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35-630: The roots of the Popular Socialist Party (NSP) lay in the 'Legal Populist' movement of the 1890s, and its founders looked upon N.K. Mikhailovsky and Alexander Herzen as ideological forerunners. The NSP was founded in 1906, by a number of dissidents from the Socialist-Revolutionary Party (SRs). They objected to the PSR's adoption of political terrorism and wanted to 'nationalize' the land (i.e., turn it over to

70-428: A Historical Sketch giving due credit to naturalists who had preceded him in publishing the opinion that species undergo modification, and that the existing forms of life have descended by true generation from pre-existing forms. According to Darwin: Baer believed in a teleological force in nature which directed evolution ( orthogenesis ). The term Baer's law is also applied to the unconfirmed proposition that in

105-422: A highly developed division of labor whose major attribute is the "struggle" of interrelated groups. In his view, a society might reach an advanced stage of development and yet belong to the lower type of organization, as, for instance, was the case with European capitalism based on division of labor and complex cooperation. Hence Mikhaylovsky concluded that peasant Russia lagged behind the capitalist West according to

140-640: A lengthy appraisal of education in general, a summary that dominated the content of the book. After leaving Tartu, he continued his education in Berlin , Vienna , and Würzburg , where Ignaz Döllinger introduced him to the new field of embryology . In 1817, he became a professor at Königsberg University and full professor of zoology in 1821, and of anatomy in 1826. In 1829, he taught briefly in St Petersburg , but returned to Königsberg (Kaliningrad). In 1834, Baer moved back to St Petersburg and joined

175-439: A major critic of Charles Darwin . Von Baer studied the embryonic development of animals, discovering the blastula stage of development and the notochord . Together with Heinz Christian Pander and based on the work by Caspar Friedrich Wolff , he described the germ layer theory of development ( ectoderm , mesoderm , and endoderm ) as a principle in a variety of species, laying the foundation for comparative embryology in

210-508: Is due to fusion of an egg and sperm cell. von Baer formulated what became known as Baer's laws of embryology : Baer was a genius scientist covering not only the topics of embryology and ethnology, he also was especially interested in the geography of the northern parts of Russia, and explored Novaya Zemlya in 1837. In these arctic environments, he was studying periglacial features, permafrost occurrences, and collecting biological specimens. Other travels led him to subarctic regions of

245-460: The Estonian historian Erki Tammiksaar. The work is fascinating to read, because both Baer's observations on permafrost distribution and his periglacial morphological descriptions are largely still correct today. He distinguished between "continental" and "insular" permafrost, saw the temporary existence of permafrost and postulated the formation and further development of permafrost as a result of

280-552: The Imperial University of Dorpat ( Tartu ). In 1812, during his tenure at the university, he was sent to Riga to aid the city after Napoleon's armies had laid siege to it. As he attempted to help the sick and wounded, he realized that his education at Dorpat had been inadequate, and upon his graduation, he notified his father that he would need to go abroad to "finish" his education. In his autobiography, his discontent with his education at Dorpat inspired him to write

315-710: The North Cape and Lapland , but also to the Caspian Sea . He was one of the founders of the Russian Geographical Society . Thanks to Baer's research expeditions, the scientific investigation of permafrost began in Russia. Baer recorded the importance of permafrost research even before 1837 when observing in detail the geothermal gradient from a 116.7 m deep shaft in Yakutsk . At the end of

350-632: The Northern Hemisphere , erosion occurs mostly on the right banks of rivers, and in the Southern Hemisphere on the left banks. In its more thorough formulation, which Baer never formulated himself, the erosion of rivers depends on the direction of flow, as well. For example, in the Northern Hemisphere, a section of river flowing in a north–south direction, according to the theory, erodes on its right bank due to

385-764: The October Revolution . The party was dissolved during the Russian Civil War of 1918–1922. The party's Russian name is sometimes translated as 'National Socialist Party', but this is misleading, since that label is usually associated with Hitler's National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP). The Russian NSP was not anti-Semitic and advocated democracy and gradual reform. Nikolai Mikhailovsky Nikolay Konstantinovich Mikhaylovsky ( Russian : Никола́й Константи́нович Михайло́вский ; 27 November [ O.S. 15 November] 1842 – 10 February [ O.S. 28 January] 1904)

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420-670: The St Petersburg Academy of Sciences , first in zoology (1834–46) and then in comparative anatomy and physiology (1846–62). His interests while there were anatomy, ichthyology , ethnography , anthropology , and geography . While embryology had kept his attention in Königsberg, then in Russia von Baer engaged in a great deal of field research, including the exploration of the island Novaya Zemlya . The last years of his life (1867–76) were spent in Dorpat, where he became

