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107-538: The words synergy and synergetic have been used in the field of physiology since at least the middle of the 19th century: SYN'ERGY, Synergi'a , Synenergi'a , (F.) Synergie ; from συν , 'with', and εργον , 'work'. A correlation or concourse of action between different organs in health; and, according to some, in disease. In 1896, Henri Mazel applied the term "synergy" to social psychology by writing La synergie sociale , in which he argued that Darwinian theory failed to account of "social synergy" or "social love",

214-653: A bell and visual stimuli. In the 19th century, physiological knowledge began to accumulate at a rapid rate, in particular with the 1838 appearance of the Cell theory of Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann . It radically stated that organisms are made up of units called cells. Claude Bernard 's (1813–1878) further discoveries ultimately led to his concept of milieu interieur (internal environment), which would later be taken up and championed as " homeostasis " by American physiologist Walter B. Cannon in 1929. By homeostasis, Cannon meant "the maintenance of steady states in

321-720: A causal agency that can explain the progressive evolution of complexity in living systems over the course of time. According to the Synergism Hypothesis, synergistic effects have been the drivers of cooperative relationships of all kinds and at all levels in living systems. The thesis, in a nutshell, is that synergistic effects have often provided functional advantages (economic benefits) in relation to survival and reproduction that have been favored by natural selection. The cooperating parts, elements, or individuals become, in effect, functional "units" of selection in evolutionary change. Similarly, environmental systems may react in

428-454: A collective evolutionary drive. The highest civilizations were the work not only of the elite but of the masses too; those masses must be led, however, because the crowd, a feminine and unconscious force, cannot distinguish between good and evil. In 1909, Lester Frank Ward defined synergy as the universal constructive principle of nature: I have characterized the social struggle as centrifugal and social solidarity as centripetal. Either alone

535-567: A commercial pesticide is itself a combination of several chemical agents, and thus the safe levels actually represent levels of the mixture. In contrast, a combination created by the end user, such as a farmer, has rarely been tested in that combination. The potential for synergy is then unknown or estimated from data on similar combinations. This lack of information also applies to many of the chemical combinations to which humans are exposed, including residues in food, indoor air contaminants, and occupational exposures to chemicals. Some groups think that

642-466: A conjoined group into a cohesive one. In a cohesive group, individuals tend to fuse together to form a whole. Nonmembers who would encounter a group will be convinced that it is a tightly bonded group. Group members would express their sense of belonging to the group by being loyal to the group, identifying with the group and classifying themselves as members. They would also describe their unity by using terms such as family, us, community, team, etc. It

749-559: A cooperation between divine grace and human freedom. Eastern Orthodox theology, in particular, uses the term "synergy" to describe this relationship, drawing on biblical language: "in Paul's words, 'We are fellow-workers ( synergoi ) with God' (1 Corinthians iii, 9)". Corporate synergy occurs when corporations interact congruently. A corporate synergy refers to a financial benefit that a corporation expects to realize when it merges with or acquires another corporation. This type of synergy

856-503: A distinct subdiscipline. In 1920, August Krogh won the Nobel Prize for discovering how, in capillaries, blood flow is regulated. In 1954, Andrew Huxley and Hugh Huxley, alongside their research team, discovered the sliding filaments in skeletal muscle , known today as the sliding filament theory. Recently, there have been intense debates about the vitality of physiology as a discipline (Is it dead or alive?). If physiology

963-476: A financial loss for the company. He argues that systems will be safe only if they are designed, not if they emerge by chance. The idea of a systemic approach is endorsed by the United Kingdom Health and Safety Executive . The successful performance of the health and safety management depends upon the analyzing the causes of incidents and accidents and learning correct lessons from them. The idea

1070-519: A greater drive to learn than if they had neutral or negative attitudes towards the group. Social cohesion has become an important theme in British social policy in the period since the disturbances in Britain's Northern mill towns ( Oldham , Bradford and Burnley ) in the summer of 2001 (see Oldham riots , Bradford riots , Burnley riots ). In investigating these, academic Ted Cantle drew heavily on

1177-423: A group begin by taking a moderate stance on an issue regarding a common value and, after having discussed it, end up taking a more extreme stance. A second, potential negative consequence of group cohesion is group think. Group think is a mode of thinking that people engage in when they are deeply involved in cohesive group, when the members' striving for unanimity overrides their motivation to appraise realistically

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1284-433: A group tend to present it in more exclusive light. The more elite the group is perceived to be, the more prestigious it is to be a member in that group . As shown in dissonance studies conducted by Aronson and Mills in 1959 and confirmed by Gerard and Mathewson in 1966, this effect can be due to dissonance reduction (see cognitive dissonance ). Dissonance reduction can occur when a person has endured arduous initiation into

