109-560: The Pouto Peninsula is a landform on the northern Kaipara Harbour in Northland , New Zealand. The Peninsula runs in the north west to south east direction and is approximately 55 km long. The width varies from about 5.4 km to about 14 km, with the widest part of the peninsula near its southern end. The Tasman Sea is to the west, and the Kaipara Harbour is to the south. The Wairoa River and Kaipara Harbour are to
218-403: A dendrochronology has been created which reaches back 4,500 years, the longest tree ring record of past climate change in the southern hemisphere. One 1700 year old swamp wood kauri that dates to approximately 42,000 years ago contains fine-scale carbon-14 fluctuations in its rings that may be reflective of the most recent magnetic field flip of the earth. Much like podocarps , it feeds in
327-594: A drying process , such ancient kauri can be used for furniture, but not for construction. The small remaining pockets of kauri forest in New Zealand have survived in areas that were not subjected to burning by Māori and were too inaccessible for European loggers. The largest area of mature kauri forest is Waipoua Forest in Northland . Mature and regenerating kauri can also be found in other National and Regional Parks such as Puketi and Omahuta Forests in Northland,
436-409: A century, has considerably decreased the number of kauri trees. It has been estimated that before 1840, the kauri forests of northern New Zealand occupied at least 12,000 square kilometres. The British Royal Navy sent four vessels, HMS Coromandel (1821), HMS Dromedary (1821), HMS Buffalo (1840), and HMS Tortoise (1841) to gather kauri-wood spars. By 1900, less than 10 per cent of
545-401: A cone contains a single winged seed approximately 5 mm by 8 mm and attached to a thin wing perhaps half as large again. The cone is fully open and dispersed within only two to three days of starting. Studies show that kauri develop root grafts through which they share water and nutrients with neighbours of the same species. Heavy logging , which began around 1820 and continued for
654-419: A customs house and pilot station were built at Pouto. A signal mast was erected in the sandhills at North Head in 1876, 5–6 miles west of the station. The following year, a telegraph system was set up between the two. A lighthouse was built at North Head in 1884. The customs office was shifted to Te Kōpuru in 1903. The lighthouse was automated in 1947, and closed in the mid-1950s. The structure still exists and
763-463: A different pathogen, Phytophthora agathidicida and subsequently spread to kauri forest on the mainland. The disease, known as kauri dieback or kauri collar rot, is believed to be over 300 years old and causes yellowing leaves, thinning canopy, dead branches, lesions that bleed resin, and tree death. Phytophthora agathidicida was identified as a new species in April 2008. Its closest known relative
872-419: A few weeks. In terms of local topography , kauri is far from randomly dispersed. As mentioned above, kauri relies on depriving its competitors of nutrition in order to survive. However, one important consideration not discussed thus far is the slope of the land. Water on hills flows downward by the action of gravity, taking with it the nutrients in the soil. This results in a gradient from nutrient poor soil at
981-461: A food source for the larvae of the New Zealand giraffe weevil, Lasiorhynchus barbicornis . The larvae of L. barbicornis burrow into the wood of a tree for up to two years. Then L. barbicornis exit the bark of the tree as a fully formed adult beetle. These adult L. barbicornis exit from trees in Spring and Summer and months. After emerging from the tree, these adult L. barbicornis only live for
1090-632: A generation of trees of similar age after each disturbance. The distribution of kauri allows researchers to deduce when and where disturbances have occurred, and how large they may have been; the presence of abundant kauri may indicate that an area is prone to disturbance. Kauri seedlings can still occur in areas with low light but mortality rates increase for such seedlings, and those that survive self-thinning and grow to sapling stage tend to be found in higher light environments. During periods with less disturbance kauri tends to lose ground to broadleaf competitors which can better tolerate shaded environments. In
1199-514: A grandson of the Arawa captain, settled at Pouto near the North Head, killing or driving away some of the previous occupants. According to tradition, the greater area of Kaipara is called after a hāngī Taramainuku hosted, at which the para fern ( Marattia salicina ) was served. ("Kai" is a Māori language word meaning "food".) In the late 17th century, or early 18th, Ngāti Whātua occupied
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#17327940682081308-467: A mature tree in which its own roots feed. As with most perennials, these feeding roots also house a symbiotic fungi known as mycorrhiza which increase the plant's efficiency in taking up nutrients. In this mutualistic relationship, the fungus derives its own nutrition from the roots. In its interactions with the soil, kauri is thus able to starve its competitors of much needed nutrients and compete with much younger lineages . The fungi on kauri are
1417-464: A museum which commemorates the kauri industry and the early Pākehā settlers. Today, Dargaville is the principal centre in the Kaipara area. Its population levelled in the 1960s. It is the country's main kūmara (sweet potato) producer. Much of the coastal fishing industry in New Zealand depends on mangrove forests . About 80% of fish caught commercially are linked to food chains dependent on
1526-434: A perception amongst locals that commercial fishers have damaged fisheries in the Kaipara. Locals have been frustrated in their attempts to gain government support. The veteran filmmaker Barry Barclay has examined this in his 2005 documentary, The Kaipara affair . Currently (2007) about 219,000 cubic metres of sand is mined each year from the entrance and tidal deltas of the Kaipara. This sand contributes over half