455-614: The coriolis effect , while in an east–west section there is no preference. However, this was repudiated by Albert Einstein 's tea leaf paradox . In 1849, he was elected a foreign honorary of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences . He was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1850. He was the president of the Estonian Naturalists' Society in 1869–1876, and

490-480: The transmutation of species but rejected later in his career the theory of natural selection proposed by Charles Darwin . He produced an early tree-like branching diagram illustrating the sequential origins of derived character states in vertebrate embryos during ontogeny that implies a pattern of phylogenetic relationship. In the fifth edition of On the Origin of Species published in 1869, Charles Darwin added

525-518: The 1830s, he recommended sending expeditions to explore permafrost in Siberia and suggested Alexander von Middendorff as leader. Baer's expedition instructions written for Middendorff comprised over 200 pages. Baer summarized his knowledge in 1842/43 in a print-ready typescript. The German title is „Materialien zur Kenntniss des unvergänglichen Boden-Eises in Sibirien“ (=materials for the knowledge of

560-850: The Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London (1838, pp. 210–213) and reprinted 1839 in the American Journal of Sciences and Arts by S. Silliman. There are many other publications and small notes on permafrost by Baer, as shown in the Karl Ernst von Baer museum in Tartu ( Estonia ), now part of the Estonian University of Life Sciences . There are quite a number of studies in Russian about

595-1167: The Second World War. In North America, permafrost research started after the Second World War with the creation of the Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory (CRREL), a division of the US army. It was realized that the understanding of frozen ground and permafrost are essential factors in strategic northern areas during the Cold War . In the Soviet Union, the Melnikov Permafrost Institute in Yakutsk had similar aims. The first post-World War major contact between groups of senior Russian and American frozen ground researchers took place in November 1963 in Yakutsk.However, Baer's permafrost textbook remained still undiscovered. Thus in 2001

630-421: The book Über Entwickelungsgeschichte der Thiere (1828). In 1826, Baer discovered the mammalian ovum . The human ovum was first described by Edgar Allen in 1928. In 1827, he completed research Ovi Mammalium et Hominis genesi for St Petersburg's Academy of Science (published at Leipzig ). In 1827 von Baer became the first person to observe human ova . Only in 1876 did Oscar Hertwig prove that fertilization

665-563: The complex physio-geographical , geological and floristic site conditions. With his permafrost classification Baer laid the foundation for the modern permafrost terminology of the International Permafrost Association . With his compilation and analysis of all available data on ground ice and permafrost, Karl Ernst von Baer must be given the attribute "founder of scientific permafrost research". From his studies of comparative embryology, Baer had believed in

700-583: The discovery and annotated publication of the typescript from 1843 in the library archives of the University of Giessen was a scientific sensation. The full text of Baer's work is available online (234 pages). The editor Lorenz King added to the facsimile reprint a preface in English, two colour permafrost maps of Eurasia and some figures of permafrost features. Baer's text is introduced with detailed comments and references on additional 66 pages written by

735-522: The emergence of individuality. The struggle for individuality was seen as a matter of environment adapting to personality, in contrast to the Darwinist notion of struggle for existence, in which an individual adapts to the environment. Criticizing Darwinists for the transference of biological laws onto societal development, Mikhailovsky thought it necessary to expand Darwinism with 1) Karl Ernst von Baer 's law, in compliance with which organisms develop from

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770-560: The idea of the relationship between the hero and the masses ( crowd ). Contrary to the ideas popular among revolutionary-minded people of the late 19th-early 20th centuries that an individual having strong character or talent is able to fulfil incredible things and even change of the course of history , in the articles "Heroes and Crowd" (1882) and others, Mikhaylovsky presents a new theory and shows that an individual does not necessarily mean an outstanding individual, but any individual who by chance finds himself within certain circumstances in

805-445: The lead or just ahead of the crowd. Mikhaylovsky emphasizes that at definite moments an individual can give substantial strength to a crowd (through his emotions and actions), and so the whole event can acquire a special power. Thus, the role of an individual depends on its psychological influence is reinforced by mass perception. Mikhaylovsky was one of the radical thinkers who were 'acutely conscious of their wealth and privilege', as

840-563: The origin of permafrost research. Russian authors usually relate with it the name Alexander von Middendorff (1815–1894), as he did much scientific work during the years 1842–1845 concerning permafrost on Taimyr Peninsula and in East- Siberia . However, Russian scientists during the 1940s also realized, that it was K. E. Baer who initiated this expedition and that the origin of scientific permafrost research must be fixed with Baer's thorough earlier scientific work. They even believed, that

