118-462: Prime Minister of Portugal Government Other The Estado Novo ( Portuguese pronunciation: [ɨʃˈta.ðu ˈno.vu] , lit. ' New State ' ) was the corporatist Portuguese state installed in 1933. It evolved from the Ditadura Nacional ("National Dictatorship") formed after the coup d'état of 28 May 1926 against the unstable First Republic . Together,
236-581: A decades-long civil war which involved the Soviet Union , Cuba, South Africa, and the United States. Millions of Angolans died in the aftermath of independence due to armed conflict, malnutrition and disease. After a brief period of stability, Mozambique became embroiled in a civil war which left it one of the poorest nations in the world. The country's situation improved after the 1990s, and multi-party elections have been held. East Timor
354-437: A founding member of NATO . President Óscar Carmona died in 1951 after 25 years in office and was succeeded by Francisco Craveiro Lopes . However, Lopes was not willing to give Salazar the free hand that Carmona had given him, and was forced to resign just before the end of his term in 1958. Naval Minister Américo Tomás , a staunch conservative, ran in the 1958 elections as the official candidate. General Humberto Delgado
472-647: A 16-year struggle to sustain parliamentary democracy under republicanism – the Portuguese First Republic (1910–1926). The 28 May 1926 coup d'état or, during the period of Estado Novo , the National Revolution ( Portuguese : Revolução Nacional ), was a military action that put an end to the chaotic Portuguese First Republic and initiated the Ditadura Militar (Military Dictatorship) which in 1928 transitioned into
590-457: A brief training course and had served in the colonies' defensive campaigns at the same rank as academy graduates. In February 1974, Caetano decided to remove General António de Spínola from the command of Portuguese forces in Guinea in the face of Spínola's increasing disagreement with the promotion of military officers and the direction of Portuguese colonial policy. This occurred shortly after
708-478: A corporatist state representing interest groups rather than individuals. The leaders wanted a system in which the people would be represented through corporations, rather than through divisive parties, and where national interest was given priority over sectional claims. Salazar thought that the party system had failed irretrievably in Portugal. Unlike Mussolini or Hitler , Salazar never had the intention to create
826-607: A dictatorial country, it pursued economic policies aligned with those of democratic and developed nations. The first steps toward economic integration began in 1948 when Portugal joined the Marshall Plan , and subsequently became a founding member of the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC). In 1960, Portugal joined the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), which allowed
944-434: A fast pace. Although Caetano was fundamentally authoritarian, he did make some efforts to open up the regime. Soon after taking power, he rebranded the regime as the "Social State", and slightly increased freedom of speech and the press. These measures did not go nearly far enough for a significant element of the population who had no memory of the instability which preceded Salazar. The people were also disappointed that Caetano
1062-414: A free hand since appointing him prime minister and continued to do so. Carmona and his successors would largely be figureheads as Salazar wielded the true power. Wiarda argues that Salazar achieved his position of power not just because of constitutional stipulations, but also because of his character: domineering, absolutist, ambitious, hardworking, and intellectually brilliant. The corporatist constitution
1180-578: A growing economy sparked new technical and organisational challenges. On 13 November 1972, Fundo do Ultramar (The Overseas Fund, a sovereign wealth fund ) was enacted with Decreto-Lei n.º 448/ /72 and the Ministry of Defence ordinance Portaria 696/72 to finance the war. The increasing burden of the war effort meant that the government had to find continuous sources of financing. Decreto-Lei n.º 353, of 13 July 1973 and Decreto-Lei n.º 409 of 20 August 1973 were enforced to reduce military expenses and increase
1298-435: A million Portuguese "returned" – the retornados . The Carnation Revolution got its name from the fact that almost no shots were fired, and from restaurant worker Celeste Caeiro who offered carnations to soldiers when the population took to the streets to celebrate the end of the dictatorship. Other demonstrators followed suit and placed carnations in the muzzles of guns and on soldiers' uniforms. In Portugal, 25 April
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#17327649686451416-665: A mixed economy that was neither capitalist nor communist, and was instead organized along quasi-traditional framework of corporatism. There was extensive state regulation as well as dominance of private ownership of the means of production. Major industrialists of Portugal accepted extensive control in return for a guarantee of minimal public ownership, along with restrictions on economic competition. Salazar's economy organized employers and workers into guilds and syndicates, divided into industries such as transport, commerce and banking; guilds were also organized for farmers and rural workers, fishermen, and skilled professions. Within this framework,
1534-521: A multicultural, multiracial, and pluricontinental nation since the 15th century, losing its overseas territories in Africa and Asia would dismember the country and end Portuguese independence. In geopolitical terms, losing these territories would decrease the Portuguese state's self-sufficiency. Throughout the 1930s and 1940s, Salazar had strongly resisted Freyre's ideas, partly because Freyre claimed
1652-502: A party-state. Salazar was against the whole-party concept, he rejected the concept of a mass-mobilizing party that sought to control all aspects of life, as seen in fascist regimes and in 1930 he created the National Union , a single-party, but he created it as a non-ideological, non-party, a passive institution, serving more as a facade of political order rather than a power-holding organization in its own right. The National Union
1770-472: A profound impact on the country. The revolutionary Armed Forces Movement (MFA) began as an attempt to liberate Portugal from the Estado Novo regime and challenge new military laws which were coming into force . The laws would reduce the military budget and reformulate the Portuguese military. Younger military-academy graduates resented Caetano's programme of commissioning militia officers who completed