1635-638: A petition to the Government. The zoologist William Roy McGregor was one of the driving forces in this movement, writing an 80-page illustrated pamphlet on the subject, which proved an effective manifesto for conservation. Along with the Warawara to the North, Waipoua Forest contains three quarters of New Zealand's remaining kauri. Kauri Grove on the Coromandel Peninsula is another area with
1744-768: A population density of 3.4 people per km. Kaipara Coastal had a population of 3,690 at the 2018 New Zealand census , an increase of 261 people (7.6%) since the 2013 census , and an increase of 243 people (7.0%) since the 2006 census . There were 1,383 households, comprising 1,923 males and 1,764 females, giving a sex ratio of 1.09 males per female. The median age was 44.6 years (compared with 37.4 years nationally), with 726 people (19.7%) aged under 15 years, 594 (16.1%) aged 15 to 29, 1,695 (45.9%) aged 30 to 64, and 672 (18.2%) aged 65 or older. Ethnicities were 79.2% European/Pākehā, 30.4% Māori, 3.1% Pacific peoples, 2.9% Asian, and 2.0% other ethnicities. People may identify with more than one ethnicity. The percentage of people born overseas
1853-653: A potentially attractive alternative to short rotation forestry options such as Pinus radiata . Kauri is considered a first rate timber. The whiter sapwood is generally slightly lighter in weight. Kauri is not highly resistant to rot and when used in boatbuilding must be protected from the elements with paint, varnish or epoxy to avoid rot. Its popularity with boatbuilders is due to its very long, clear lengths, its relatively light weight and its beautiful sheen when oiled or varnished. Kauri wood planes and saws easily. Its wood holds screws and nails very well and does not readily split, crack, or warp. Kauri wood darkens with age to
1962-749: A remaining cluster of kauri, and includes the Siamese Kauri , two trees with a conjoined lower trunk. In 1921 a philanthropic Cornishman named James Trounson sold to the Government for £40,000, a large area adjacent to a few acres of Crown land and said to contain at least 4,000 kauri trees. From time to time Trounson gifted additional land, until what is known as Trounson Park comprised a total of 4 km . The most famous specimens are Tāne Mahuta and Te Matua Ngahere in Waipoua Forest. These two trees have become tourist attractions because of their size and accessibility. Tane Mahuta, named after
2071-543: A richer golden brown colour. Very little New Zealand kauri is now sold, and the most commonly available kauri in New Zealand is Fiji kauri , which is very similar in appearance but lighter in weight. Prehistoric kauri forests have been preserved in waterlogged soils as swamp kauri . A considerable number of kauri have been found buried in salt marshes , resulting from ancient natural changes such as volcanic eruptions, sea-level changes and floods. Such trees have been radiocarbon dated to 50,000 years ago or older. The bark and
2180-779: A sheltered harbour as elongated sand dune barriers formed at the harbour's mouth. Over the last two million years, the harbour has cycled between periods of being a forested river valley and a flooded harbour, depending on changes in the global sea level . The present harbour formed approximately 8,000 years ago, after the Last Glacial Maximum . The Kaipara Harbour is a productive marine ecosystem , with diverse habitats and ecotones . There are tidal reaches, intertidal mudflats and sandflats, freshwater swamps , maritime rushes , reed beds and coastal scrublands . The area includes 125 square kilometres of mangrove forest . with subtidal fringes of seagrass . The Kaipara
2289-420: A single branch falling off. Kauri trees must therefore remain alive long enough for a large disturbance to occur, allowing them sufficient light to regenerate. In areas where large amounts of forest are destroyed, such as by logging, kauri seedlings are able to regenerate much more easily due not only to increased sunlight, but their relatively strong resistance to wind and frosts. Kauri occupy the emergent layer of
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#17327940682082398-480: A tug of war effect where kauri retreats uphill during periods of calm, then takes over lower areas briefly during mass disturbances. Although such trends cannot be observed in a human lifetime, research into current patterns of distribution, behavior of species in experimental conditions, and study of pollen sediments (see palynology ) have helped shed light on the life history of kauri. Kauri seeds may generally be taken from mature cones in late March. Each scale on
2507-482: Is Phytophthora katsurae . The pathogen is believed to be spread on people's shoes or by mammals, particularly feral pigs. A collaborative response team has been formed to work on the disease. The team includes MAF Biosecurity , the Conservation Department , Auckland and Northland regional councils, Waikato Regional Council , and Bay of Plenty Regional Council. The team is charged with assessing
2616-801: Is a migratory bird habitat of international significance. Forty–two coastal species are known, and up to 50,000 birds are common. Rare species use the harbour for feeding during summer before returning to the Northern Hemisphere to breed, such as the bar-tailed godwit , lesser knot , and turnstone . Threatened or endangered native species, such as the North Island fernbird , fairy tern , crake , Australasian bittern , banded rail , grey‑faced petrels , banded and NZ dotterels , South Island pied oystercatcher , pied stilt , and wrybill are also present . Significant local populations of black swan , pūkeko , and grey duck also breed in
2725-404: Is covered by sand dunes, which are one of the largest unmodified dune systems in New Zealand. Many of the dunes rise over 100 m above sea level, and the highest reaches 214 m. There are also both permanent and temporary wetlands, and more than 20 freshwater lakes and swamps. The interior is planted in exotic forests. Several threatened plants, birds, invertebrates and a freshwater fish are found on
2834-502: Is dairying on the rich Ruāwai flats . These flats are below sea level, and are protected by a stopbank and a drainage system. Coastal sawmill settlements at Tinopai , Arapaoa, Batley , Matakohe , Oneriri, Ōruawharo, Pahi , Paparoa , Tanoa and Whakapirau (history photos on the Whakapirau Community Website) have become quiet backwaters. Pahi has become a launch point for houseboats and fishing. Matakohe has
