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101-457: Due to its strategic position, the shores of Porto Palermo have been utilized for defensive purposes from antiquity to World War II. Porto Palermo Castle is a castle near Himara in southern Albania with an intriguing history. It is situated in the closed bay of Porto Palermo, a few kilometers south of Himarë, and makes nearly an island that is connected to the mainland by a narrow strip of land. The fort served as former Soviet submarine base during

202-549: A Venetian subject. Ali arrived in the town with his Albanians as a show of force, and when he could not find Avronites, Ali seized a number of Venetian subjects, including the Venetian consul. They were released only after Missolonghi's leaders declared that they would pay the debt themselves, and Ali took 500 barrels of merchandise bound for the Ionian Islands as a guarantee, although these barrels were never returned to

303-563: A campaign in 1785. Himara held out, however, as Ali had other issues to tend to. He failed to establish secure rule over Ioannina and made enemies of the local Turkish and Greek communities, who protested to the Sublime Porte. He was dismissed from his position in favour of his rival, Kurt Pasha, and was called upon by the Sultan to campaign against Kara Mahmud Pasha Bushati of Shkodër , whose attempts at creating an independent state forced

404-563: A community under his jurisdiction. Villages would even threaten to separate, such as in 1802 when the inhabitants of Chebelovo complained that Ali favoured their neighbours over them. Communities that were unhappy with Ali's rule were able to appeal to the Ottoman kadi courts or the central government itself, so it was crucial that Ali maintained good standing with his connections in Constantinople since his position as dervendji-pasha

505-563: A few guns, of no service either to command the entrance or to protect the shipping at anchor. Near it are some warehouses, a custom-house, and a Greek church." The erection of the castle by Ali Pasha was praised by Greek poet and member of Ali Pasha's court, Ioannis Vilaras . 40°03′43″N 19°47′28″E  /  40.062°N 19.791°E  / 40.062; 19.791 Ali Pasha of Tepelena Ali Pasha , or Ali Pasha of Tepelena ( Albanian : Ali Tepelena ; 1740 – January 24, 1822), commonly known as Ali Pasha of Ioannina ,

606-527: A marriage between Ali and Emine, the daughter of the Kaplan Pasha of Gjirokastër. Eventually, the villages surrounding Tepelena formed a confederacy against Hamko and forced the woman and her family out of the town; she was later ambushed and defeated by the men of Hormovë and Kardhiq , two Christian and Muslim Albanian villages respectively. Hamko and Ali's sister were captured by the men of Kardhiq, raped and then humiliated by being forced to walk through

707-621: A mile of the coast. These conditions obstructed trade in Epirus as well as Ali Pasha's ambitions. Significant geopolitical shifts occurred in the Europe prior to Ali Pasha challenging Venice. The Treaty of Jassy in 1792, which allowed Greeks to sail under the Russian flag, significantly boosted Greek shipping and trade with the Crimea . The French Revolution 's influence reached Ali's domain, with

808-498: A payment. The battle itself occurred on the 12th of October as Ali observed from a vantage point above Nicopolis in the same location where Roman Emperor Augustus had watched the Battle of Actium . Ali observed as his son Mukhtar lead a cavalry charge, and the hastily constructed French defences were soon overwhelmed by Ali's superior forces, which aside from Albanians also included Greeks and Albanian Souliotes . The fall of Preveza

909-504: A potential French invasion. Ali did not wait for the French to act and strategically positioned his troops near Butrint, setting a trap for the French. He lured the French adjutant general Rose, who was temporarily in charge at Corfu, to a meeting near Igoumenitsa . Rose, wrongfully believing in Ali's professed allegiance to the French, was taken prisoner, tortured, and sent to Ioannina in chains;

1010-640: A precautionary guarantee to protect him from his opponents in the Ottoman capital. Likewise, the British government, which opened in 1769 for the first time a consulate in Arta , established a permanent consular representation by 1803 and appointed John Philip Morier as "General Council in the Morea and Albania", centred in Ali Pasha's capital, Ioannina. This probably represents the earliest official recognition of

1111-699: A response from the Ottomans. Ali was then sent on another campaign in the Russo-Turkish War of 1787–1792 , in which he also secretly established contacts with the Russians. In reward for his services at Banat during this war, he was granted the Sanjak of Trikala in 1787, which was suffering from brigand raids. Ali's success in the pacification of brigandage in Trikala earned him the role of supervisor of

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1212-467: A spit above a fire. His actions intimidated the neighbouring villages into submission, earning him governorship of Ioannina soon thereafter. Additionally, the region of Himarë was seen as a point of concern for the Sublime Porte due to its support and collaboration with the Russian Empire and Venice . Serving as the governor of Delvinë , Ali claimed jurisdiction of the region and organised

1313-460: A stalemate. Ali eventually retreated to Tepelena, and Kurt attempted to impress the Sublime Porte by sending severed heads as evidence of Ali's demise, but the unrest continued nonetheless. Through his actions, Ali was able to greatly undermine Kurt's authority and garner enough attention from the Venetians to establish diplomatic relations with them. In 1783, Ali sent a declaration of friendship to