1888-422: A registered electorate of 1,330,258) counting as "yes". Hugh Kay points out that the large number of abstentions might be attributable to the fact that voters were presented with a package deal to which they had to say "yes" or "no" with no opportunity to accept one clause and reject another. In this referendum, women were allowed to vote for the first time in Portugal. Their right to vote had not been obtained during
2006-601: A renegade Portuguese government in opposition to Salazar in Luanda . Galvão released the passengers in negotiation with Brazilian officials in exchange for political asylum in Brazil. Later that year hijackers forced an aircraft to circle Lisbon to drop leaflets against the dictatorship. After that, the six hijackers forced the crew to fly them back to Morocco. In 1962, the Academic Crisis occurred. The regime, fearing
2124-562: A turbulent period, known as the Processo Revolucionário Em Curso (Ongoing Revolutionary Process). The conservative forces surrounding Spinola and the MFA radicals initially confronted each other covertly or overtly, and Spinola was forced to appoint key MFA figures to senior security positions. Right-wing military figures attempted an unsuccessful counter-coup , leading to Spinola's removal from office. Unrest within
2242-477: A watershed of legislation in Portuguese history. Under Salazar's supervision, Teotónio Pereira , the Sub-Secretary of State of Corporations and Social Welfare, reporting directly to Salazar, enacted extensive legislation that shaped the corporatist structure and initiated a comprehensive social welfare system. This system was equally anti-capitalist and anti-socialist. The corporatization of the working class
2360-522: Is a national holiday ( Portuguese : Dia da Liberdade , Freedom Day) that commemorates the revolution. By the 1970s, nearly a half-century of authoritarian rule weighed on Portugal. The 28 May 1926 coup d'état implemented an authoritarian regime incorporating social Catholicism and integralism . In 1933, the regime was renamed the Estado Novo (New State). António de Oliveira Salazar served as Prime Minister until 1968. In sham elections
2478-586: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Carnation Revolution The Carnation Revolution ( Portuguese : Revolução dos Cravos ), also known as the 25 April (Portuguese: 25 de Abril ), was a military coup by military officers that overthrew the authoritarian Estado Novo government on 25 April 1974 in Lisbon, producing major social, economic, territorial, demographic, and political changes in Portugal and its overseas colonies through
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#17327649686452596-447: The Ditadura Nacional (National Dictatorship). Salazar became prime minister in 1932, and in 1933 renamed it the Estado Novo (New State), defining Portugal as a corporative, single-party and multi-continental country. With fascist organizations being popular and widely supported across many countries (like Italian Fascism and National Socialism ) as an antagonist of communist ideologies, António de Oliveira Salazar developed
2714-673: The 25 de Abril Bridge began on 5 November 1962. It opened on 6 August 1966 as the Salazar Bridge, named after Estado Novo leader António de Oliveira Salazar . Soon after the Carnation Revolution of 1974, the bridge was renamed the 25 de Abril Bridge to commemorate the revolution. Citizens who removed the large, brass "Salazar" sign from a main pillar of the bridge and painted a provisional "25 de Abril" in its place were recorded on film. Many Portuguese streets and squares are named vinte e cinco de Abril (25 April), for
2832-673: The Armed Forces Movement (MFA) – led to the end of the Estado Novo . King Carlos I of Portugal confirmed colonial treaties of the 19th century that stabilized the situation in Portuguese Africa . These agreements were, however, unpopular in Portugal, where they were seen as being to the disadvantage of the country. In addition, Portugal was declared bankrupt twice – first on 14 June 1892 and again on 10 May 1902 – causing industrial disturbances, socialist and republican antagonism, and press criticism of
2950-717: The Ditadura Nacional and the Estado Novo are recognised by historians as the Second Portuguese Republic ( Portuguese : Segunda República Portuguesa ). The Estado Novo , greatly inspired by conservative and autocratic ideologies, was developed by António de Oliveira Salazar , who was President of the Council of Ministers from 1932 until illness forced him out of office in 1968. Opposed to communism , socialism , syndicalism , anarchism , liberalism and anti-colonialism , and fascism ,
3068-464: The Estado Novo as an alternative; Estado Novo a conservative authoritarian regime that was neither fascist nor totalitarian. Salazar's regime can be described as a syncretic corporatist government; Portuguese historian Ernesto C. Leal described the ideology of Salazar and his state as a combination of anti-liberalism, conservatism and authoritarian nationalism that featured social corporatism and Catholic corporatism . The basis of Salazar's regime
3186-700: The German invasion of the Soviet Union . From 1943 onward, Portugal favoured the Allies, leasing air bases in the Azores . Portugal reluctantly leased the Azores as a direct result of being threatened with invasion should Portugal not cater to the requests of the Allies. As an official neutral, Portugal traded with both sides. It cut off vital shipments of tungsten and rubber to Germany in 1944, after heavy pressure from
3304-533: The Northern Hemisphere . Salazar suffered a stroke in 1968. As it was thought that he did not have long to live, Tomás replaced him with Marcelo Caetano, former rector of the University of Lisbon and prominent scholar of its law school, and despite his protest resignation in 1962, a supporter of the regime. Salazar was never informed of this decision, and reportedly died in 1970 still believing he
3422-573: The Portuguese First Republic (1910–1926). Following the First Republic, when not even public order had been achieved, this looked like an impressive breakthrough to most of the population; at this point, Salazar achieved the height of his popularity. This transformation of Portugal was then known as A Lição de Salazar – "Salazar's Lesson". Salazar's program was opposed to communism , socialism , and liberalism . It
3540-604: The Processo Revolucionário Em Curso . It resulted in the Portuguese transition to democracy and the end of the Portuguese Colonial War . The revolution began as a coup organised by the Armed Forces Movement (Portuguese: Movimento das Forças Armadas , MFA), composed of military officers who opposed the regime, but it was soon coupled with an unanticipated popular civil resistance campaign. Negotiations with African independence movements began, and by