2943-411: Is equivalent to 8.7 annual rings per centimetre of core, said to be half the commonly quoted figure for growth rate. The same study found only a weak relationship between age and diameter. The growth of kauri in planted and second-growth natural forests has been reviewed and compared during the development of growth and yield models for the species. Kauri in planted forests were found to have up to 12 times
3052-482: Is expected to generate 0.75 MW averaged over time. The peak level of generation for the combined turbines is about 200 MW. This exceeds the projected peak electricity needs of Northland . It would have environmental benefits in offsetting annual carbon emissions from a thermal-based, gas turbine generator of 575,000 tonnes of carbon. The project was costed at about $ 600 million and to be economic would have to be scaled up rapidly to near full capacity. However, while
3161-400: Is important for kauri's survival as it competes with other species for space. Leaf litter and other decaying parts of a kauri decompose much more slowly than those of most other species. Besides its acidity, the plant also bears substances such as waxes and phenols , most notably tannins , that are harmful to microorganisms . This results in a large buildup of litter around the base of
3270-473: Is known as niche partitioning , and allows more than one species to occupy the same area. Those species which live alongside kauri include tawari , a montane broadleaf tree which is normally found in higher altitudes, where nutrient cycling is naturally slow. Kauri is found growing in its natural ecosystem north of 38°S latitude . Its southern limit stretches from the Kawhia Harbour in the west to
3379-420: Is needed on biodiversity in the Kaipara Harbour and habitats in associated coastal areas. A recent pilot survey found that habitats in the estuaries are still extensive, but ninety percent of land cover is no longer indigenous wetland or vegetation. Even if the key existing areas were to be protected, further buffers and corridors that give better connection between the natural areas would be needed to encourage
Pouto Peninsula - Misplaced Pages Continue
3488-419: Is one technique used by scientists to uncover the history of the tree's distribution, with stump kauri from peat swamps used for measurement. The coldest period in recent times occurred about 15,000 to 20,000 years ago, during which time kauri was apparently confined north of Kaitaia, near the northernmost point of the North Island, North Cape . Kauri requires a mean temperature of 17 °C or more for most of
3597-533: Is required to conclude that any of them are Spanish or Portuguese. The oral tradition of Pouto elders, however, did mention a Spanish ship, helmets, armour in the sand, and buried treasure. Descendants of the Māhuhu crew settled around Pouto and the South Head of Kaipara Harbour, possibly in the 13th century CE. Some of the crew of Aotea may have joined them in the 14th century. In the 15th century, Taramainuku ,
3706-414: Is such a conspicuous species, forest containing kauri is generally known as kauri forest , although kauri need not be the most abundant tree. In the warmer northern climate, kauri forests have a higher species richness than those found further south. Kauri even act as a foundation species that modify the soil under their canopy to create unique plant communities. Scottish botanist David Don described
3815-418: Is very shallow, it also has several downwardly directed peg roots which anchor it firmly in the soil. Such a solid foundation is necessary to prevent a tree the size of a kauri from blowing over in storms and cyclones. The litter left by kauri is much more acidic than most trees, and as it decays similarly acidic compounds are liberated. In a process known as leaching , these acidic molecules pass through
3924-607: The Caspian tern . The birds have moved to other parts of Kaipara Harbour, possibly due to human disturbance. An air weapons range used by the New Zealand Defence Force is a short distance south of the spit. Māori settlements and marae have been scattered around the harbour margins for hundreds of years. The waterways of the Kaipara provided, and still provide, Māori with resources and a ready means of moving between marae. Today most marae are associated with
4033-510: The Manukau , and is the single most significant wetland for west coast fisheries. In 2009, NIWA scientists discovered that 98 percent of snapper on the west coast of the North Island were originally juveniles from nurseries in the Kaipara. Snapper is New Zealand's largest recreational fishery , and is also a commercial fishery with an annual export value of $ 32 million. The findings show how fragile some fish stocks can be, and highlights
4142-542: The Māori forest god , is the biggest existing kauri with a girth of 13.77 metres (45.2 feet), a trunk height of 17.68 metres (58.0 feet), a total height of 51.2 metres (168 feet) and a total volume including the crown of 516.7 cubic metres (18,250 cubic feet). Te Matua Ngahere, which means 'Father of the Forest', is smaller but stouter than Tane Mahuta, with a girth (circumference) of 16.41 m (53.8 ft). Important note: all
4251-453: The Ngāti Whātua sub-tribes, Te Taoū and Te Uri-o-Hau . These sub-tribes both descend from the chief Haumoewhārangi who settled on the north end of the Kaipara entrance at Poutō . He was killed in an argument about kūmara (sweet potatoes). His widow Waihekeao developed a partnership with a Tainui warrior chief, Kāwharu. Kāwharu led several destructive campaigns around Kaipara. Eventually
4360-485: The Tasman to Australia. The Kaipara River is the principal river feeding Kaipara Harbour from the south. From 1863 Helensville established itself as a timber port on this river, and provided shipping services about the Kaipara. When the timber ran out, Helensville developed sheep and dairy farms, and more recently nut plantations, vineyards and deer farms. Further south, Riverhead was an important trading link with