1391-439: A group; if some aspects of the group are unpleasant, the person may distort their perception of the group because of the difficulty of entry. Thus, the value of the group increases in the group member's mind. Small groups are more cohesive than large groups. This is often caused by social loafing , a theory that says individual members of a group will actually put in less effort, because they believe other members will make up for

1498-415: A higher risk for emotional adjustment problems currently and later in life. While people may experience better emotional in cohesive groups, they may also face many demands on their emotions, such as those that result from scapegoating and hostility. People in cohesive groups have greater pressure to conform than people in non-cohesive groups. The theory of groupthink suggests that the pressures hinder

1605-459: A medical field originates in classical Greece , at the time of Hippocrates (late 5th century BC). Outside of Western tradition, early forms of physiology or anatomy can be reconstructed as having been present at around the same time in China , India and elsewhere. Hippocrates incorporated the theory of humorism , which consisted of four basic substances: earth, water, air and fire. Each substance

1712-469: A mixture dangerous, nor does antagonism always make the mixture safe; each depends on the predicted risk under dose addition. For example, a consequence of pesticide use is the risk of health effects. During the registration of pesticides in the United States exhaustive tests are performed to discern health effects on humans at various exposure levels. A regulatory upper limit of presence in foods

1819-449: A non-linear way to perturbations, such as climate change, so that the outcome may be greater than the sum of the individual component alterations. Synergistic responses are a complicating factor in environmental modeling. Pest synergy would occur in a biological host organism population, where, for example, the introduction of parasite A may cause 10% fatalities, and parasite B may also cause 10% loss. When both parasites are present,

1926-430: A unified science of life based on the cell actions, later renamed in the 20th century as cell biology . In the 20th century, biologists became interested in how organisms other than human beings function, eventually spawning the fields of comparative physiology and ecophysiology . Major figures in these fields include Knut Schmidt-Nielsen and George Bartholomew . Most recently, evolutionary physiology has become

2033-559: Is a form of cosmic synergy, the universal constructive principle of nature. In Christian theology , synergism is the idea that salvation involves some form of cooperation between divine grace and human freedom. A modern view of synergy in natural sciences derives from the relationship between energy and information . Synergy is manifested when the system makes the transition between the different information (i.e. order, complexity ) embedded in both systems. Abraham Maslow and John Honigmann drew attention to an important development in

2140-495: Is a multilevel process as emotions can be collective. For example, a group member may experience emotion when he/she learns that the other group member has been mistreated. An emotion is a collective emotion when all the members of a group experience the same emotional reaction. The intensity of such emotions is high when the members strongly identify with their group. The forces that push group members together can be positive (group-based rewards) or negative (things lost upon leaving

2247-544: Is a nearly ubiquitous feature of a corporate acquisition and is a negotiating point between the buyer and seller that impacts the final price both parties agree to. There are distinct types of corporate synergies, as follows. A marketing synergy refers to the use of information campaigns , studies, and scientific discovery or experimentation for research and development . This promotes the sale of products for varied use or off-market sales as well as development of marketing tools and in several cases exaggeration of effects. It

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2354-550: Is a subdiscipline of botany concerned with the functioning of plants. Closely related fields include plant morphology , plant ecology , phytochemistry , cell biology , genetics , biophysics , and molecular biology . Fundamental processes of plant physiology include photosynthesis , respiration , plant nutrition , tropisms , nastic movements , photoperiodism , photomorphogenesis , circadian rhythms , seed germination , dormancy , and stomata function and transpiration . Absorption of water by roots, production of food in

2461-427: Is achieved through communication that occurs in a variety of ways, both electrical and chemical. Changes in physiology can impact the mental functions of individuals. Examples of this would be the effects of certain medications or toxic levels of substances. Change in behavior as a result of these substances is often used to assess the health of individuals. Much of the foundation of knowledge in human physiology

2568-472: Is also often a meaningless buzzword used by corporate leaders. Microsoft Word offers "cooperation" as a refinement suggestion to the word "synergy." A revenue synergy refers to the opportunity of a combined corporate entity to generate more revenue than its two predecessor stand-alone companies would be able to generate. For example, if company A sells product X through its sales force, company B sells product Y, and company A decides to buy company B, then

2675-441: Is based on many factors. Its dynamic nature refers to how it gradually changes over time in its strength and form from the time a group is formed to when a group is disbanded. Its instrumental basis refers to how people cohere for some purpose, whether it be for a task or for social reasons. Its emotional dimension refers to how cohesion is pleasing to its group members. This definition can be generalized to most groups characterized by

2782-399: Is believed that cohesion is more about the willingness to work together to accomplish a set of goals than the interpersonal relationships between group members. According to Siebold in 2007, task-oriented groups such as flight crews and military squads share a drive to accomplish their goals. One of the most obvious features of a cohesive group is a shared positive emotion. Emotional cohesion