1414-645: A tax-farmer. The principal role of geography in the communal groups of his time were comprehended by Ali. He insisted that Ioannina, located in the Greek district of Epirus , was Albanian. He also considered the Albanian population who lived in the area not as immigrants but as indigenous people of the region. He tried to justify his plans on the territories under foreign protectorate on the Ionian coast also by insisting that they were part of "Albania" as well. Language

1515-703: A truce. The 1792 attack ended in a Souliote victory, and in the negotiations, the Botsaris clan managed to become recognized by Ali Pasha as the lawful representative clan of Souli and George Botsaris as the one who would enforce the terms of peace among the Souliotes. Ali, however, would not forget this humiliation. Despite his setback in Souli, Ali Pasha retained an influential standing in Constantinople . For example, Ali managed to use his influence to reverse

1616-489: Is known that Ali was actually employed in Kurt's service, due to a hostility that had arisen between the two upon Kurt's rejection of Ali's offer to marry Kurt's daughter, Miriem. Instead, Miriem would be married to Ibrahim Bey of Vlorë in 1765, and Ibrahim would later become Pasha of both Vlorë and Berat. As a result, Ibrahim and Ali also became rivals, and this rivalry continued until Ibrahim's death. Ali affiliated himself with

1717-502: Is unfounded, as Ali's family was of local Albanian origin. They had achieved some stature by the 17th century; Ali's great-grandfather, Mustafa Yussuf from the Gjirokastër region, was a notable brigand, warrior and clan chieftain who eventually obtained the title of bey and possibly official recognition as the deputy governor of Tepelena. Ali's grandfather, Muhtar Bey, was also a bandit chieftain who fought both for and against

1818-522: The Bektashi sect, although he was not particularly anti-Christian or self-consciously Muslim and showed no favouritism to either group as a ruler. Venetian records indicate that Ali and his cousin, Islam Bey of Këlcyrë , were part of a force of 9,000 Muslim Albanians under Sulejman Çapari, the aga of Margariti , who were engaged in conflict with the Souliotes in 1772, and it is possible that Ali

1919-475: The Morea , where they could continue their occupation of plundering. Ali's new position also meant that he could orchestrate legitimate and illegitimate protection rackets that gave him enough resources to recruit mercenaries and set aside money for bribes. Around this time, Ali went to Missolonghi to collect a debt owed by Michaeles Avronites, a local sea captain who was originally from Cephallonia and therefore

2020-502: The Morea . As Pasha, Ali slowly laid the foundations for the creation of an almost independent state, which included a large part of Albania and mainland Greece. During his rule, the town of Ioannina developed into a major educational, cultural, political and economic hub. In order to achieve his goals, he allied with all religious and ethnic groups in his territory. At the same time, he did not hesitate to fiercely crush any opponent, and he also developed relations with European powers. By

2121-560: The Morea . In response, Kurt moved his troops southwards in Epirus and placed pressure upon the Venetians and the armatoles to restrict Ali's approach. The Sublime Porte was forced to intervene in the situation, and Ottoman general Cezayirli Gazi Hasan Pasha , who was already dispatched to dispose of the Albanian irregulars in the Morea, was instead sent to Macedonia and Thessaly to re-establish regional order. Gazi Hasan Pasha, although aided by local Turks, armatoles and Greek peasants,

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2222-543: The Neapolitan Army opposing Napoleon and the French, Gentili collaborated with Ali in a surprise attack on Nivicë in 1798, a town which at this point was the most prosperous on the coastal littoral Butrint and Vlorë . Gentili ferried Ali's troops through the Ionian straits by night in contravention of the treaty between the Venetians and the Porte. Landing in the bay at Lukovë to the north, Ali's troops outflanked

2323-609: The Sanjak of Ioannina . His diplomatic and administrative skills, his interest in modernist ideas and concepts, his popular Muslim piety, his respect towards other religions, his suppression of banditry, his vengefulness and harshness in imposing law and order, and his looting practices towards persons and communities in order to increase his profits caused both the admiration and the criticism of his contemporaries, as well as an ongoing controversy among historians regarding his personality. As his influence grew, his involvement in Ottoman politics increased culminating in his active opposition to

2424-526: The Sanjak of Ohrid in 1796–7 and of the Sanjak of Vlora and Berat in 1810. Ali first appears in historical accounts as the leader of a band of Albanian brigands who became involved in many confrontations with Ottoman state officials in Albania and Epirus. He joined the administrative-military apparatus of the Ottoman Empire, holding various posts until 1788, when he was appointed pasha, ruler of

2525-529: The Treaty of Campo Formio , in which the Ionian Islands and neighbouring ports were transferred to France. These strategic locations, long coveted by Ali, were now under French control. Ali, using the alias 'Mustafa', allegedly held the governorship of Arta from 1796. The French established garrisons and a naval presence in the region, and were welcomed as liberators in places like Preveza. Napoleon's growing influence and victories inspired many in Europe, including

2626-400: The Albanian brigands while Catalcali remained in his fortress in the distant Chalkis of Euboea . With this new Ottoman administrative position, Ali eliminated the military and civil officials appointed by Kurt in favour of his own men, and established a network between the leaders of Albanian bands and the captains of armatoli . Albanian fighters that refused to serve Ali were relocated to