4469-465: The Tasman Sea . It narrows to a width of 6 kilometres (3.7 mi), and is over 50 metres (160 ft) deep in parts. On average, Kaipara tides rise and fall 2.10 metres (6.9 ft). Spring tidal flows reach 9 km/h (5 knots) in the entrance channel and move 1,990 million cubic metres per tidal movement or 7,960 million cubic metres daily. The harbour head is a hostile place. Big waves from
Pouto Peninsula - Misplaced Pages Continue
4578-475: The Waitākere Ranges near Auckland, and Coromandel Forest Park on the Coromandel Peninsula . The importance of Waipoua Forest in relation to the kauri was that it remained the only kauri forest retaining its former virgin condition, and that it was extensive enough to give reasonable promise of permanent survival. On 2 July 1952 an area of over 80 km of Waipoua was proclaimed a forest sanctuary after
4687-473: The kererū (native pigeon). However, kauri trees can produce seeds while relatively young, taking only 50 years or so before giving rise to their own offspring. This trait makes them somewhat like a pioneer species , despite the fact that their long lifespan is characteristic of K-selected species. In good conditions, where access to water and sunlight are above average, diameters in excess of 15 centimetres and seed production can occur inside 15 years. Just as
4796-408: The organic litter near the surface of the soil through fine root hairs . This layer of the soil is composed of organic matter derived from falling leaves and branches as well as dead trees, and is constantly undergoing decomposition . On the other hand, broadleaf trees such as māhoe derive a good fraction of their nutrition in the deeper mineral layer of the soil. Although its feeding root system
4905-478: The Auckland region means the road costs of transporting sand from further parts of the country are avoided. Concerns about possible negative consequences of this sand mining have also been raised. In 2008, Crest Energy, a power company, received resource consent to install about 200 underwater tidal turbines in the Kaipara Harbour, which would use the substantial tidal flows moving in and out every day near
5014-532: The Crown settled the historical claims of Te Uri o Hau , a hapū of the northern Kaipara Harbour. As part of the settlement, access to and the rights of the hapū to gather oysters within the existing "Maori Oyster Areas" were recognised. In 2008, resource consent was given to Biomarine to establish New Zealand's largest oyster farm in the Kaipara. The farm is projected to produce about NZ$ 30 million in annual exports and 100 new jobs. In recent years, there has been
5123-593: The Department of Conservation had approved the project, and had made substantial environmental monitoring conditions part of the consent, the project also had objectors on the grounds of claimed influences on the local ecosystems and charter fishing (see the section above on fisheries ). Appeals before the Environment Court are still likely. The project was put on hold by Crest Energy in late 2013; its director Anthony cited several issues that prevented
5232-494: The Kaipara and Helensville, and a centre for gum digging. Also set by a river, it milled timber and flour, and made paper. Later it turned to tobacco. From 1929 to 1933, the Riverhead State Forest was developed from 5,000 ha of exhausted gum land. As the kauri ran out, the Kaipara became a backwater. After 1920 the gum and timber industries dwindled, and farming, mainly dairying, took over. In particular, there
5341-515: The Kaipara became a busy timber port from the 1860s, shipping thousands of tonnes of kauri timber and gum . The first sailing ship wrecked at the entrance to the harbour was the Aurora in April 1840. The brigantine Sophia Pate was wrecked at South Head in August 1841 with the loss of all 21 on board. The Wairoa is the main river feeding the Kaipara from the north. Thirty kilometres upstream,
5450-530: The Pouto Peninsula as part of their move southwards. In 1820, during the Musket Wars , Ngā Puhi laid siege to Ngāti Whātua's Tauhara pa near Pouto, but were unable to capture it. A truce was agreed, to be cemented by the marriage of a Ngā Puhi chief to the daughter of a Ngāti Whātua chief. During the festivities, Ngā Puhi and their allies suddenly turned on their hosts and massacred them. In 1874,
5559-526: The Pouto Peninsula – the history of the Pouto, Waikare, Punahaere and Rangitane schools – gives an overview of education and history on the peninsula up until 1984 – the centenary. Kaipara Coastal statistical area extends north past Aranga to the boundary with the Far North District . It covers 1,248.03 km (481.87 sq mi) and had an estimated population of 4,200 as of June 2024, with
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#17327940682085668-535: The Tasman Sea break over large sandbanks about five metres below the surface, two to five kilometres from the shore. The sand in these sandbanks comes mainly from the Waikato River . Sand discharged from this river is transported northward by the prevailing coastal currents. Some of this sand is carried into the Kaipara harbour entrance, but mostly cycles out again and then continues moving northwards along
5777-482: The Waipoua forest and was until that time, essentially unlogged (Adams, 1980). The plan also involved considerable cost, requiring a long road to be driven up a steep high plateau into the heart of the protected area. Because the stands of kauri were dense, the ecological destruction in the affected plateau area (approximately a fifth of the forest by area, and a quarter by volume of timber) was essentially complete (as of
5886-478: The absence of branches for much of its height. Kauri crown and stump wood was much appreciated for its beauty, and was sought after for ornamental wood panelling as well as high-end furniture. Although not as highly prized, the light colour of kauri trunk wood made it also well-suited for more utilitarian furniture construction, as well as for use in the fabrication of cisterns, barrels, bridge construction material, fences, moulds for metal forges, large rollers for
5995-407: The area of kauri forest standing before 1000AD was destroyed by about 1900, it is not surprising that recent records are of smaller, but still very large trees. Two large kauri fell during tropical storms in the 1970s. One of these was Toronui , in Waipoua Forest. Its diameter was larger than that of Tāne Mahuta and its clean bole larger than that of Te Matua Ngahere , and by forestry measurements