2889-439: Is considerably greater. Studies have shown that cohesion can cause performance and that performance can cause cohesion. Most meta-analyses (studies that have summarized the results of many studies) have shown that there is a relationship between cohesion and performance. This is the case even when cohesion is defined in different ways. When cohesion is defined as attraction, it is better correlated with performance. When it

2996-560: Is defined as task commitment, it is also correlated with performance, though to a lesser degree than cohesion as attraction. Not enough studies were performed with cohesion defined as group pride. In general, cohesion defined in all these ways was positively related with performance. However, some groups may have a stronger cohesion-performance relationship than others. Smaller groups have a better cohesion-performance relationship than larger groups. Carron in 2002 found cohesion-performance relationships to be strongest in sports teams and ranked

3103-400: Is essential for diagnosing and treating health conditions and promoting overall wellbeing. It seeks to understand the mechanisms that work to keep the human body alive and functioning, through scientific enquiry into the nature of mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions of humans, their organs, and the cells of which they are composed. The principal level of focus of physiology is at

3210-469: Is known for having a corresponding humor: black bile, phlegm, blood, and yellow bile, respectively. Hippocrates also noted some emotional connections to the four humors, on which Galen would later expand. The critical thinking of Aristotle and his emphasis on the relationship between structure and function marked the beginning of physiology in Ancient Greece . Like Hippocrates , Aristotle took to

3317-425: Is more interesting when you've got a buddy working with you. You certainly like it a lot better anyway." People in cohesive groups experience better emotional adjustment. In particular, people experience less anxiety and tension. It was also found that people cope better with stress when they belong to a cohesive group. One study showed that cohesion as task commitment can improve group decision-making when

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3424-407: Is necessary to have task commitment in order to be productive. Furthermore, groups with high performance goals were extremely productive. However, it is important to note that the link between cohesion and performance can differ depending on the nature of the group that is studied. Some studies that have focused on this relationship have led to divergent results. For example, a study conducted on

3531-472: Is noted by Dr. Chris Elliot. His case study looked at IEEE-488 , an international standard set by the leading US standards body; it led to a failure of small automation systems using the IEEE-488 standard (which codified a proprietary communications standard HP-IB ). But the external devices used for communication were made by two different companies, and the incompatibility between the external devices led to

3638-580: Is perhaps less visible nowadays than during the golden age of the 19th century, it is in large part because the field has given birth to some of the most active domains of today's biological sciences, such as neuroscience , endocrinology , and immunology . Furthermore, physiology is still often seen as an integrative discipline, which can put together into a coherent framework data coming from various different domains. Initially, women were largely excluded from official involvement in any physiological society. The American Physiological Society , for example,

3745-405: Is productive of evil consequences. Struggle is essentially destructive of the social order, while communism removes individual initiative. The one leads to disorder, the other to degeneracy. What is not seen—the truth that has no expounders—is that the wholesome, constructive movement consists in the properly ordered combination and interaction of both these principles. This is social synergy , which

3852-497: Is that all events (not just those causing injuries) represent failures in control, and present an opportunity for learning and improvement. UK Health and Safety Executive, Successful health and safety management (1997): this book describes the principles and management practices, which provide the basis of effective health and safety management. It sets out the issues that need to be addressed, and can be used for developing improvement programs, self-audit, or self-assessment. Its message

3959-466: Is that organizations must manage health and safety with the same degree of expertise and to the same standards as other core business activities, if they are to effectively control risks and prevent harm to people. The term synergy was refined by R. Buckminster Fuller , who analyzed some of its implications more fully and coined the term synergetics . Mathematical formalizations of synergy have been proposed using information theory to rigorously define

4066-649: Is the scientific study of functions and mechanisms in a living system . As a subdiscipline of biology , physiology focuses on how organisms , organ systems , individual organs , cells , and biomolecules carry out chemical and physical functions in a living system. According to the classes of organisms , the field can be divided into medical physiology , animal physiology , plant physiology , cell physiology , and comparative physiology . Central to physiological functioning are biophysical and biochemical processes, homeostatic control mechanisms, and communication between cells. Physiological state

4173-412: Is the ability of a group to outperform even its best individual member. These conclusions are derived from the studies conducted by Jay Hall on a number of laboratory-based group ranking and prediction tasks. He found that effective groups actively looked for the points in which they disagreed and in consequence encouraged conflicts amongst the participants in the early stages of the discussion. In contrast,

4280-414: Is the case across many settings, including industrial, athletic, and educational settings. Members in cohesive groups also are more optimistic and suffer less from social problems than those in non-cohesive groups. One study involved a team of masons and carpenters working on a housing development. For the first five months, their supervisor formed the groups they were to work in. These groups changed over

4387-555: Is the condition of normal function. In contrast, pathological state refers to abnormal conditions , including human diseases . The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine is awarded by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences for exceptional scientific achievements in physiology related to the field of medicine . Because physiology focuses on the functions and mechanisms of living organisms at all levels, from