2727-527: The Balkans, founding settlements such as Kruševo , but many also migrated to foreign countries, forming an Aromanian diaspora . The same campaign of persecution was launched towards Sarakatsani communities. At this point in time, the Souliotes , a Christian Albanian community whose lands were located in Ali's Pashalik, would pay their taxes to their spahi in Ioannina, Bekir Bey. Ali preferred to take

2828-487: The French becoming a powerful force in the area. French consul Esprit-Marie Cousinéry, a supporter of Greek independence, and de Lassale, the consul of Preveza , discussed the possibility of French support in Ali's ambitions. Lassale's mission included securing timber from Epirus for the French Navy, thereby offering arms and ammunition to Ali for subduing Suli and Himara . By 1797, Venice fell to Napoleon, leading to

2929-404: The French had even offered Ali Pasha the crown of Albania once they had taken the Morea , but it became increasingly clear that this was not going to occur. Indeed, British traveller Henry Holland reported in 1815 that during a personal conversation with Ali it apparently emerged that Napoleon, at a certain point, had promised Ali the position of King of Albania, but Holland also remarked that Ali

3030-489: The Lion of Yannina. His native name was Albanian : Ali Tepelena , and he was referred to as Ali Pashë Tepelena or Ali Pasha i Janinës ; and in other local languages as Aromanian : Ali Pãshelu ; Greek : Αλή Πασάς Τεπελενλής Ali Pasas Tepelenlis or Αλή Πασάς των Ιωαννίνων Ali Pasas ton Ioanninon (Ali Pasha of Ioannina ); and Turkish : Tepedelenli Ali Paşa ( تپه‌دلنلي علي پاشا ). Ali Pasha

3131-544: The Morea. Ali's escape caused concern throughout Greece, and Kurt responded by sending 6,000 soldiers to the Bay of Arta to cut Ali off from his southern route and to trap him next to the sea, distributing funds along the way to local chieftains. Ali also recruited his own allies, including his cousin Islam Bey of Këlcyrë , the son of Sulejman Çapari and aga of Margariti Hasan Çapari, and Demoglou of Konispol . These allies kept

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3232-410: The Ottoman Empire. At the behest of the Russians, the Souliotes had reportedly gathered 2,200 men who were ready to take up arms against Ali Pasha, and in response, Ali immediately mobilised his forces. With a force of 3,000 men and aided by the Çapari family of Paramythia , Ali attacked Souli , but the assault failed with considerable losses even though a Russian support fleet never materialised to help

3333-623: The Ottoman Turks. Muhtar had died during the 1716 siege of Corfu . Ali's father, Veli Bey , was a local ruler of Tepelena . Ali himself was born in Beçisht , although some claim that he was born in the adjacent town of Tepelena. Ali's father, Veli Bey , was involved in a rivalry with his cousin, Islam Bey, who was also a local ruler. Islam Bey was appointed mutasarrıf of Delvinë in 1752, but Veli Bey managed to kill him and thereby succeed his cousin as mutasarrıf in 1762. Veli Bey

3434-546: The Ottoman army and the subsequent pardoning of Pazvantoğlu, Ali Pasha and his Albanians distinguished themselves during the fighting, earning Ali the title " Aslan " ( the Lion ) from the Porte . However, Ali Pasha's engagement in this campaign and the French's anger over his actions against their ally Pazvantoğlu strained his relations with France. Ali, in turn, was also disappointed with the failure of French promises of support; aside from pledges of financial and military support,

3535-416: The Ottoman government, which granted the region as a royal domain to Mihrişah Valide Sultan , Sultan Selim III 's mother. This move forced Ali to retreat from direct confrontation with the Porte , despite his efforts to maintain favourable relations with Mihrişah and her associates. Sanjak of Ioannina The Sanjak of Ioannina (variously also Janina or Yanina, Ottoman Turkish : Sanjak-i Yanya )

3636-494: The Ottoman rule the Albanian language has not been officially recognized. Albanian has become a fully written language with its own script only from the mid-19th century, while written Greek was a well established language within the Ottoman Empire. The formal bureaucratic language of the Empire was entirely replaced with Greek in the pashalik, and in Ali's court diplomatic business was exclusively conducted in Greek as well as much of

3737-420: The Porte to recognise that Ali had a stronger power-base. Ali marched an army of 2,000–3,000 Albanians through Thessaly , dispersing them along the journey to intimidate local towns and villages and to extract wealth from them. At Trikkala , Ali led his own detachment of 300 soldiers into the near-deserted town as many of the inhabitants had already fled upon his approach. Once a certain amount of protection money

3838-467: The Souliotes from their mountains. Ali wrote a letter to the Souliote captains George Botsaris and Lambros Tzavelas , in which he feigned friendship and admiration whilst asking for their assistance. The Souliotes cautiously accepted, and Botsaris wrote that, although he could not muster enough followers to join Ali, Tzavelas would join his army with 70 men as a sign of friendship. This group was placed on