6104-427: The area. Land habitats adjacent to the harbour support some rare botanical species, including native orchids, the king fern , and the endangered kaka beak . In particular, Papakanui Spit on the south head of the harbour entrance, a mobile sandspit , is important as a breeding and roosting area for the New Zealand dotterel and the fairy tern . It also has areas of pingao . The spit was an important habitat for
6213-441: The balance was used locally to build houses and ships. Much of the timber was sold for a return sufficient only to cover wages and expenses. From 1871 to 1895 the receipts indicate a rate of about 8 shillings (around NZ$ 20 in 2003) per 100 superficial feet (34 shillings/m ). The Government continued to sell large areas of kauri forests to sawmillers who, under no restrictions, took the most effective and economical steps to secure
6322-450: The base of the trunk. On large trees it may pile up to a height of 2 m or more. The kauri has a habit of forming small clumps or patches scattered through mixed forests. Kauri leaves are 3 to 7 cm long and 1 cm broad, tough and leathery in texture, with no midrib; they are arranged in opposite pairs or whorls of three on the stem. The seed cones are globose, 5 to 7 cm diameter, and mature 18 to 20 months after pollination;
6431-413: The causes of which have not been identified. Concerns in recent years about the size and availability of scallops have resulted in temporary closures of the scallop fisheries. Early versions of oyster farming occurred between the early 1900s and 1950s. Thousands of tons of rocks were placed along the shorelines to act as an additional substrate on which the natural rock oyster could grow. In 2002,
6540-464: The central North Island. The outcry over the Warawara was an important stepping stone towards the legal protection of the small percentage of remaining virgin kauri-podocarp forest in New Zealand's Government-owned forests. Although today its use is far more restricted, in the past the size and strength of kauri timber made it a popular wood for construction and ship building , particularly for masts of sailing ships because of its parallel grain and
6649-464: The complete absence of disturbance, kauri tends to become rare as it is excluded by its competitors. Kauri biomass tends to decrease during such times, as more biomass becomes concentrated in angiosperm species like tōwai . Kauri trees also tend to become more randomly distributed in age, with each tree dying at a different point in time, and regeneration gaps becoming rare and sporadic. Over thousands of years these varying regeneration strategies produce
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#17327940682086758-420: The descendants of Waihekeao and Haumoewhārangi came to control the Kaipara Harbour. Te Uri-o-Hau was founded by Hakiputatōmuri, and controlled the northern part of Kaipara Harbour. Te Taoū was founded by Mawake, and controlled the south. In 1839, European settlers began arriving in the Kaipara to fell and mill kauri trees and build boats for local requirements. Despite the perilous bar at the harbour entrance,
6867-409: The early 1840s as 22 metres in circumference and 24 metres to the first branches. It was recorded as being killed by lightning in that period. Another huge tree, Kairaru , had a girth of 20.1 metres and a columnar trunk free of branches for 30.5 metres as measured by a Crown Lands ranger, Henry Wilson, in 1860. It was on a spur of Mt Tutamoe about 30 km south of Waipoua Forest near Kaihau. It
6976-554: The early 1990s most of the affected area contained a thick covering of native grasses with little or no kauri regeneration). Logging was stopped in fulfillment of an election pledge by the Labour Government of 1972. When the National Party was reelected in 1975, the ban on kauri logging in the Warawara remained in place, but was soon replaced by policies encouraging the logging of giant tōtara and other podocarps in
7085-405: The east. Dargaville and State Highway 12 lie directly to the north east of the peninsula. The mouth of the Kaipara Harbour separates the peninsula from the smaller Te Korowai-o-Te-Tonga Peninsula to the south. The most substantial settlement on the peninsula is Te Kōpuru . The locality of Pouto, originally a Māori village, is in the south east of the peninsula. Much of Pouto – over 600 ha –
7194-436: The eastern Kaimai Range . However, its distribution has changed greatly over geological time because of climate change . This is shown in the recent Holocene epoch by its migration southwards after the peak of the last ice age . During this time when frozen ice sheets covered much of the world's continents, kauri was able to survive only in isolated pockets, its main refuge being in the very far north. Radiocarbon dating
7303-565: The expense of cutting and removing it to the mills was typically great due to the difficult terrain where they were located. Probably the most controversial kauri logging decision in the last century was that of the National Government to initiate clear fell logging of the Warawara state forest (North of the Hokianga) in the late 1960s. This created a national outcry as this forest contains the second largest volume of kauri after
7412-402: The forest, where they are exposed to the effects of the weather; however, the smaller trees that dominate the main canopy are sheltered both by the emergent trees above and by each other. Left in open areas without protection, these smaller trees are far less capable of regenerating. When there is a disturbance severe enough to favour their regeneration, kauri trees regenerate en masse, producing
7521-402: The form of a narrow cone with branches going out along the length of the trunk . However, as it gains in height, the lowest branches are shed, preventing vines from climbing. By maturity, the top branches form an imposing crown that stands out over all other native trees, dominating the forest canopy . The flaking bark of the kauri tree defends it from parasitic plants, and accumulates around