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4494-499: Is the degree or strength of bonds linking members of a social group to one another and to the group as a whole. Although cohesion is a multi-faceted process, it can be broken down into four main components: social relations , task relations, perceived unity, and emotions . Members of strongly cohesive groups are more inclined to participate readily and to stay with the group. From Neo-Latin cohaesio and French cohésion , in physics , cohesion means "the force that unites

4601-465: Is then placed on this pesticide. As long as residues in the food stay below this regulatory level, health effects are deemed highly unlikely and the food is considered safe to consume. However, in normal agricultural practice, it is rare to use only a single pesticide. During the production of a crop, several different materials may be used. Each of them has had determined a regulatory level at which they would be considered individually safe. In many cases,

4708-479: Is via energy use, where larger groups of humans (i.e., cities) use energy more efficiently that smaller groups of humans. Human synergy can also occur on a smaller scale, like when individuals huddle together for warmth or in workplaces where labor specialization increase efficiencies. When synergy occurs in the work place, the individuals involved get to work in a positive and supportive working environment. When individuals get to work in environments such as these,

4815-455: Is water, a compound of hydrogen and oxygen), to the cooperative interactions among the genes in genomes , the division of labor in bacterial colonies , the synergies of scale in multicellular organisms , as well as the many different kinds of synergies produced by socially-organized groups, from honeybee colonies to wolf packs and human societies: compare stigmergy , a mechanism of indirect coordination between agents or actions that results in

4922-604: The Cantle , Denham , Clarke , Ouseley and Ritchie reports moved cohesion to the forefront of the UK race debate." According to the government-commissioned, State of the English Cities thematic reports, there are five different dimensions of social cohesion: material conditions, passive relationships, active relationships, solidarity , inclusion and equality. On a societal level Albrekt Larsen defines social cohesion 'as

5029-598: The mutual information between any individual source and the target is 0 bit. However, the joint mutual information I ( X 1 , X 2 ; Y ) = 1 {\displaystyle I(X_{1},X_{2};Y)=1} bit. There is information about the target that can only be extracted from the joint state of the inputs considered jointly, and not any others. There is, thus far, no universal agreement on how synergy can best be quantified, with different approaches that decompose information into redundant, unique, and synergistic components appearing in

5136-406: The self-assembly of complex systems . Even the tools and technologies that are widespread in the natural world represent important sources of synergistic effects. The tools that enabled early hominins to become systematic big-game hunters is a primordial human example. In the context of organizational behavior , following the view that a cohesive group is more than the sum of its parts, synergy

5243-455: The "synergy" term was first used around 1600, deriving from the Greek word "synergos", which means "to work together" or "to cooperate". If during this period the synergy concept was mainly used in the theological field (describing "the cooperation of human effort with divine will"), in the 19th and 20th centuries, "synergy" was promoted in physics and biochemistry, being implemented in the study of

5350-507: The alternative courses of action. Studying the events of several American policy "disasters" such as the failure to anticipate the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor (1941) and the Bay of Pigs Invasion fiasco (1961), Irving Janis argued that they were due to the cohesive nature of the committees that made the relevant decisions. That decisions made by committees lead to failure in a simple system

5457-496: The belief—held by citizens in a given nation state—that they share a moral community, which enables them to trust each other'. In a comparative study of the US, UK, Sweden and Denmark he shows that the perceived trustworthiness of fellow citizens is strongly influenced by the level of social inequality and how 'poor' and 'middle classes' are represented in the mass media. Analysts at the credit rating agency Moody's have also introduced

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5564-418: The blood . Santorio Santorio in 1610s was the first to use a device to measure the pulse rate (the pulsilogium ), and a thermoscope to measure temperature. In 1791 Luigi Galvani described the role of electricity in the nerves of dissected frogs. In 1811, César Julien Jean Legallois studied respiration in animal dissection and lesions and found the center of respiration in the medulla oblongata . In

5671-421: The body and the physiological processes through which they are regulated." In other words, the body's ability to regulate its internal environment. William Beaumont was the first American to utilize the practical application of physiology. Nineteenth-century physiologists such as Michael Foster , Max Verworn , and Alfred Binet , based on Haeckel 's ideas, elaborated what came to be called "general physiology",

5778-451: The capacity to carry the debt through decreased gearing (leverage). This creates value for the firm, as debt is thought to be a cheaper source of finance. It is possible for one firm to have unused tax benefits which might be offset against the profits of another after combination, thus resulting in less tax being paid. However this greatly depends on the tax law of the country. Synergy in management and in relation to teamwork refers to