875-554: The perennial ground ice in Siberia). This world's first permafrost textbook was conceived as a complete work for printing. But it remained lost for more than 150 years. However, from 1838 onwards, Baer published a larger number of small publications on permafrost. Numerous of Baer's papers on permafrost were already published as early as 1837 and 1838. Well known was his paper "On the Ground Ice or Frozen Soil of Siberia", published in

910-415: The psychological inspiration of the revolution was guilt, writing: 'We have come to realise that our awareness of the universal truth could only have been reached at the cost of the age-old suffering of the people. We are the people's debtors and this debt weighs down on our conscience.' Mikhaylovsky regarded the historical process as a progression of social environment differentiation, eventually leading to

945-498: The scepticism about the permafrost findings and publications of Middendorff would not have risen, if Baer's original "materials for the study of the perennial ground-ice" would have been published in 1842 as intended. This was realized also by the Russian Academy of Sciences that honoured Baer with the publication of a tentative Russian translation done already in 1842 by Sumgin. These facts were completely forgotten until after

980-433: The simple to the complex, and 2) the solidarity principle, at the base of which lies simple cooperation. Mikhaylovsky saw the utmost criterion of social progress in obtaining the ideal of a perfect, harmoniously developed person. If simple cooperation is a social union of equals with similar interests and functions and "solidarity" as the main attribute of the society in question, in the case of complex cooperation there exists

1015-616: The stage of development, but surpassed it if judged by the type of organization. Furthermore, like the majority of nineteenth-century Russian thinkers, he attached particular significance to the obshchina (traditional peasant community), a unique trait distinguishing Russia from other countries. [REDACTED] Media related to Nikolay Mikhailovsky at Wikimedia Commons Karl Ernst von Baer Karl Ernst Ritter von Baer Edler von Huthorn ( Russian : Карл Макси́мович Бэр ; 28 February [ O.S. 17 February] 1792 – 28 November [ O.S. 16 November] 1876)

1050-576: The state), rather than 'socialize' it (i.e., make it common property of the peasantry), as the PSR proposed. The Popular Socialists also wanted to indemnify landowners; the PSR did not. Furthermore, the Popular Socialists deplored the influence of Marxism on the leading ideologues of the PSR, such as V.M. Chernov . Leading members of the NSP were N.F. Annensky (1843–1912), V.A. Miakotin (1867–1937) and A.V. Peshekhonov (1867–1933). The latter

1085-604: Was a Baltic German scientist and explorer. Baer was a naturalist , biologist , geologist , meteorologist , geographer , and is considered a, or the, founding father of embryology . He was a member of the Russian Academy of Sciences , a co-founder of the Russian Geographical Society , and the first president of the Russian Entomological Society , making him one of the most distinguished Baltic German scientists . Karl Ernst von Baer

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1120-728: Was a Russian literary critic, sociologist, writer on public affairs, and one of the theoreticians of the Narodniki movement. The school of thinkers he belonged to became famous in Russia in the 1870s and 1880s as exponents of political and economic reforms. He contributed to Otechestvennye Zapiski from 1869 until its suppression in 1884. He became co-editor of Severny Vestnik in 1873, and from 1890 until his death in 1904 served as co-editor of Russkoye Bogatstvo ("Russian Treasure") with Vladimir Korolenko . His collected writings were published in 1913. In his works, Mikhaylovsky developed

1155-770: Was a co-founder and first president of the Russian Entomological Society . In 1875, he became a foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences . A statue honouring him can be found on Toome Hill in Tartu, as well as at Lasila manor , Estonia, and at the Zoological Museum in St Petersburg , Russia. In Tartu, there is also located Baer House which also functions as Baer Museum . Before

1190-720: Was born into the Baltic German noble Baer family ( et ) in the Piep Manor ( et ) , Jerwen County , Governorate of Estonia (in present-day Lääne-Viru County , Estonia ), as a knight by birthright. His patrilineal ancestors were of Westphalian origin and originated in Osnabrück . He spent his early childhood at Lasila manor , Estonia. He was educated at the Knight and Cathedral School in Reval (Tallinn) and

1225-906: Was minister of agriculture in the Provisional Government of A.F. Kerensky during the Russian Revolution of 1917 . The Popular Socialists collaborated closely with the Trudoviks (Labour Group), Kerensky's party in the State Duma . After the February Revolution of 1917, the Popular Socialist Party merged with the Trudoviks and actively supported the Provisional Government, in which it was represented. The Popular Socialists opposed

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