3658-507: The death of Adolf Hitler . After World War II (1939–1945), however, the corporatist economic model was less and less applicable. And after decolonization in the 1950s and 1960s, the Portuguese regime became also a source of criticism and dissent by most of the international community. Nevertheless, Salazar clung to it, thereby slowing the nation's long-term economic development. Salazar's postwar policy allowed some liberalization in politics, in terms of organized opposition with more freedom of
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3776-511: The 1960s, the outbreak of colonial wars in Africa set off significant social changes, among them the rapid incorporation of women into the labour market. Independence movements began in the African colonies of Portuguese Mozambique , Portuguese Congo , Portuguese Angola , and Portuguese Guinea . The Salazar and Caetano regimes responded with diverting more and more of Portugal's budget to colonial administration and military expenditure , and
3894-409: The 1961–1974 Portuguese Colonial War . Salazar had a stroke in 1968, and was replaced as prime minister by Marcelo Caetano , who adopted a slogan of "continuous evolution", suggesting reforms, such as a monthly pension to rural workers who had never contributed to Portugal's social security . Caetano's Primavera Marcelista (Marcelist Spring) included greater political tolerance and freedom of
4012-480: The Allies. Lisbon was the base for International Red Cross operations aiding Allied POWs and was the main air transit point between Britain and the U.S. In 1942, Australian troops briefly occupied Portuguese Timor , but were soon overwhelmed by invading Japanese. Salazar worked to regain control of East Timor, which came about after the Japanese surrender in 1945. In 1945, Portugal declared two days of mourning for
4130-519: The EEC average, slightly exceeding the level at the height of the revolutionary period. A January 2011 story in the Diário de Notícias (a Portuguese tabloid format newspaper) reported that the government of Portugal encouraged overspending and investment bubbles in public-private partnerships between 1974 and 2010, and the economy has been damaged by risky credit , public debt creation, overstaffing in
4248-578: The EEC average. Due to revolutionary economic policies, oil shocks, recession in Europe and the return of hundreds of thousands of overseas Portuguese from its former colonies, Portugal began an economic crisis in 1974–1975. Real gross domestic product growth resumed as a result of Portugal's economic resurgence since 1985 and adhesion to the European Economic Community (EEC). The country's 1991 per-capita GDP reached 54.9 percent of
4366-465: The European Union. The constitution of 1976 guarantees all religions the right to practise, and non-Catholic groups are recognised as legal entities with the right to assemble . Non-Catholic conscientious objectors have the right to apply for alternative military service. The Catholic Church , however, still sought to impede other missionary activity. Construction of what is now called
4484-518: The First Republic, despite feminist efforts, and even in the referendum vote, secondary education was a requirement for female voters, whereas males only needed to be able to read and write. The right for women to vote was later broadened twice under the Estado Novo. The first time was in 1946 and the second time in 1968 under Marcelo Caetano, law 2137 proclaimed the equality of men and women for electoral purposes. The 1968 electoral law did not make any distinction between men and women. The year 1933 marked
4602-724: The Land Reform Review Law the following year. Restoration of illegally occupied land began in 1978. In 1960, Portugal's per-capita GDP was 38 percent of the European Economic Community average. By the end of the Salazar period in 1968 it had risen to 48 percent, and in 1973 it had reached 56.4 percent; the percentages were affected by the 40 percent of the budget which underwrote the African wars. In 1975 (the year of greatest revolutionary turmoil), Portugal's per-capita GDP declined to 52.3 percent of
4720-580: The MFA between leftist forces often close to the Communist Party , and more moderate groups often allied with the Socialists eventually led to the group's splintering and dissolution. This stage of the PREC lasted until the coup of 25 November 1975 , led by a group of far-left officers, specifically Otelo Saraiva de Carvalho. It was said to be a Communist plot to seize power, in order to discredit
4838-566: The National Assembly—which was firmly controlled by the regime—serving as an electoral college . On 23 January 1961, military officer and politician Henrique Galvão led the hijacking of the Portuguese passenger ship Santa Maria . The terrorist operation was successful as anti-regime propaganda but killed one man in the process. Galvão claimed that his intentions were to sail to the Overseas Province of Angola to set up
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4956-479: The PVDE, Polícia de Vigilância e Defesa do Estado), persecuted opponents of the regime, who were often tortured, imprisoned or killed. In 1958, General Humberto Delgado , a former member of the regime, stood against the regime's presidential candidate, Américo Tomás , and refused to allow his name to be withdrawn. Tomás won the election amidst claims of widespread electoral fraud, and the Salazar government abandoned
5074-471: The Portuguese Army had retreated. A consequence of the Carnation Revolution was the sudden withdrawal of Portuguese administrative and military personnel from its overseas colonies. Hundreds of thousands of Portuguese Africans returned to Portugal, becoming known as the retornados . These people—workers, small business people, and farmers—often had deep roots in the former colonies. Angola began
5192-408: The Portuguese were more prone than other European nations to miscegenation . Salazar adopted lusotropicalism only after sponsoring Freyre on a visit to Portugal and some of its overseas territories in 1951 and 1952. Freyre's work, Aventura e Rotina ( Adventure and Routine ) resulted from this visit. Under the Estado Novo regime, Portugal's most notable sports star, Eusébio da Silva Ferreira , and