5885-472: The combination of factors with time-varying characteristics. The synergy effects are often called "synergistic benefits", representing the direct and implied result of the developed/adopted synergistic actions. Synergy can also be defined as the combination of human strengths and computer strengths, such as advanced chess . Computers can process data much more quickly than humans, but lack the ability to respond meaningfully to arbitrary stimuli. Etymologically,

5992-447: The combined effort of individuals as participants of the team. The condition that exists when the organization's parts interact to produce a joint effect that is greater than the sum of the parts acting alone. Positive or negative synergies can exist. In these cases, positive synergy has positive effects such as improved efficiency in operations, greater exploitation of opportunities, and improved utilization of resources. Negative synergy on

6099-555: The company reaps the benefits. The authors of Creating the Best Workplace on Earth Rob Goffee and Gareth Jones, state that "highly engaged employees are, on average, 50% more likely to exceed expectations that the least-engaged workers. And companies with highly engaged people outperform firms with the most disengaged folks- by 54% in employee retention , by 89% in customer satisfaction , and by fourfold in revenue growth. Also, those that are able to be open about their views on

6206-417: The company, and have confidence that they will be heard, are likely to be a more organized employee who helps his/ her fellow team members succeed. Human interaction with technology can also increase synergy. Organismic computing is an approach to improving group efficacy by increasing synergy in human groups via technological means. In Christian theology , synergism is the belief that salvation involves

6313-699: The concept of social cohesion, and the New Labour government (particularly then Home Secretary David Blunkett ) in turn widely promoted the notion. As the Runnymede Trust noted in their "The Year of Cohesion" in 2003: "If there has been a key word added to the Runnymede lexicon in 2002, it is cohesion. A year from publication of the report of the Commission on the Future of Multi-Ethnic Britain,

6420-409: The course of five months. This was to help the men get to know everyone working on this development project and naturally, likes and dislikes for the people around them emerged. The experimenter then formed cohesive groups by grouping people who liked each other. It was found that the masons and carpenters were more satisfied when they worked in cohesive groups. As quoted from one of the workers "the work

6527-418: The cultural anthropology field which arose in lectures by Ruth Benedict from 1941, for which the original manuscripts have been lost but the ideas preserved in "Synergy: Some Notes of Ruth Benedict" (1969). In the natural world, synergistic phenomena are ubiquitous, ranging from physics (for example, the different combinations of quarks that produce protons and neutrons ) to chemistry (a popular example

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6634-542: The death rate from surgery by a substantial amount. The Physiological Society was founded in London in 1876 as a dining club. The American Physiological Society (APS) is a nonprofit organization that was founded in 1887. The Society is, "devoted to fostering education, scientific research, and dissemination of information in the physiological sciences." In 1891, Ivan Pavlov performed research on "conditional responses" that involved dogs' saliva production in response to

6741-417: The economic system which, through the coordination and control functions (of the undertaken economic actions), agrees synergies. The networks which promote synergistic actions can be divided in horizontal synergistic networks and vertical synergistic networks. The synergy effects are difficult (even impossible) to imitate by competitors and difficult to reproduce by their authors because these effects depend on

6848-438: The economic systems' potential in depth. The synergistic gravity equation (SYNGEq), according to its complex "title", represents a synthesis of the endogenous and exogenous factors which determine the private and non-private economic decision makers to call to actions of synergistic exploitation of the economic network in which they operate. That is to say, SYNGEq constitutes a big picture of the factors/motivations which determine

6955-528: The election of women was celebrated in 2015 with the publication of the book "Women Physiologists: Centenary Celebrations And Beyond For The Physiological Society." ( ISBN   978-0-9933410-0-7 ) Prominent women physiologists include: Human physiology Animal physiology Plant physiology Fungal physiology Protistan physiology Algal physiology Bacterial physiology Cohesion (social policy) Group cohesiveness , also called group cohesion , social harmony or social cohesion ,

7062-421: The entity as a consequence of acquisition and merger. These benefits may be: This is when a firm having a number of cash extensive projects acquires a firm which is cash-rich, thus enabling the new combined firm to enjoy the profits from investing the cash of one firm in the projects of the other. If two firms have no or little capacity to carry debt before individually, it is possible for them to join and gain

7169-437: The entrepreneurs to contour an active synergistic network. SYNGEq includes both factors which character is changing over time (such as the competitive conditions), as well as classics factors, such as the imperative of the access to resources of the collaboration and the quick answers. The synergistic gravity equation (SINGEq) comes to be represented by the formula: where: The synergistic network represents an integrated part of

7276-517: The expectation under "no interaction", a determination of synergy (or antagonism) depends on what is meant by "no interaction". The United States Environmental Protection Agency has one of the more detailed and precise definitions of toxic interaction, designed to facilitate risk assessment. In their guidance documents, the no-interaction default assumption is dose addition, so synergy means a mixture response that exceeds that predicted from dose addition. The EPA emphasizes that synergy does not always make