3939-574: The Souliotes through a variety of means, and Lambros finally agreed when Ali offered him his freedom and lordship of Souli, although Lambros' 12-year-old son Fotos was taken as a guarantee. Once he was safe, Lambros sent Ali a letter revealing that he did not intend to fulfil his side of the bargain, regardless of whether he had to sacrifice his son or not, and that he would continue fighting against Ali and his men. Ali's men would fail to make further ground, and Ali would cut his losses by exchanging prisoners (including Fotos Tzavelas), paying ransoms and signing

4040-480: The Souliotes. The Souliotes, encouraged by their success, joined forces with klephts from the Pindus and ravaged both Greek and Albanian villages throughout Acarnania . After failing to defeat the Souliotes via direct assault, Ali took another approach. In 1792, Ali mustered 10,000 men to attack Gjirokastër in response to the town declining his imposition of a bey, but this was all part of an elaborate plan to lure

4141-470: The Sultan particularly in the face of the French, had his subjects in Karpenisi write to the patriarch of Constantinople and inform him that they were in fear of banditry should Ali leave them unprotected. This failed, and Ali was forced to take to the field personally with a force of 20,000 Albanians, leaving Mukhtar in charge in Ioannina. Despite the eventual failure of the Ottoman campaign once Ali left

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4242-434: The Sultan to return to Epirus to address these issues whilst maintaining diplomatic communications with the French as he still contemplated a strategic alliance with them. He purportedly offered to join forces with the French in exchange for control over the island of Santa Maura as well as former Venetian territories on the mainland, and the right to station a garrison on Corfu . However, General Louis François Jean Chabot ,

4343-563: The Sultan's tax collectors as well, interfering with the collection and disposal of government tax revenue through the bribery of officials or the allocation of tax collecting duties to his family and supporters. In fact, the higher ranks of the Greek Orthodox Church colluded with Ali to the extent that bishops were willing to act as his tax collectors. By pledging their loyalty to Ali, communities could put themselves under his jurisdiction. At times, Ali Pasha would pay to bring

4444-450: The Venetian administration at Corfu at the risk of an accusation of treason. Expecting to receive the title of Pasha of two tails at any moment, Ali asked them to intercede at the Sublime Porte on his behalf to hasten the process. The Venetians followed through, and in return, Ali disrupted Mustafa Koka, the Pasha of Delvinë and a political opponent of the Venetians. The Sublime Porte

4545-419: The accompanying Albanian pseudo-nobility. Ali conceived an independent state that almost certainly would have been controlled by this Albanian military and aristocratic elite. As Pasha, Ali was supported by an exclusively Albanian military establishment, which included many people who had undertaken brigandage activities earlier in their life. Ali Pasha also used Albanian tribesmen to put down Greek rebellions in

4646-573: The captured French grenadiers and officers, they were sent to Constantinople. There, they were imprisoned in the Yedikule Fortress . The massacre at Preveza had far-reaching implications, influencing the rise of Greek nationalism and being remembered in songs and literature by figures such as Lord Byron . Preveza was left in ruins as the properties of the Greeks were seized by Ali and redistributed among his Albanians. The surviving population

4747-468: The coast to Vlorë. Concurrently, during the winter of 1797-1798, Ali dealt with regional conflicts at the request of the Ottomans, particularly against the rebel governor Osman Pazvantoğlu who had begun carving out his own polity centred around Vidin in modern Bulgaria . The Ottomans had already dispatched a force of 50,000-100,000 men under Küçük Hüseyin Pasha to crush the rebellion, and they sent for Ali's help. Ali, reluctant to appear subservient to

4848-474: The commander-in-chief of the French forces on Corfu, rejected this proposal. By September 1798, with the declaration of war between the French and the Ottomans, Ali's stance became clear. Ali Pasha quickly assembled his forces, although historical accounts differ as to whether Ali secured a commission to confront the French through diplomatic channels in Constantinople or whether the Porte's slow response led Ali to unilaterally mobilize over 20,000 troops against

4949-472: The communist regime in Albania, and nowadays its semi abandoned tunnel and barrack attract attention of visitors, as well as the stronghold walls and gates built by the powerful Ali Pasha of Ioannina. The well preserved castle was built in the early 19th century by Ali Pasha of Tepelena . In 1921 the castle was called Venetian. In 1803 Ali Pasha offered the castle and port to the Royal Navy. At which time

5050-498: The daughters of Ibrahim Pasha of Berat. When Ali gained power, Ali's sister, Shainitza, was married off to Sulejman of Gjirokastër; Sulejman's family came from Libohovë in Zagoria , where Ali built a fortified seraglio as his sister's dowry. One claim suggests that she was first married to Sulejman's brother, also called Ali, but he died or was murdered by Sulejman with Ali Pasha's permission. Shainitza's third son, Adem, would become

5151-660: The death penalty imposed on the Pasha of Negroponte after he pleaded to Ali for help. Although he had obtained his power through force in a lawless environment, it was crucial for Ali Pasha to maintain peace and stability to ensure that his coffers remained full. Ali would offer protection to towns and villages in return for their loyalty, thereby increasing his control over his expanding territories by appointing his representatives and negotiating appropriate terms and tax arrangements. Correspondence from Ali's subjects during this period make heavy use of flattering and obsequious phrases whilst Ali's replies are terse and factual, reflecting