5310-814: The United States, many hundreds of thousands to Germany, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, Luxembourg, Venezuela, or Brazil. Political parties, such as the Socialist Party , persecuted at home, were established in exile. The only party which managed to continue (illegally) operating in Portugal during all the dictatorship was the Portuguese Communist Party. In 1964, Delgado founded the Portuguese National Liberation Front in Rome , stating in public that
5428-512: The budget and stabilized Portugal's currency. Restoring order to the national accounts, enforcing austerity, and red-penciling waste, Salazar produced the first of many budgetary surpluses, an unparalleled novelty in Portugal. In July 1940, the American Life magazine featured an article on Portugal, and, referring to its recent chaotic history, asserted that "anyone who saw Portugal 15 years ago might well have said it deserved to die. It
5546-538: The building of a major oil processing center in Sines . The economy reacted very well at first, but into the 1970s some serious problems began to show, due in part to two-digit inflation (from 1970 and on) and to the effects of the 1973 oil crisis . However, the 1973 oil crisis had a potentially beneficial effect on Portugal because the largely unexploited oil reserves that Portugal had in its overseas territories of Angola and São Tomé and Príncipe were being developed at
5664-1099: The central state apparatus". In regards to trade, the Estado Novo was extensively protectionist. Corporate statism Corporate statism , state corporatism , or simply corporatism, is a political culture and a form of corporatism the proponents of which claim or believe that corporate groups should form the basis of society and the state . By this principle, the state requires all citizens to belong to one of several officially designated interest groups (based generally on economic sector ), which consequently have great control of their members. Such interest groups thus attain public status, and they or their representatives participate with national policymaking , at least formally. Societies have existed historically which exemplified corporate statism, for instance as propounded by Othmar Spann in Austria and implemented by Benito Mussolini in Italy (1922–1943), António de Oliveira Salazar 's Estado Novo in Portugal (1933–1974) and by
5782-400: The country became increasingly isolated from the rest of the world, facing increasing internal dissent, arms embargoes and other international sanctions . By the early-1970s, the Portuguese military was overstretched and there was no political solution in sight. Although the number of casualties was relatively small, the war had entered its second decade; Portugal faced criticism from
5900-572: The country became increasingly polarised. Thousands of left-wing students and anti-war activists avoided conscription by emigrating illegally , primarily to France and the United States . Meanwhile three generations of right-wing militants in Portuguese schools were guided by a revolutionary nationalism partially influenced by European neo-fascism , and supported the Portuguese Empire and an authoritarian regime. The war had
6018-551: The country to integrate its industries with European markets while protecting its agriculture and fisheries, where it could not compete with Northern European nations. Portugal also expanded its economic ties globally by joining the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1962. Under Marcelo Caetano , who replaced an aging Salazar as prime minister in 1968, the country continued to liberalize its economy and advance European integration. This effort culminated in
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#17327649686456136-424: The day of the revolution. The Portuguese Mint chose the 40th anniversary of the Carnation Revolution for its 2014 2 euro commemorative coin . Freedom Day (25 April) is a national holiday , with state-sponsored and spontaneous commemorations of the civil liberties and political freedoms achieved after the revolution. It commemorates the 25 April 1974 revolution and Portugal's first free elections on that date
6254-400: The decolonisation period, and established multi-party political systems by the early 1990s. By a treaty signed in 1974, Portugal recognised the incorporation of former Portuguese India into India . The 1961 annexation of the tiny Portuguese colony of Fort of São João Baptista de Ajudá by Benin was also recognised by Portugal in 1975. A 1978 Portuguese offer to return Macau to China
6372-571: The disc jockey at Emissores Associados de Lisboa gave the time signal Falta cinco minutos às vinte e três at 10:55 p.m. on 24 April before turntabling Paulo de Carvalho 's " E Depois do Adeus " (Portugal's entry in the 1974 Eurovision Song Contest ). This alerted rebel captains and soldiers to begin the coup. The second signal came at 12:20 a.m. on 25 April, when Rádio Renascença broadcast " Grândola, Vila Morena " (a song by Zeca Afonso , an influential political folk musician and singer, many of whose songs were banned from Portuguese radio at
6490-641: The dos Santos family ( Jerónimo Martins ). One of the largest was the Companhia União Fabril (CUF), with a wide range of interests including cement, petro and agro chemicals, textiles, beverages, naval and electrical engineering, insurance , banking, paper, tourism and mining, with branches, plants and projects throughout the Portuguese Empire. Other medium-sized family companies specialised in textiles (such as those in Covilhã and
6608-442: The early-1970s. Rural families engaged in agriculture and forestry. Income from the colonies came from resource extraction, of oil, coffee, cotton, cashews, coconuts, timber, minerals (including diamonds), metals (such as iron and aluminium), bananas, citrus, tea, sisal, beer, cement, fish and other seafood, beef and textiles. Labour unions were subject to severe restrictions, and minimum wage laws were not enforced. Starting in
6726-536: The end of 1974, Portuguese troops were withdrawn from Portuguese Guinea , which became a UN member state as Guinea-Bissau . This was followed in 1975 by the independence of Cape Verde , Mozambique , São Tomé and Príncipe and Angola in Africa and the declaration of independence of East Timor in Southeast Asia . These events prompted a mass exodus of Portuguese citizens from Portugal's African territories (mostly from Angola and Mozambique), creating over
6844-638: The fall of the Estado Novo in 1974, Portugal still had the lowest per capita income and the lowest literacy rate in Western Europe. However, this economic convergence slowed or even reversed after the end of the Estado Novo, as political and economic instability in the post-1974 period hampered further progress. On 25 April 1974, the Carnation Revolution in Lisbon , a military coup organized by left-wing Portuguese military officers –