7383-417: The group and are thus, more willing to give into conformity pressures to maintain or enhance their relationships. Illegal activities have been stemmed from conformity pressures within a group. Haynie in 2001 found that the degree to which a group of friends engaged in illegal activities was a predictor of an individual's participation in the illegal activity. This was even after the individual's prior behavior

7490-531: The group definition discussed above. These groups include sports teams , work groups , military units , fraternity groups, and social groups. However, it is important to note that other researchers claim that cohesion cannot be generalized across many groups. The bonds between group members do not develop spontaneously. They develop from a number of components such as attraction, coordination, sense of belonging and shared emotions. The components can be known as antecedents of cohesion. Moreover, they also define

7597-411: The group from critically thinking about the decisions it is making. Giordano in 2003 suggested that this is because people within a group frequently interact with one another and create many opportunities for influence. It is also because a person within a group perceives other members as similar to themselves and is thus more willing to give into conformity pressures. Another reason is that people value

7704-796: The group is under stress, more than when it is not under stress. The study studied forty-six three-person teams, all of whom were faced with the task of selecting the best oil drilling sites based on information given to them. The study manipulated whether or not the teams had high cohesion or low cohesion and how urgent the task was to be done. The study found that teams with low cohesion and high urgency performed worse than teams with high cohesion and high urgency. This indicates that cohesion can improve group decision-making in times of stress. Attachment theory has also asserted that adolescents with behavioral problems do not have close interpersonal relationships or have superficial ones. Many studies have found that an individual without close peer relationships are at

7811-420: The group provides friendship and support against outside threats. There are negative aspects of group cohesion that have an effect on group decision-making and hence on group effectiveness. There are two issues arising. The risky shift phenomenon is the tendency of a group to make decisions that are riskier than those that the group would have recommended individually. Group Polarisation is when individuals in

7918-525: The group were working toward the same goal individually. However, the concept of group cohesion needs to be considered. Group cohesion is that property that is inferred from the number and strength of mutual positive attitudes among members of the group. As the group becomes more cohesive, its functioning is affected in a number of ways. First, the interactions and communication between members increase. Common goals, interests and small size all contribute to this. In addition, group member satisfaction increases as

8025-598: The group). The main factors that influence group cohesiveness are: members' similarity, group size, entry difficulty, group success and external competition and threats. Often, these factors work through enhancing the identification of individuals with the group they belong to as well as their beliefs of how the group can fulfill their personal needs. Similarity of group members has different influences on group cohesiveness depending on how to define this concept. Lott and Lott who referred in 1965 to interpersonal attraction as group cohesiveness conducted an extensive review on

8132-504: The group. Hogg in 1992 and 2001 noted personal attraction is not a group cohesion even though members of cohesive groups like one another. Group cohesion is similar to a type of group-level attraction which, according to Hogg, is known as social attraction . Social attraction is a liking for other group members based on their status as typical group members. Attraction is a basic ingredient for most groups, however, when interpersonal relations between group members intensify, it can transform

8239-502: The humoral theory of disease, which also consisted of four primary qualities in life: hot, cold, wet and dry. Galen ( c.  130 –200 AD) was the first to use experiments to probe the functions of the body. Unlike Hippocrates, Galen argued that humoral imbalances can be located in specific organs, including the entire body. His modification of this theory better equipped doctors to make more precise diagnoses. Galen also played off of Hippocrates' idea that emotions were also tied to

8346-458: The humors, and added the notion of temperaments: sanguine corresponds with blood; phlegmatic is tied to phlegm; yellow bile is connected to choleric; and black bile corresponds with melancholy. Galen also saw the human body consisting of three connected systems: the brain and nerves, which are responsible for thoughts and sensations; the heart and arteries, which give life; and the liver and veins, which can be attributed to nutrition and growth. Galen

8453-410: The individual." In more differentiated organisms, the functional labor could be apportioned between different instruments or systems (called by him as appareils ). In 1858, Joseph Lister studied the cause of blood coagulation and inflammation that resulted after previous injuries and surgical wounds. He later discovered and implemented antiseptics in the operating room, and as a result, decreased

8560-551: The ineffective groups felt a need to establish a common view quickly, used simple decision making methods such as averaging, and focused on completing the task rather than on finding solutions they could agree on. In a technical context, its meaning is a construct or collection of different elements working together to produce results not obtainable by any of the elements alone. The elements, or parts, can include people, hardware, software, facilities, policies, documents: all things required to produce system-level results. The value added by

8667-402: The leaves, and growth of shoots towards light are examples of plant physiology. Human physiology is the study of how the human body's systems and functions work together to maintain a stable internal environment. It includes the study of the nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, and urinary systems, as well as cellular and exercise physiology. Understanding human physiology