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5252-563: The destruction of Moscopole , a once-prosperous cultural centre in south-eastern Albania that had been continuously raided by Albanian irregulars from 1769 onwards due to their pro-Russian stance and support of the Orlov Revolt . The Aromanian population of Moscopole was forced to flee from the region and find refuge in regions outside of Ali's control, both in and out of the Ottoman Empire . Many Aromanians scattered throughout

5353-527: The formal correspondence. Ali also used the Greek script to write in Albanian and to transliterate Turkish in his personal correspondence. The usage of Greek, however, did not in any way make Ali Greek, just as his role as Ottoman appointee did not in any way make him Ottoman. He was first and foremost considered as an Albanian. The stability brought about by Ali Pasha's reign allowed the regional centre of Ioannina to become more cosmopolitan, connecting Ali to an international network. As his fame grew, so to did

5454-467: The fort only had 4 or 5 cannon implying that Ali Pasha did not see the fort as important for him. William Martin Leake visited the fort and noted that the garrison consisted of 10 men with two four-pounders. François Pouqueville in 1806 reports, "The tower or fort stands on the southern point of the entrance, connected with the continent by a low narrow isthmus. It consists of a square with bastions, having

5555-415: The front lines before Ali had Tzavelas and his men seized, chained and sent to Ioannina, with some being killed on the spot. Ali, aided by his son Muhtar , proceeded with his attack on Souli, but Botsaris was well-prepared with solid defensive positions. The 1,300 Souliote defenders retreated from their villages and were pushed to the inner mountains of Souli. Ali attempted to coerce Lambros into betraying

5656-424: The governor of Libohovë, and her daughter from her first marriage was married to Veli Bey of Këlcyrë . In his early years, Ali distinguished himself as a bandit in the mountains. Ali's growing reputation as a notorious bandit forced the Ottoman government to take action, and they authorised Ahmet Kurt Pasha of Berat to subdue him. He was eventually captured by Kurt, possibly twice but definitely in 1775 when it

5757-452: The mountain districts between Tepelena and the outskirts of Yanina for the next two years. The Porte forced Kurt to directly challenge Ali's disruption, and although Kurt could muster a force of 10,000 men and 100 cavalry, he would not be able to defeat Ali in the mountain passes and resorted to besieging Tepelena. Ali had no other option but to break through the siege and make way for Butrint , which Kurt interpreted as an attempt to return to

5858-401: The name "Albania" by the British government. Ali Pasha navigated the changing political landscape as the French sought to undermine Venetian influence in the region. Professing animosity towards the Venetian aristocracy, Ali secretly communicated with Napoleon, then in northern Italy , despite the risk of treason as France and the Ottoman Empire edged towards war. The French, eager to counter

5959-425: The notables of Ioannina that they petitioned the Sultan for his appointment on his behalf. Whatever the case, the earliest known reference to Ali as the Pasha of Ioannina is dated to the 15th of March, 1788. In that same year, he delegated the title of Pasha of Trikala to his son, Veli . Ali Pasha secured his position by establishing relationships with influential people and rewarding his supporters and allies. He

6060-743: The number of foreigners in his court. Ali wanted to establish a sea-power in the Mediterranean which would be a counterpart of that of the Dey of Algiers , Ahmed ben Ali. However, in order to gain a seaport on the Albanian coast, Ali Pasha had to deal with Venice , which controlled the ports and the Ionian straits. The Venetians had obtained an agreement from the Sublime Porte in 1788 that barred Turkish vessels from accessing these Venetian holdings, as well as banning Ottoman gun emplacements within

6161-402: The ongoing Ottoman military reforms . He was one of the most prominent leaders. After being declared a rebel in 1820, he was captured and killed in 1822 at the age of 81 or 82, after a successful military campaign against his forces. In Western literature , Ali Pasha became the personification of an "oriental despot." Ali Pasha was variously referred to as Tepelena, Ioannina/Janina/Yannina, or

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6262-489: The pasha of Delvinë's forces occupied while Ali continued further south towards Arta and Preveza . These manoeuvres alerted the Venetians, and the pashas of Trikkala and Euboea were asked to send their armies to aid Kurt. Ali, contrary to what Kurt expected, changed direction and marched towards Yanina , subduing and fortifying important villages along the way. Kurt's troops, under the command of his son-in-law Ibrahim Bey, were unable to defeat Ali, and this resulted in

6363-409: The people of Missolonghi. Similar intimidation tactics were used across Epirus by Ali, who although serving in this administrative position for only five months, managed to impose order and a systemic tax regime, as well as amass enormous personal wealth. In 1779, Ahmet Kurt Pasha had returned to power through intrigue and bribery of the Sublime Porte . Ali openly challenged Kurt in an effort to get

6464-682: The power dynamic between them; villagers often wrote to Ali with complaints about the Souliotes thieving their sheep or about raids from klephts, usually from neighbouring villages. The people of Kokosi in Thessaly wrote to Ali in 1794 on behalf of Platini Scourpi , Koffi and other villages, requesting the prolonged stay of one of Ali's boluk-bashis (officers) with his men to continue protecting them from bandits. The villagers of Kato Soudena also offered to pay Ali Pasha so that they may be placed under his protection. Ali did not only provide protection from bandits, however, as he offered protection from