6962-480: The family. We are against class warfare, irreligion and disloyalty to one's country; against serfdom, a materialistic conception of life, and might over right." however the Estado Novo adopted many fascist characteristics with the Legião Portuguesa , Mocidade Portuguesa , and Corporatism being the most prominent examples; after the end of World War II, Salazar distanced his regime from fascism. Portugal
7080-560: The finance ministry. He pleaded ill-health, devotion to his aged parents and a preference for the academic cloisters. In 1927, under the ministry of Sinel de Cordes , the public deficit kept on growing. The government tried to obtain loans from Baring Brothers under the auspices of the League of Nations , but the conditions were considered unacceptable. With Portugal under the threat of an imminent financial collapse, Salazar finally agreed to become its 81st finance minister on 26 April 1928 after
7198-471: The first constitutional government, led by centre-left socialist Mário Soares , took office. Before April 1974, the intractable Portuguese colonial war in Africa consumed up to 40 percent of the Portuguese budget. Although part of Guinea-Bissau became independent de facto in 1973, Bissau (its capital) and the large towns were still under Portuguese control. In Angola and Mozambique independence movements were active in more remote rural areas from which
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#17327649686457316-414: The formation of large conglomerates . The regime maintained a policy of corporatism which resulted in the placement of much of the economy in the hands of conglomerates including those founded by the families of António Champalimaud ( Banco Totta & Açores , Banco Pinto & Sotto Mayor , Secil , Cimpor ), José Manuel de Mello ( Companhia União Fabril ), Américo Amorim ( Corticeira Amorim ) and
7434-578: The government (and the opposition) were planning the succession of Spanish dictator Francisco Franco . Franco died a year and a half later, in 1975. Four civilians were shot dead by government forces under the Directorate General of Security, whose personnel involved were later arrested by the MFA for their murders. After the coup, power was held by the National Salvation Junta (a military junta). Portugal experienced
7552-502: The government candidate usually ran unopposed, while the opposition used the limited political freedoms allowed during the brief election period to protest, withdrawing their candidates before the election to deny the regime political legitimacy . The Estado Novo's political police, the PIDE (Polícia Internacional e de Defesa do Estado, later the DGS, Direcção-Geral de Segurança and originally
7670-407: The gravity of the offence, were usually sent to jail or transferred from one university to another in order to destabilize oppositionist networks and their hierarchical organization. The students, with strong support from the clandestine Portuguese Communist Party , responded with demonstrations which culminated on 24 March with a huge student demonstration in Lisbon, which was vigorously suppressed by
7788-450: The growing popularity of both purely democratic and communist ideas among the students, carried out the boycott and closure of several student associations and organizations, including the important National Secretariat of Portuguese Students. Most members of this organization were opposition militants, among them many communists. Anti-regime political activists were investigated and persecuted by PIDE-DGS (the secret police), and according to
7906-400: The hardliners in the regime—most notably Tomás, who was not nearly as willing to give Caetano the free rein that he gave Salazar. Caetano was thus in no position to resist when Tomás and the other hardliners forced the end of the reform experiment in 1973. Portugal's overriding problem in 1926 was its enormous public debt. Several times between 1926 and 1928, Salazar turned down appointments to
8024-537: The international community, and was becoming increasingly isolated. In 1973 the UN General Assembly passed a resolution calling for Portugal's immediate withdrawal from Guinea. Atrocities such as the Wiriyamu Massacre undermined the war's popularity and the government's diplomatic position, although details of the massacre are still disputed. The war became unpopular in Portugal, and
8142-403: The interwar Federal State of Austria . After World War II , corporate statism influenced the rapid development of South Korea and Japan. Corporate statism most commonly manifests itself as a ruling party acting as a mediator between the workers, capitalists and other major state interests by incorporating them institutionally into the government. Corporatist systems were most prevalent during
8260-548: The main headquarters of the Lisbon military police, the National Republican Guard , at the Largo do Carmo. This building was surrounded by the MFA, which pressured him to cede power to General Spínola. Caetano and President Américo Tomás were sent to Brazil; Caetano spent the rest of his life there, and Tomás returned to Portugal a few years later. The revolution was closely watched by neighbouring Spain, where
8378-581: The mid-20th century in Europe and later elsewhere in developing countries. One criticism is that interests, both social and economic, are so diverse that a state cannot possibly define or organize them effectively by incorporating them. Corporate statism differs from corporate nationalism in that it is a social mode of organization rather than economic nationalism operating by means of private business corporations . The topic remains controversial in some countries, including South Korea, Japan, and Portugal. This article about political philosophy or theory
8496-401: The military coup into a popular revolution "led by radical army officers, soldiers, workers and peasants that toppled the senile Salazar dictatorship, using the language of socialism and democracy. The attempt to radicalise the outcome", noted a contemporary observer of the time, "had little mass support and was easily suppressed by the Socialist Party and its allies." Caetano found refuge in
8614-399: The monarchy. Carlos responded by appointing João Franco as prime minister and subsequently accepting parliament's dissolution. In 1908, Carlos I was assassinated in Lisbon by anti-monarchists. The Portuguese monarchy lasted until 1910 when, through the 5 October revolution , it was overthrown and Portugal was proclaimed a republic . The overthrow of the Portuguese monarchy in 1910 led to