7630-574: The harbour is administered by the Kaipara District and the southern part is administered by the Auckland Council . The local Māori tribe is Ngāti Whātua . By area, the Kaipara Harbour is one of the largest harbours in the world. It covers 947 square kilometres (366 sq mi) at high tide, with 409 square kilometres (158 sq mi) exposed as mudflats and sandflats at low tide. According to Māori tradition,
7739-426: The harbour mouth to produce electricity for approximately 250,000 homes. Crest planned to place the turbines at least 30 metres deep along a ten kilometre stretch of the main channel. Historical charts show this stretch of the channel has changed little over 150 years. The output of the turbines will cycle twice daily with the predictable rise and fall of the tide. Each turbine will have a maximum output of 1.2 MW, and
7848-457: The importance of protecting natural habitats, like the Kaipara. Native rock oysters are plentiful on the rocky shores, and the introduced Pacific oysters flourish lower in the intertidal zone. There are cockles and tuatua on the lower tidal flats, mussels from low tide on the rocks to subtidal beds closer to the mouth of the harbour, and scallops in the tidal channels. The scallop population has periodic incidences of high mortality,
7957-515: The interior of the peninsula at the northeast of the harbour, one of them ending near the town of Maungaturoto , only ten kilometres (6 mi) from the Pacific Ocean coast. The harbour has extensive catchments feeding five rivers and over a hundred streams, and includes large estuaries formed by the Wairoa , Otamatea, Oruawharo , Tauhoa (Channel) and Kaipara . A number of small islands off
8066-449: The land and sedimentation in the harbour. Shellfish abundance has declined, especially toheroa, scallops, tuatua, cockles and pipi. Finfish like mullet, snapper, kanae and school shark have diminished. Habitat fragmentation has also occurred. Natural vegetation in the Kaipara catchments have been reduced to islands of wetlands and forest in human-made landscapes—separated by urban areas, roads, exotic forests and pastures. More information
8175-446: The main issues, with "ninety-nine per cent of the rivers in the catchment [are] polluted". As part of the worldwide trend, there is a decline in biodiversity within the Kaipara. The timber industry removed most of the native forest. Much of the kauri and kahikatea forest, and scrub and riparian vegetation, has been replaced with farm and urban areas. Mangrove forests and wetlands have been "reclaimed". Soil erosion has increased on
8284-521: The mangroves, and at least 30 species of fish use mangrove wetlands at some stage of their life cycle. The marine and estuarine areas in the Kaipara Harbour breed snapper , mullet , flounder , sole , kahawai , white trevally , gurnard , yellow‑eyed mullet and skates , rays and sharks . The Kaipara is the largest estuarine harbour on the west coast of New Zealand and provides significant areas of suitable breeding grounds and habitats for juvenile fish. It has fewer problems with water quality than
8393-468: The measurements above were taken in 1971. Kauri is common as a specimen tree in parks and gardens throughout New Zealand, prized for the distinctive look of young trees, its low maintenance once established (although seedlings are frost tender). Kauri dieback was observed in the Waitākere Ranges caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi in the 1950s, again on Great Barrier Island in 1972 linked to
8502-532: The name Kaipara had its origins back in the 15th century when the Arawa chief, Kahumatamomoe , travelled to the Kaipara to visit his nephew at Pouto . At a feast, he was so impressed with the cooked root of the para fern , that he gave the name Kai-para to the district. Kaipara comes from the Māori kai meaning "food", and para meaning "king fern". The harbour extends for some 60 kilometres (37 mi) from north to south. Several large arms extend into
8611-528: The niche of kauri is differentiated through its interactions with the soil, it also has a separate regeneration 'strategy' compared to its broadleaf neighbours. The relationship is very similar to the podocarp-broadleaf forests further south. Kauri demand much more light and require larger gaps to regenerate than such broadleaf trees as pūriri and kohekohe that show far more shade tolerance . Unlike kauri, these broadleaf species can regenerate in areas where lower levels of light reach ground level, for example from
8720-582: The north west region of New Zealand as a whole, but does not tailor quota specifically for the Kaipara. Local iwi feel they are not sufficiently involved in management issues, and to further compound matters, the local iwi is split between Te Uri-o-Hau in the northern part and Te Taoū in the southern part. As of 2011, the environmental state of the harbour has been called as "nearing crisis" and "in significant decline", with shrinking fish and shellfish stocks, more sedimentation, declining water quality and competition for resource use and development being noted as
8829-516: The northern arm of the entrance ( Pouto Peninsula ). It was automated in 1947 and closed in the mid 1950s. The structure still exists and was renovated in 1982–84. In Māori mythology , the ocean-going canoe Māhuhu voyaged from Hawaiki to New Zealand and overturned on the northern side of the entrance. It was commanded by the chief Rongomai , who drowned. His body was eaten by araara (white trevally), and his descendants to this day will not eat that type of fish. The first European shipwreck
8938-417: The original kauri survived. By the 1950s this area had decreased to about 1,400 square kilometres in 47 forests depleted of their best kauri. It is estimated that today, there is 4 per cent of uncut forest left in small pockets. Estimates are that around half of the timber was accidentally or deliberately burnt. More than half of the remainder had been exported to Australia, Britain, and other countries, while
9047-478: The peninsula. There have been 113 recorded shipwrecks around Kaipara North Head, because the low-lying peninsula makes the north head of the Kaipara Harbour treacherous, and there are a lack of landmarks on the peninsula from which to take bearings. Tradition recounts that Rongomai , the captain of the waka Māhuhu , drowned when his canoe capsized near the entrance to Kaipara Harbour in the early days of Māori settlement of New Zealand. The first recorded shipwreck