6565-525: The power of the Ottomans, assisted Ali in ending the independence of the Himariotes. Ali impressed the French, particularly General Antoine Gentili , with his admiration for Napoleon, and he even arranged a marriage between his alleged illegitimate daughter and a French adjutant general. In a clandestine meeting, Ali sought military assistance and naval access around Corfu . Influenced by Ali's charm and strategic considerations as well as Himara's ties to

6666-635: The present Greek-Albanian border), and Permedi (modern-day Përmet in Albania). From 1430 to 1670 the sanjak of Janina was part of Rumelia Eyalet . From 1670 to 1787 the Sanjak of Ioannina was part of the Ioannina Eyalet . In 1788 Ali Pasha gained control of Ioannina and merged it with Sanjak of Trikala into the Pashalik of Yanina . Ali Pasha was killed in 1822. In 1834 Mahmood Hamdi pasha

6767-487: The process (some by roasting alive and impalement) whilst the rest of the population were sent to Ali's farms near Trikkala . Their land was then divided up and partitioned for cultivation by Ali's subjects in Saranda . Ali left a small square fortress at Shën Vasili to guard the entrance to Himara and to watch over the remaining population of Nivica. This campaign led to the annexation of Himara, extending Ali's control along

6868-604: The same tactic would be used on the French sub-lieutenant in Butrint. In October 1798, after securing Butrint and Igoumenitsa, Ali's troops attacked the coastal town of Preveza , which was defended by a small garrison of French soldiers, Souliote fighters, Ionian islanders and local pro-French Greeks. Ali's campaign was made easier by his former enemy, the Albanian chieftain George Botsaris of Souli, who allowed Ali's men passage through Souliote territory in exchange for

6969-476: The severed and salted heads of their companions, and were subjected to jeers and abuse from the pro-Ottoman populace as they marched at the head of a grand procession organised by Ali Pasha for his victorious troops. The women and young girls were sold into slavery. Notable among the captured French was Louis-Auguste Camus de Richemont, the commander of the French engineers, who was spared due to Mukhtar's admiration for his bravery. Along with other survivors, including

7070-451: The siege of Vidin along the Danube . Despite being distant, Ali received reports from his son Mukhtar on the situation in Epirus. These reports detailed subversive activities by the French, particularly their efforts to incite revolt among the Souliotes through the distribution of leaflets and tricolour cockades. Recognizing the potential threat to his rule, Ali obtained special permission from

7171-475: The spoils of war and resumed his life of banditry. In 1778, Ahmet Kurt Pasha was disgraced and dismissed as a result of the schemes employed by Mehmed 'Kalo' Pasha of Yanina , who then took over the Sanjak of Avlona . The guardianship of the mountain passes was bestowed upon a Turk from Thessaly known as Catalcali Haci Ali Pasha ; the local Albanians did not like him, and so he appointed Ali Pasha – at this point Ali Bey – as his deputy to establish order amongst

7272-466: The streets with a man on her back. From then on, Hamko would instil a desire for revenge in Ali, who would avenge his mother by massacring the inhabitants of Kardhiq in his later years. Ali would have two sons with Emine, the daughter of Kaplan Pasha of Gjirokastër . The first would be Muhtar Pasha , and the second would be Veli Pasha . Ali's youngest son, Selim, would be born to a slave much later in 1802. Both of his sons with Emine would be married to

7373-551: The subjugated populations who saw the French advances as a liberation march. This environment set the stage for Ali Pasha's manoeuvres to strengthen his position, and he formed an alliance with Napoleon I of France , who had established François Pouqueville as his general consul in Ioannina, with the complete consent of the Ottoman Sultan Selim III . The French already had consuls at Arta and Preveza when Ali Pasha unsuccessfully tried to approach Louis XVI as

7474-490: The taxes directly into his own hands, and Bekir was promptly imprisoned upon his rejection of Ali's proposal. The Souliote confederacy posed a continuous threat to Ali's Pashalik by constantly raiding and terrorising the surrounding villages. The Souliotes were incited against Ali by Russian Empress Catherine the Great , who after the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca in 1774, was acknowledged as the protector of all Orthodox Christians in

7575-412: The territories under Ali's control as "Albania." This, by Ali's definition, included central and southern Albania , and parts of mainland Greece ; in particular, most of the district of Epirus and the western parts of Thessaly and Macedonia . He managed to stretch his control over the sanjaks of Yanina , Delvina , Vlora and Berat , Elbasan , Ohrid and Monastir , Görice , and Tirhala . Ali

7676-423: The territories under his control with almost exclusively Albanian armatoles. The discarded Greek armatoles became klephts and their subsequent anti-armatoloi activity was not only brigandage, but also a form of resistance against Ottoman rule. Ali also targeted wealthy Muslim landowners under the guise of bringing justice for the peasant population whilst increasing his own wealth. In 1788, Ali's troops completed