8732-538: The most decorated military officer of the Portuguese Armed Forces, Marcelino da Mata , were both black Portuguese citizens born and raised in Portugal's African territories. The Estado Novo based its political philosophy around a close interpretation of the Catholic social doctrine , much like the contemporary regime of Engelbert Dollfuss in Austria. The economic system, known as corporatism ,
8850-636: The northwest), ceramics, porcelain, glass and crystal (such as those in Alcobaça , Caldas da Rainha and Marinha Grande ), engineered wood (such as SONAE , near Porto ), canned fish ( Algarve and the northwest), fishing, food and beverages (liqueurs, beer and port wine ), tourism (in Estoril , Cascais , Sintra and the Algarve ) and agriculture (the Alentejo , known as the breadbasket of Portugal) by
8968-442: The number of officers by incorporating militia and military-academy officers as equals. According to government estimates, about 900,000 hectares (2,200,000 acres) of agricultural land were seized between April 1974 and December 1975 as part of land reform ; about 32 percent of the appropriations were ruled illegal. In January 1976, the government pledged to restore the illegally occupied land to its owners in 1976, and enacted
9086-562: The official workers' syndicates that replaced free trade unions. According to Howard Wiarda, "The men who came to power in the Estado Novo were genuinely concerned with the poverty and backwardness of their nation, divorcing themselves from Anglo-American political influences while developing a new indigenous political model and alleviating the miserable living conditions of both rural and urban poor." The new constitution introduced by Salazar established an anti-parliamentarian and authoritarian government that would last until 1974. The president
9204-541: The only way to end the Estado Novo would be by a military coup , while many others advocated a "national uprising" approach. Delgado and his Brazilian secretary, Arajaryr Moreira de Campos, were murdered on 13 February 1965 in Spain in an ambush by PIDE. According to some Portuguese right-wing scholars like Jaime Nogueira Pinto and Rui Ramos , Salazar's early reforms and policies allowed political and financial stability and therefore social order and economic growth, after
9322-401: The overseas societies in the African and Asian possessions. Under the Estado Novo , Portugal tried to perpetuate a vast, centuries-old empire with a total area of 2,168,071 square kilometres (837,097 sq mi), while other former colonial powers had, by this time, largely acceded to global calls for self-determination and independence of their overseas colonies. Although Portugal was
9440-566: The political front, Portugal was a founding member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1949, and joined the United Nations (UN) in 1955. From 1950 until Salazar's death in 1970, Portugal saw its GDP per capita increase at an annual average rate of 5.7 per cent, leading to significant economic convergence with wealthier Western European nations. Despite this remarkable economic growth, by
9558-421: The politically unstable and financially chaotic years of the Portuguese First Republic (1910–1926). Other historians, like left-wing politician Fernando Rosas , point out that Salazar's policies from the 1930s to the 1950s, led to economic and social stagnation and rampant emigration, turning Portugal into one of the poorest countries in Europe, that was also thwarted by scoring lower on literacy than its peers of
9676-412: The powerful Communist Party. It was followed by a successful counter-coup by more centrist officers, and was marked by constant friction between liberal-democratic forces and leftist-communist political parties. Portugal's first free election was held on 25 April 1975 to write a new constitution replacing the 1933 constitution in force during the Estado Novo era. Another election was held in 1976, and
9794-551: The practice of popularly electing the president and gave the task to the National Assembly . Portugal's Estado Novo government remained neutral in the second world war, and was initially tolerated by its NATO post-war partners due to its anti-communist stance. As the Cold War developed, Western Bloc and Eastern Bloc states vied with each other in supporting guerrillas in the Portuguese colonies , leading to
9912-456: The press , and was seen as an opportunity for the opposition to gain concessions from the regime. In 1969, Caetano authorised the country's first democratic labour union movement since the 1920s. However, after the elections of 1969 and 1973 , hard-liners in the government and the military pushed back against Caetano, with political repression against communists and anti-colonialists . The Estado Novo regime's economic policy encouraged
10030-403: The press. Opposition parties were tolerated to an extent, but they were also controlled, limited, and manipulated, with the result that they split into factions and never formed a united opposition. He permitted the formation of Movement of Democratic Unity ( Movimento de Unidade Democrática ) in 1945. It boycotted the election and Salazar won handily on 18 November 1945. In 1949 Portugal became
10148-463: The principle of the superiority of state political power in social life, [and] the propensity for organizing masses behind a single leader" as fundamental differences between fascism and the Catholic corporatism of the Estado Novo . Salazar's own party, the National Union , was formed as a subservient umbrella organization to support the regime itself, and therefore did not have its own philosophy. At
10266-498: The public sector, a rigid labour market and mismanaged European Union 's structural and cohesion funds for almost four decades. Prime Minister José Sócrates ' cabinet was unable to foresee or forestall this when symptoms first appeared in 2005, and could not ameliorate the situation when Portugal was on the verge of bankruptcy in 2011 and required financial assistance from the International Monetary Fund and
10384-722: The publication of Spínola's book, Portugal and the Future , which expressed his political and military views of the Portuguese Colonial War. Several military officers who opposed the war formed the MFA to overthrow the government in a military coup . The MFA was headed by Vítor Alves , Otelo Saraiva de Carvalho and Vasco Lourenço, and was joined later by Salgueiro Maia . The movement was aided by other Portuguese army officers who supported Spínola and democratic civil and military reform. The coup had two secret signals. First,