9156-577: The project from proceeding. He also sold the majority of his shareholdings to Todd Energy Ltd the same year. Management of the Kaipara Harbour does not have a central administration. Management is distributed among the Kaipara District Council, Auckland Council , Northland Regional Council , the Department of Conservation's Northland and Auckland section, and the Ministry of Fisheries. The Ministry of Fishing allocates quota for
9265-690: The recovery of biodiversity. Agathis australis Agathis australis , or kauri , is a coniferous tree in the family Araucariaceae , found north of 38°S in the northern regions of New Zealand's North Island . It is the largest (by volume) but not tallest species of tree in New Zealand, standing up to 50 m tall in the emergent layer above the forest's main canopy. The tree has smooth bark and small narrow leaves. Other common names to distinguish A. australis from other members of Agathis are southern kauri and New Zealand kauri . With its podsolization capability and regeneration pattern it can compete with faster growing angiosperms . Because it
9374-417: The rest of the world was by steamer. The road wasn't metalled until the 1940s. Pouto School is a coeducational full primary (years 1–8) school with a roll of 10 students as of August 2024. A school was first established at Pouto in 1878. There is also a primary school at Te Kōpuru. The leaflet 'Pouto – 105 years (1879–1984)' compiled in 1985 by local historian Logan Forrest to mark 104 years of education on
9483-416: The sand requirements for Auckland . The sand is used in the production of concrete and asphalt, and also in drainage systems and beach nourishment . A suction pump is usually used to extract the sand from the seabed. It is pumped into a barge as a sand and water slurry. As the barge loads, shells and other objects are screened out and the sea water drained back to the sea. The availability of sea sand within
9592-459: The second highest of any forest type recorded anywhere in the world. The estimated total carbon capture is up to nearly 1000 tonnes per hectare. In this capacity, kauri are bettered only by mature Eucalyptus regnans forest, and are far higher than any tropical or boreal forest type yet recorded. It is also conjectured that the process of carbon capture does not reach equilibrium, which along with no need of direct maintenance, makes kauri forests
9701-628: The seed cones disintegrate at maturity to release winged seeds , which are then dispersed by the wind. A single tree produces both male and female seed cones. Fertilisation of the seeds occurs by pollination , which may be driven by the same or another tree's pollen. Agathis australis can attain heights of 40 to 50 metres and trunk diameters big enough to rival Californian sequoias at over 5 metres. The largest kauri trees did not attain as much height or girth at ground level but contain more timber in their cylindrical trunks than comparable Sequoias with their tapering stems. The largest recorded specimen
9810-405: The seed cones of the trees often survive together with the trunk, although when excavated and exposed to the air, these parts undergo rapid deterioration. The quality of the disinterred wood varies. Some is in good shape, comparable to that of newly felled kauri, although often lighter in colour. The colour can be improved by the use of natural wood stains to heighten the details of the grain. After
9919-403: The shoreline are connected to the mainland by mudflats at low tide. The Kaipara Harbour is broad and mostly shallow, as it is formed from a system of drowned river valleys . The harbour shoreline is convoluted by the entry of many rivers and streams, and is about 800 kilometres (500 mi) long, being the drainage catchment for about 640,000 ha of land. The harbour entrance is a channel to
10028-442: The soil layers with the help of rainfall, and release other nutrients trapped in clay such as nitrogen and phosphorus . This leaves these important nutrients unavailable to other trees, as they are washed down into deeper layers. This process is known as podsolization , and changes the soil colour to a dull grey. For a single tree, this leaves an area of leached soil beneath known as a cup podsol ( de ). This leaching process
10137-458: The species as Dammara australis . Agathis is derived from Greek and means 'ball of twine', a reference to the shape of the male cones, which are also known by the botanical term strobili . Australis translates in English to 'southern'. The Māori name is descended from Proto-Polynesian *kauquli , Samoan ebony or Diospyros samoensis . The young plant grows straight upwards and has
10246-476: The textile industry, railway sleepers and cross bracing for mines and tunnels. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries Kauri gum (semi-fossilised kauri resin ) was a valuable commodity, particularly for varnish , spurring the development of a gum-digger industry. Today, the kauri is being considered as a long-term carbon sink . This is because estimates of the total carbon content in living above ground biomass and dead biomass of mature kauri forest are
10355-411: The timber, resulting in much waste and destruction. At a sale in 1908 more than 5,000 standing kauri trees, totalling about 20,000,000 superficial feet (47,000 m ), were sold for less than £2 per tree (£2 in 1908 equates to around NZ$ 100 in 2003). It is said that in 1890 the royalty on standing timber fell in some cases to as low as twopence (NZ$ 0.45 in 2003) per 100 superficial feet (8 pence/m ), though
10464-479: The top of slopes to nutrient rich soils below. As nutrients leached are replaced by aqueous nitrates and phosphates from above, the kauri tree is less able to inhibit the growth of strong competitors such as angiosperms. In contrast, the leaching process is only enhanced on higher elevation. In Waipoua Forest this is reflected in higher abundances of kauri on ridge crests, and greater concentrations of its main competitors, such as tarairi , at low elevations. This pattern
