see in Germany, the marshal of high standing in the military establishment kneeling in their religious observations next to the private. Crimes such as thievery, insubordination and cowardice were brought before
9894-525: Was seriously threatened. In July 1630, King Gustav II Adolf of Sweden landed in the Duchy of Pomerania to intervene in favor of the German Protestants. Although he was killed in battle at Lützen , southwest of Leipzig , the Swedish armies achieved several victories against their Catholic enemies. However, the decisive defeat at Nördlingen in 1634 threatened continuing Swedish participation in
9996-403: Was the primary religion of Sweden, and had by then established a firm grip on the country. It was not solely the result of religious sentiment that Sweden converted. Notably, one of the reasons that Sweden had so readily embraced it was because converting to Lutheranism allowed the crown to seize all the lands in Sweden that was possessed by the Roman Catholic Church. As a result of this seizure and
10098-476: Was to become known, was an ardent follower of Catholicism and the Counter-Reformation and not likely to be as willing to compromise as his two cousins and predecessors on the Bohemian throne were or had been forced to do by circumstance. Ferdinand had not received his Bohemian throne in a weak position, as Mathias or Rudolf had. Matthias had acceded to the Protestants' demands to allow Protestant religious facilities to be constructed on Bohemian crown lands. Ferdinand
10200-563: Was to reverse the construction of many of these facilities on his ascension to the Bohemian crown, and when the Bohemian estates protested, he dissolved the Bohemian assembly. The Third Defenestration of Prague was the immediate trigger for the Thirty Years' War. In May 1618, the three estates of the dissolved Bohemian assembly gathered in Prague , the capital of the Bohemian kingdom. Protestant noblemen led by count Jindřich Matyáš Thurn , recently stripped of his title as castellan of Karlstadt by
10302-481: Was unable to command the army in person. As a result of this, the Swedes suffered some reverses, but nothing materially damaged Sweden's presence. As a result of the king's wounds, the successes of the beginning of this campaign were negligible. Finally, the king was able to bring a conclusion to the conflict with Poland . In 1628, the king, passing through the Danish sound, a treaty being previously settled that allowed
10404-457: Was worse than "the Turk ") defeated them at the Battle of Lutter . This resulted in the treaty of Lubeck and the expulsion of any major Protestant combatant from the German theatre. All of Germany was effectively in the hands of the Holy Roman Emperor. Ferdinand, confident at the turn of events issued the Edict of Restitution . This edict intended to give force to the reservatum ecclesiasticum or
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