10502-402: The regime was conservative corporatist , and nationalist in nature, defending Portugal's traditional Catholicism . Its policy envisaged the perpetuation of Portugal as a pluricontinental nation under the doctrine of lusotropicalism , with Angola , Mozambique , and other Portuguese territories as extensions of Portugal itself, it being a supposed source of civilization and stability to
10620-421: The republican and Freemason Óscar Carmona was elected president. However, before accepting the position, he personally secured from Carmona a categorical assurance that as finance minister he would have a free hand to veto expenditure in all government departments, not just his own. Salazar was the financial czar virtually from the day he took office. Within one year, armed with special powers, Salazar balanced
10738-427: The revolution it was an underdeveloped country with poor infrastructure , inefficient agriculture and some of the worst health and education indicators in Europe. Pre-revolutionary Portugal had some social and economic achievements. After a long period of economic decline before 1914, the Portuguese economy recovered slightly until 1950. It began a period of economic growth in common with Western Europe, of which it
10856-510: The riot police. Marcelo Caetano , a distinguished member of the regime and the incumbent rector of the University of Lisbon , resigned. The reluctance of many young men to embrace the hardships of the Portuguese Colonial War resulted in tens of thousands of Portuguese citizens each year leaving to seek economic opportunities abroad in order to escape conscription. In over 15 years, nearly one million emigrated to France, another million to
10974-478: The signing of a free trade agreement with the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1972. When after Portugal, under the Third Portugese Republic, finally joined the EEC in 1986, most trade barriers with the rest of Western Europe had already been dismantled by the Estado Novo, with the exception of those relating to agricultural goods and fisheries and, more importantly, trade with Spain. On
11092-436: The state exercised extensive authority regarding private investment decisions and the level of wages. A relocation or constructions of an industrial plan, as well as investments into machinery or equipment to increase the capacity of already existing enterprises, required government approval. According to Howard J. Wiarda , "in reality both labor and capital and indeed the entire corporate institutional network were subordinate to
11210-425: The streets – mingling with, and supporting, the military insurgents. A central gathering point was the Lisbon flower market, then richly stocked with carnations (which were in season). Some of the insurgents put carnations in their gun barrels , an image broadcast on television worldwide which gave the revolution its name. Although no mass demonstrations preceded the coup, spontaneous civilian involvement turned
11328-552: The time). The MFA gave the signals to take over strategic points of power in the country. The content of the songs was largely uncontroversial—censorship would have prevented more inflammatory songs—their broadcasting was a signal, not a direct call to arms. Six hours later, the Caetano government relented. Despite repeated radio appeals from the "captains of April" (the MFA) advising civilians to stay home, thousands of Portuguese took to
11446-652: The time, many European countries feared the destructive potential of communism. Many members of the National Syndicalist Movement eventually joined the National Union. One overriding criticism of his regime is that stability was bought and maintained at the expense of suppression of human rights and liberties. The corporatist state had some similarities to Benito Mussolini 's Italian fascism, but considerable differences in its moral approach to governing. Although Salazar admired Mussolini and
11564-532: Was invaded by Indonesia , and remained occupied until 1999 . There were an estimated 102,800 conflict-related deaths from 1974 to 1999 (about 18,600 killings and 84,200 deaths from hunger and illness), most of which were incurred during the Indonesian occupation. After a long period of one-party rule, Guinea-Bissau experienced a brief civil war and a difficult transition to civilian rule in 1998. Cape Verde and São Tomé and Príncipe avoided civil war during
11682-473: Was a platform of stability, in direct contrast to the unstable environment of the First Republic . According to some Portuguese scholars like Jaime Nogueira Pinto and Rui Ramos, his early reforms and policies changed the whole nation by permitting political and financial stability and therefore a calm social order and economic growth , after the politically unstable and financially chaotic years of
11800-401: Was accompanied by strict legislation regulating business. Workers' organizations were subordinated to state control but granted a legitimacy that they had never before enjoyed and were made beneficiaries of a variety of new social programs. Nevertheless, it is important to note that even in the enthusiastic early years, corporatist agencies were not at the center of power and therefore corporatism
11918-419: Was approved in the national Portuguese constitutional referendum of 19 March 1933. A draft had been published one year before, and the public was invited to state any objections in the press. These tended to stay in the realm of generalities and only a handful of people, less than 6,000, voted against the new constitution. The new constitution was approved with 99.5% of the vote, but with 488,840 abstentions (in
12036-623: Was atrociously governed, bankrupt, squalid, ridden with disease and poverty. It was such a mess that the League of Nations coined a word to describe the absolute low in national welfare: 'Portuguese'. Then the Army overthrew the Republic which had brought the country to this sorry pass". Life added that ruling Portugal was difficult and explained how Salazar "found a country in chaos and poverty" and then reformed it". Under Salazar, Estado Novo featured
12154-425: Was based on similar interpretations of the papal encyclicals Rerum novarum ( Leo XIII , 1891) and Quadragesimo anno ( Pius XI , 1931), which were meant to prevent class struggle and transform economic concerns secondary to social values. Rerum novarum argued that labour associations were part of the natural order, like the family. The right of men to organize into trade unions and to engage in labour activities
12272-454: Was characterised by robust annual growth in GDP (6.9 percent), industrial production (nine percent), consumption (6.5 percent), and gross fixed capital formation (7.8 percent). The revolutionary period experienced a slowly-growing economy, whose only impetus was its 1986 entrance into the European Economic Community . Although Portugal never regained its pre-revolution growth, at the time of