8774-449: The level of organs and systems within systems. The endocrine and nervous systems play major roles in the reception and transmission of signals that integrate function in animals. Homeostasis is a major aspect with regard to such interactions within plants as well as animals. The biological basis of the study of physiology, integration refers to the overlap of many functions of the systems of the human body, as well as its accompanied form. It

8881-399: The link between cohesion and performance in a governmental social service department found a low positive association between these two variables, while a separate study on groups in a Danish military unit found a high negative association between these two variables. Studies have shown that people in cohesive groups have reported more satisfaction than members of a noncohesive group. This

8988-465: The literature and found that individuals' similarities in background (e.g., race, ethnicity, occupation, age), attitudes, values and personality traits have generally positive association with group cohesiveness. On the other hand, from the perspective of social attraction as the basis of group cohesiveness, similarity among group members is the cue for individuals to categorize themselves and others into either an ingroup or outgroup. In this perspective,

9095-484: The literature. Despite the lack of universal agreement, information-theoretic approaches to statistical synergy have been applied to diverse fields, including climatology, neuroscience sociology, and machine learning Synergy has also been proposed as a possible foundation on which to build a mathematically robust definition of emergence in complex systems and may be relevant to formal theories of consciousness. Synergy of various kinds has been advanced by Peter Corning as

9202-736: The losses would normally be expected to total less than 20%, yet, in some cases, losses are significantly greater. In such cases, it is said that the parasites in combination have a synergistic effect. Mechanisms that may be involved in the development of synergistic effects include: More mechanisms are described in an exhaustive 2009 review. Toxicological synergy is of concern to the public and regulatory agencies because chemicals individually considered safe might pose unacceptable health or ecological risk in combination. Articles in scientific and lay journals include many definitions of chemical or toxicological synergy, often vague or in conflict with each other. Because toxic interactions are defined relative to

9309-532: The merged entity. Examples include the headquarters office of one of the predecessor companies, certain executives, the human resources department, or other employees of the predecessor companies. This is related to the economic concept of economies of scale . The synergistic action of the economic players lies within the economic phenomenon's profundity. The synergistic action gives different dimensions to competitiveness, strategy and network identity becoming an unconventional "weapon" which belongs to those who exploit

9416-455: The molecular and cellular level to the level of whole organisms and populations, its foundations span a range of key disciplines: There are many ways to categorize the subdisciplines of physiology: Although there are differences between animal , plant , and microbial cells, the basic physiological functions of cells can be divided into the processes of cell division , cell signaling , cell growth , and cell metabolism . Plant physiology

9523-638: The molecules of a liquid or of a solid". Thereby, there are different ways to define group cohesion, depending on how researchers conceptualize this concept. However, most researchers define cohesion to be task commitment and interpersonal attraction to the group. Cohesion can be more specifically defined as the tendency for a group to be in unity while working towards a goal or to satisfy the emotional needs of its members. This definition includes important aspects of cohesiveness, including its multidimensionality, dynamic nature, instrumental basis, and emotional dimension. Its multidimensionality refers to how cohesion

9630-570: The more prototypical similarity individuals feel between themselves and other ingroup members, the stronger the group cohesiveness will be. In addition, similar background makes it more likely that members share similar views on various issues, including group objectives, communication methods and the type of desired leadership. In general, higher agreement among members on group rules and norms results in greater trust and less dysfunctional conflict. This, in turn, strengthens both emotional and task cohesiveness. Difficult entry criteria or procedures to

9737-405: The nature of cohesion. Each component is explained in-depth below. Festinger and his colleagues in 1950 highly focused on attraction as a force in comparison to any other forces. In a study, they asked the group members to identify all their good friends and calculated the ratio of ingroup choices to outgroup choices. According to Dion in 2000, the greater the ratio, the greater the cohesiveness of

9844-421: The new company could use each salesperson to sell products X and Y, thereby increasing the revenue that each salesperson generates for the company. In media revenue , synergy is the promotion and sale of a product throughout the various subsidiaries of a media conglomerate , e.g. films, soundtracks, or video games. Financial synergy gained by the combined firm is a result of number of benefits which flow to

9951-409: The notion of physiological division of labor, which allowed to "compare and study living things as if they were machines created by the industry of man." Inspired in the work of Adam Smith , Milne-Edwards wrote that the "body of all living beings, whether animal or plant, resembles a factory ... where the organs, comparable to workers, work incessantly to produce the phenomena that constitute the life of

10058-539: The open economic systems only in the 1960 and 1970s. In 1938, J. R. R. Tolkien wrote an essay titled On Fairy Stores , delivered at an Andrew Lang Lecture, and reprinted in his book, The Tolkien Reader , published in 1966. In it, he made two references to synergy, although he did not use that term. He wrote: Physiology Physiology ( / ˌ f ɪ z i ˈ ɒ l ə dʒ i / ; from Ancient Greek φύσις ( phúsis )  'nature, origin' and -λογία ( -logía )  'study of')