10573-509: The town of Dargaville was established. The stretch of water to Dargaville is broad and straight and provides an easy to navigate route into what were then kauri forests in the interior. Dargaville flourished and immigrants from Britain and Croatia were attracted to the area. Ships up to 3,000 tons carried timber and logs out along the Wairoa to defy the bar at the harbour entrance before continuing on, usually to another New Zealand port or across
10682-495: The volume productivity than those in natural stands at the same age. Individuals in the same 10 cm diameter class may vary in age by 300 years, and the largest individual on any particular site is often not the oldest. Trees can normally live longer than 600 years. Many individuals probably exceed 1000 years, but there is no conclusive evidence that trees can exceed 2000 years in age. By combining tree ring samples from living kauri, wooden buildings, and preserved swamp wood,
10791-407: The west coast. The southern sandbanks at the entrance are constantly accumulating and releasing this sand. These treacherous sandbanks shift and change position, and are known locally as the graveyard . The graveyard is responsible for more shipwrecks than any other place in New Zealand, and has claimed at least 43 vessels—some say as many as 110. For this reason, a lighthouse was built in 1884 on
10900-643: The year. The tree's retreat can be used as a proxy for temperature changes during this period. While not present in modern days, the Aupōuri Peninsula in the far north was a refuge for kauri, as large quantities of kauri gum were present in the soils. It remains unclear whether kauri recolonised the North Island from a single refuge in the far north or from scattered pockets of isolated stands that managed to survive despite climatic conditions. It spread south through Whangārei , past Dargaville and as far south as Waikato , attaining its peak distribution during
11009-594: The years 3000 BP to 2000 BP. There is some suggestion that it has receded somewhat since then, which may indicate temperatures have declined slightly. During the peak of its movement southwards, it was travelling as fast as 200 metres per year. Its southward spread seems relatively rapid for a tree that can take a millennium to reach complete maturity. This can be explained by its life history pattern. Kauri relies on wind for pollination and seed dispersal , while many other native trees have their seeds carried large distances by frugivores (animals which eat fruit) such as
11118-508: Was $ 24,600, compared with $ 31,800 nationally. 291 people (9.8%) earned over $ 70,000 compared to 17.2% nationally. The employment status of those at least 15 was that 1,338 (45.1%) people were employed full-time, 468 (15.8%) were part-time, and 90 (3.0%) were unemployed. Kaipara Harbour Kaipara Harbour is a large enclosed harbour estuary complex on the north western side of the North Island of New Zealand. The northern part of
11227-458: Was 11.1, compared with 27.1% nationally. Although some people chose not to answer the census's question about religious affiliation, 53.4% had no religion, 33.5% were Christian, 3.3% had Māori religious beliefs , 0.2% were Hindu, 0.2% were Muslim, 0.5% were Buddhist and 1.0% had other religions. Of those at least 15 years old, 282 (9.5%) people had a bachelor's or higher degree, and 801 (27.0%) people had no formal qualifications. The median income
11336-576: Was destroyed in the 1880s or 1890s when a series of huge fires swept the area. Other trees far larger than living kauri have been noted in other areas. Rumors of stumps up to 6 metres are sometimes suggested in areas such as the Billygoat Track above the Kauaeranga Valley near Thames. However, there is no good evidence for these (e.g., a documented measurement or a photograph with a person for scale). Given that over 90 per cent of
11445-649: Was known as The Great Ghost and grew in the mountains at the head of the Tararu Creek , which drains into the Hauraki Gulf just north of the mouth of the Waihou River (Thames). Thames Historian Alastair Isdale says the tree was 8.54 metres in diameter, and 26.83 metres in girth. It was consumed by fire c.1890. A kauri tree at Mill Creek, Mercury Bay , known as Father of the Forests was measured in
11554-609: Was of the Aurora , a 550-ton barque, in 1840, and the most recent was the charter fishing vessel Francie in 2016. New Zealand film maker Winston Cowie investigated potential Portuguese or Spanish shipwrecks on the Pouto Peninsula and recorded the oral tradition from interviews on the Iberian discovery question in his books Conquistador Puzzle Trail and Nueva Zelanda, un puzzle histórico: tras la pista de los conquistadores españoles . Cowie concludes that more research and investigation
11663-520: Was renovated in 1982–84. Gum-diggers operated on the peninsula from the 1870s and lasting into the 1930s, although kauri trees no longer grew there. Dairy farming was established in the early 20th century. Sand from Pouto was used to build dams in the Waitākere Ranges , and was also barged around the Kaipara Harbour. The southern part of the peninsula was slow to be developed, with the road only reaching to Taingaehe in 1930, and extending another 35 km to Pouto itself in 1931. Until then, contact with
11772-466: Was the Aurora , a 550-ton barque, in 1840, and the most recent was the yacht Aosky in 1994. Today, the remains of wrecks still become visible under certain tidal and sand conditions. The Kaipara is rarely used today for shipping, and no large settlements lie close to its shores, although many small communities lie along its coastline. The Kaipara Harbour is a drowned river valley system, which first formed 2-3 million years ago as an open bay, becoming
11881-592: Was the largest standing. Another tree, Kopi, in Omahuta Forest near the standing Hokianga kauri, was the third largest with a height of 56.39 metres (185') and a diameter of 4.19 metres (13.75'). It fell in 1973. Like many ancient kauri both trees were partly hollow. In general over the lifetime of the tree the growth rate tends to increase, reach a maximum, then decline. A 1987 study measured mean annual diameter increments ranging from 1.5 to 4.6 mm per year with an overall average of 2.3 mm per year. This
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