12390-542: Was expelled from the Portuguese military and took refuge in the Brazilian embassy before going into exile, spending much of it in Brazil and later in Algeria. Even though the electoral system was so heavily rigged in favour of the National Union that Tomás could not have possibly been defeated, Salazar was not willing to leave anything to chance. He abolished the direct election of presidents in favour of indirect election by
12508-496: Was influenced by his Labour Charter of 1927 , Salazar distanced himself from fascist dictatorship, which he considered a pagan Caesarist political system that recognized neither legal nor moral limits. Salazar also viewed German Nazism as espousing pagan elements that he considered repugnant. Just before World War II, Salazar made this declaration: "We are opposed to all forms of Internationalism, Communism, Socialism, Syndicalism and everything that may divide or minimize, or break up
12626-678: Was not the true base of the whole system. In 1934, Portugal crushed the Portuguese Fascist Movement and exiled Francisco Rolão Preto as a part of a purge of the leadership of the Portuguese National Syndicalists , also known as the camisas azuis ("Blue Shirts"). Salazar denounced the National Syndicalists as "inspired by certain foreign models" and condemned their "exaltation of youth, the cult of force through direct action,
12744-495: Was officially neutral in the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939), but quietly furnished help to the nationalists of Francisco Franco . During World War II, 1939–1945, Portugal remained officially neutral , giving its highest priority to avoiding a Nazi invasion of the sort that was so devastating in most other European countries. The regime at first showed some pro- Axis sympathies; Salazar for example expressed approval for
12862-419: Was prime minister. Most of the people hoped Caetano would soften the edges of Salazar's authoritarian regime and modernize the already growing economy. Caetano moved on to foster economic growth and made important social improvements, such as the awarding of a monthly pension to rural workers who had never had the chance to pay social security . Some large-scale investments were made at the national level, such as
12980-507: Was pro- Catholic , conservative , and nationalistic . Its policy envisaged the perpetuation of Portugal as a pluricontinental empire, financially autonomous and politically independent from the dominating superpowers , and a source of civilization and stability to the overseas societies in the African and Asian possessions . To support his colonial policies, Salazar eventually adopted Brazilian historian Gilberto Freyre 's notion of lusotropicalism by asserting that, since Portugal had been
13098-602: Was refused, as the Chinese government did not want to risk jeopardising negotiations with the UK over returning Hong Kong. The territory remained a Portuguese colony until 1999, when it was transferred to China with a joint declaration , and enacted a " one country, two systems " policy similar to that of Hong Kong . The Portuguese economy changed significantly between 1961 and 1973. Total output (GDP at factory cost) had grown by 120 percent in real terms. The pre-revolutionary period
13216-673: Was set up to control and restrain public opinion rather than to mobilize it; the goal was to strengthen and preserve traditional values rather than to induce a new social order. Ministers, diplomats, and civil servants were never compelled to join the National Union. The legislature, called the National Assembly, was restricted to members of the National Union . It could initiate legislation, but only concerning matters that did not require government expenditures. The parallel Corporative Chamber included representatives of municipalities, religious, cultural, and professional groups, and of
13334-550: Was the opposition candidate—the only time in both incarnations of the Second Republic that an opposition candidate was still in the race on election day. Delgado was credited with only around 25% of the votes with 52.6% in favour of Tomás. The election had initially been seen as little better than a pantomime of democracy before a reporter asked Delgado whether he would retain Salazar if elected. Delgado famously replied, " Obviamente, demito-o! " ("Obviously, I'll sack him!") He
13452-400: Was the poorest country until the 1980s. Portuguese economic growth between 1960 and 1973 (under the Estado Novo regime) created an opportunity for integration with the developed economies of Western Europe despite the colonial war. Through emigration, trade, tourism and foreign investment, individuals and companies changed their patterns of production and consumption. The increasing complexity of
13570-416: Was thus inherent and could not be denied by employers or the state. Quadragesimo anno provided the blueprint for the erection of the corporatist system. A new constitution was drafted by a group of lawyers, businessmen, clerics, and university professors, with Salazar as the leading spirit and Marcelo Caetano also playing a major role. The constitution created the Estado Novo ('New State'), in theory
13688-424: Was to be elected by popular vote for a period of seven years. On paper, the new document vested sweeping, almost dictatorial powers in the hands of the president, including the power to appoint and dismiss the prime minister. The president was elevated to a position of preeminence as the "balance wheel", the defender and ultimate arbiter of national politics. President Carmona, however, had allowed Salazar more or less
13806-466: Was unwilling to open up the electoral system. The conduct of the 1969 and 1973 elections was little different from past elections over the previous four decades. The National Union—renamed People's National Action—swept every seat, as before. Also as before, the opposition was still barely tolerated; opposition candidates were subjected to harsh repression. However, Caetano had to expend all of his political capital to wring even these meager reforms out of
13924-459: Was well aware that the president's ability to dismiss the prime minister was, on paper, the only check on Salazar's power. Delgado's rallies subsequently attracted vast crowds. Evidence later surfaced that the PIDE had stuffed the ballot boxes with votes for Tomás, leading many neutral observers to conclude that Delgado would have won had Salazar allowed an honest election. After the elections, Delgado
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