10165-410: The other hand has negative effects such as: reduced efficiency of operations, decrease in quality, underutilization of resources and disequilibrium with the external environment. A cost synergy refers to the opportunity of a combined corporate entity to reduce or eliminate expenses associated with running a business. Cost synergies are realized by eliminating positions that are viewed as duplicate within

10272-421: The pressures felt by the member will be examined in the sections below. Cohesion and motivation of team members are key factors that contribute to a company's performance. By adaptability development, self-worth, and personal motivation growth, each member becomes able to feel confident and progress in the team. Social loafing is less frequent when there is cohesion in a team; the motivation of each team member

10379-451: The relationships between "wholes" and "parts". In this context, synergy is said to occur when there is information present in the joint state of multiple variables that cannot be extracted from the individual parts considered individually. For example, consider the logical XOR gate . If Y = X O R ( X 1 , X 2 ) {\displaystyle Y=XOR(X_{1},X_{2})} for three binary variables,

10486-588: The rising rates of cancer, asthma, and other health problems may be caused by these combination exposures; others have alternative explanations. This question will likely be answered only after years of exposure by the population in general and research on chemical toxicity, usually performed on animals. Examples of pesticide synergists include Piperonyl butoxide and MGK 264 . Synergy exists in individual and social interactions among humans, with some arguing that social cooperation cannot be requires synergy to continue. One way of quantifying synergy in human social groups

10593-602: The same year, Charles Bell finished work on what would later become known as the Bell–Magendie law , which compared functional differences between dorsal and ventral roots of the spinal cord . In 1824, François Magendie described the sensory roots and produced the first evidence of the cerebellum's role in equilibration to complete the Bell–Magendie law. In the 1820s, the French physiologist Henri Milne-Edwards introduced

10700-471: The slack. It has been found that social loafing is eliminated when group members believe their individual performances are identifiable – much more the case in smaller groups. In primatology and anthropology , the limits to group size are theorized to accord with Dunbar's number . Group cohesion has been linked to a range of positive and negative consequences. Its consequences on motivation, performance, member satisfaction, member emotional adjustment, and

10807-447: The strength of the relationship in this order (from strongest to weakest): sports teams, military squads, groups that form for a purpose, groups in experimental settings. There is some evidence that cohesion may be more strongly related to performance for groups that have highly interdependent roles than for groups in which members are independent. In regards to group productivity, having attraction and group pride may not be enough. It

10914-441: The system as a whole, beyond that contributed independently by the parts, is created primarily by the relationship among the parts, that is, how they are interconnected. In essence, a system constitutes a set of interrelated components working together with a common objective: fulfilling some designated need. If used in a business application, synergy means that teamwork will produce an overall better result than if each person within

11021-402: Was also the founder of experimental physiology. And for the next 1,400 years, Galenic physiology was a powerful and influential tool in medicine . Jean Fernel (1497–1558), a French physician, introduced the term "physiology". Galen, Ibn al-Nafis , Michael Servetus , Realdo Colombo , Amato Lusitano and William Harvey , are credited as making important discoveries in the circulation of

11128-623: Was controlled for and other controls were set in place. Furthermore, those with friends who all engaged in illegal activities were most likely to engage in illegal activities themselves. Another study found that adolescents with no friends did not engage in as many illegal activities as those with at least one friend. Other studies have found similar results. Albert Lott and Bernice Lott investigated how group cohesiveness influenced individual learning. They wanted to test whether learning would be better if children studied with peers they liked than peers they did not like. The degree of member liking

11235-955: Was founded in 1887 and included only men in its ranks. In 1902, the American Physiological Society elected Ida Hyde as the first female member of the society. Hyde, a representative of the American Association of University Women and a global advocate for gender equality in education, attempted to promote gender equality in every aspect of science and medicine. Soon thereafter, in 1913, J.S. Haldane proposed that women be allowed to formally join The Physiological Society , which had been founded in 1876. On 3 July 1915, six women were officially admitted: Florence Buchanan , Winifred Cullis , Ruth Skelton , Sarah C. M. Sowton , Constance Leetham Terry , and Enid M. Tribe . The centenary of

11342-483: Was presumed to indicate group cohesiveness. They found that children with a high IQ performed better on learning tests when they learnt in high cohesive groups than low cohesive groups. For children with a low IQ, however, the cohesiveness factor made little difference. Still, there was a slight tendency for low IQ children to perform better in high cohesive groups. The researchers believed that if children worked with other students whom they liked, they would more likely have

11449-410: Was provided by animal experimentation . Due to the frequent connection between form and function, physiology and anatomy are intrinsically linked and are studied in tandem as part of a medical curriculum. Involving evolutionary physiology and environmental physiology , comparative physiology considers the diversity of functional characteristics across organisms. The study of human physiology as

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