7777-457: The time of his accession to the Pashalik of Yanina, several almost-independent Albanian and Greek towns of the region reversed their approach of hostility against the Ottoman rule and pledged their loyalty to Ali. Ali's policy as ruler of Ioannina was mostly governed by expediency; he operated as a semi-independent despot and pragmatically allied himself with whoever offered the most advantage at

7878-410: The time. It was Ali Pasha and his Albanian soldiers and mercenaries who subdued the independent Souli . At this point, Ali Pasha's priority was to create a centralised governing system by neutralising the numerous disruptive factions vying for power in his Pashalik, including the klephts , armatoles , Christian notables, and Albanian beys and agas . For example, Ali replaced Greek armatoles from

7979-494: The tolls of " Toskëria and Epirus ". In the meantime, Kurt Pasha had died and was succeeded by his ally in Berat, Ibrahim Pasha. The Porte awarded Ali with control of Ioannina, however, the accounts on how this occurred vary; some suggest that Ali surrounded Ioannina with his forces and presented a forged document from the Sultan without giving the Porte enough time to object, while others suggest that he gained enough support from

8080-596: The town capitulated without resistance, surrendering after the intervention of Archbishop Ignatios, who acted on Ali's behalf. Ali then focused on Parga , a refuge for those fleeing Turkish rule and a longstanding irritant to Epirus' rulers. Ali extended an offer of autonomy to Parga, which the inhabitants resolutely declined, citing their commitment to liberty and opposition to tyranny. This resistance would become another thorn in Ali's side. Meanwhile, Ali's ambitions extended to Aetolia-Acarnania , southeast of Vonica. His attempts to exert influence there were initially thwarted by

8181-427: The town, which is situated at the entrance to the narrow valley which leads into Himara from the landward side. Ali's men attacked Nivica and Shën Vasili , the neighbouring village to the north, on Easter Sunday when the inhabitants were at prayer, taking the town and other villages and then reducing them to ruins. They ravaged as far north as Himara itself, and it was said that 6,000 unarmed civilians were slaughtered in

8282-417: The villages and towns around Gjirokastër before eventually subjugating Gjirokastër itself. In an act of vengeance on the people of Hormovë for their part in the humiliation of his mother and sister, Ali would attack the village with over 1,000 men after lulling the town into a false sense of friendship. The men were killed, the women and children sold into slavery, and the leader of Hormovë was roasted alive on

8383-497: Was Ali's Supreme Council. The Commander-in-chief was the founder and financier, Ali Pasha. Council members included Muhtar Pasha , Veli Pasha , Celâleddin Bey , Abdullah Pashe Taushani and a number of his trusted men like Hasan Dervishi , Omar Vrioni , Meço Bono , Ago Myhyrdari , Thanasis Vagias , Veli Gega and Tahir Abazi . Ali's own perception of group identity derived from the ancient legacy of Albanian banditry along with

8484-582: Was a sanjak (second-level province) of the Ottoman Empire whose capital was Ioannina in Epirus . The Sanjak of Ioannina consisted of the following kazas : the central kaza of Ioannina, Aydonat (modern-day Paramythia in Greece), Filat (modern-day Filiates in Greece), Megva (modern-day Metsovo ), Leshovik (modern-day Leskovik in Albania ), Konice (modern-day Konitsa ), Pogon (modern-day Pogon/Pogoni on

8585-409: Was a defining element of Ali's identity, as well as of his government and the region he controlled in general. Ali's native language was Albanian. His degree of proficiency in written Greek is debatable, but it is known that he was able to speak the language. Albanians and Greeks exchanging languages was quite common in the 18th century. Ioannina was located in a largely Greek-speaking area, and during

8686-454: Was also part of Ahmet Kurt Pasha's force in 1775 during Kurt's campaign against the Souliotes. The first military action in which Ali is confirmed to have participated in was Ahmet Kurt Pasha's conflict with Mehmed Pasha Bushati in 1776; Ali and his cousin Islam distinguished themselves during the subsequent engagements around Kavajë and Tirana , but Ali fell out with Kurt over the division of

8787-469: Was an Albanian ruler who served as Ottoman pasha of the Pashalik of Yanina , a large part of western Rumelia . Under his rule, it acquired a high degree of autonomy and even managed to stay de facto independent. The capital of the Pashalik was Ioannina , which, along with Tepelena , was Ali's headquarters. Conceiving his territory in increasingly independent terms, Ali Pasha's correspondence and foreign Western correspondence frequently refer to

8888-467: Was appointed mutasarrif of Ioannina at the end of 1784 or beginning of 1785 on the condition that he lead 1,000 troops on campaign, possibly as part of the military response to the Russian annexation of Crimea . Ali did not keep his promise to the Sublime Porte ; instead of going on campaign for the Ottomans, Ali focused his attention on Hormovë as part of a greater effort to impose his rule over

8989-460: Was appointed to govern the Sanjak of Delvina , Ioannina and Avlona . In 1867 the Sanjak of Ioannina was merged with Berat , Gjirokastër , Preveza and Kastoria into the Vilayet of Ioannina . Kesriye was later demoted to kaza and bounded to Monastir Vilayet . During the reign of Bayazid II (1481–1512) the sanjakbey of Ioannina was Dâvud Pasha-zâde Mustafa Bey. At the elections of 1908

9090-463: Was assassinated shortly after when Ali was ten, and Ali was brought up by his mother, Chamko (or Hanko/Hamko), who originally hailed from Konitsa . Ali's mother Hamko was forced to take control of Veli's band in order to retain her family's position. She was said to have poisoned Ali's half-brother (along with the boy's mother) in order to secure Ali's inheritance. She had a great impact on Ali's personality, and Ali deeply respected her. Hamko arranged

9191-499: Was born into the Albanian Meçohysaj clan; they were Christian Albanians who converted to Islam in the Ottoman period. The family was attributed a legendary ancestry as descendants of a Mevlevi dervish named Nazif who migrated from Konya to Tepelene through Kütahya , and Ali himself would make similar claims to foreigners and Ottoman Turks in order to claim legitimacy to landholdings. Nonetheless, this tradition

9292-550: Was displaced to the marshlands around the Ambracian Gulf , and the town's population was estimated to have drastically fallen from 16,000 to 3,000 inhabitants. Nonetheless, Ali transformed Preveza into a naval base and one of his favoured residences, earning it the moniker " Portsmouth of Albania." After the conquest of Preveza, Ali Pasha shifted his focus to Vonica , located across the Ambracian Gulf. This time,

9393-491: Was further aided by Metropolitan Ignatios of Arta, an agent of Ali, who effectively weakened the resolve of the Greek defenders through counter-propaganda. When the town was finally conquered, a major slaughter occurred against the local people as retaliation for their resistance. Ali ordered the execution of 300 Greeks in front of him, and when a number of those who fled returned on the false promise of amnesty, 170 of them were executed. Survivors were marched to Ioannina bearing

9494-533: Was granted the Sanjak of Tirhala in 1787, and he delegated its government in 1788 to his second-born Veli Pasha , who also became Pasha of the Morea Eyalet in 1807. Ali's eldest son, Muhtar Pasha , was granted the Sanjak of Karli-Eli and the Sanjak of Eğriboz in 1792, stretching for the first time Ali's control down to Livadia and the Gulf of Corinth , except Attica . Muhtar Pasha also became governor of

9595-489: Was made governor of Thessaly in 1799 to clear the region of bandits, soon followed by all of Rumeli . Ali was able to extract taxes beyond the strictly-defined borders of his realm, as his power extended beyond the areas that were formally recognised as his. By 1803, several villages in the district of Florina were finalising the terms of their tax collection with Ali, and Ali's tax-collecting powers would eventually extend as far north as Prilep by assuming fake identities as

9696-522: Was never totally secure. When one of Ali's lobbyists in the Phanariot elite informed Ali that there was a rival bid for control of the passes in 1797, Ali was encouraged to make a higher offer to the treasury and to ameliorate relations with the local communities he collected taxes from, as their complaints could serve as a justification for the authorities granting control of the passes to his rival. By 1798, Ali Pasha's influence extended to Veroia . He

9797-550: Was not able to defeat and drive out the Albanians. However, he later succeeded in pacifying the Albanians in the Morea, but peace was only temporarily restored as the Albanians continued to pour into the region. Meanwhile, Ali had returned to Tepelena to restore his family's position and solidify his power base. Upon learning that the Sublime Porte refused to restore him in place of Ahmet Kurt Pasha, Ali ordered his tribal and feudal allies to attack Kurt's local garrisons, ravaging

9898-483: Was not convinced by the offer, because he distrusted the French. As such, Ali's alliance with France continued to sour. Upon his return to Ioannina, Ali felt compelled to align with the Sultan's efforts to expel the French from Epirus, marking a significant shift in his regional allegiances. In June 1798, as the French advanced their ambitions in Ottoman-controlled Egypt , Ali Pasha was engaged in

9999-514: Was peacefully extracted from the town, Ali and his men left and proceeded to Farsala , where he and Catalcali Haci (who was still Ali's superior) plotted against Ahmet Kurt Pasha. Ali's first action was to take the district of Acarnania , where his soldiers had already visited Missolonghi and yet again extracted more tributes from the citizens. Ali arrived with 4,000 men, occupying the regional capital of Vrachori ( Agrinion ) and re-joining his Albanian troops that had returned from their ravaging of

10100-438: Was soon appointed to the post of Dervendji-Pasha , and he began to further consolidate his power in Epirus . He married his sons to the daughters of Ibrahim Pasha in Berat in order to secure their alliance as well as the borders of his Pashalik. During war-time, Ali Pasha could assemble an army of 50,000 Albanian men in a matter of two to three days and could double that number in two to three weeks. Leading these armed forces

10201-447: Was still heavily in debt to the Albanian fighters who put down the Greek revolt in the Morea in 1769–1770, with astronomical sums being owed in back pay. Ali's high prestige amongst the Albanian fighters, as well as his satisfactory diplomatic solutions that normalised Venetian-Turkish relations, highlighted the fact that he was now the de facto force in the region, bypassing both Ahmet Kurt Pasha and Kara Mahmud Pasha of Shkodër . Ali

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