42-552: Prionium serratum , the palmiet , is a robust, evergreen, semiaquatic, rhizomatous flowering plant growing to 2 m (6 ft 7 in) in height. It is the only species in the genus Prionium , and is endemic to South Africa ( Cape Province and KwaZulu-Natal ). Some authors have separated Prionium from the Thurniaceae , putting it instead in its own family, the Prioniaceae . The stem of P. serratum
84-568: A compost sock . Plants grown in compost socks have been shown to produce significantly more flavonoids , anthocyanins , fructose , glucose , sucrose , malic acid , and citric acid than fruit produced in the black plastic mulch or matted row systems. Similar results in an earlier study conducted by USDA confirms how compost plays a role in the bioactive qualities of two strawberry cultivars. Strawberries may be propagated by seed. Strawberries can be grown indoors in pots. Strawberries will not grow indoors in winter though an experiment using
126-452: A rhizome ( / ˈ r aɪ z oʊ m / RY -zohm ) is a modified subterranean plant stem that sends out roots and shoots from its nodes . Rhizomes are also called creeping rootstalks or just rootstalks . Rhizomes develop from axillary buds and grow horizontally. The rhizome also retains the ability to allow new shoots to grow upwards. A rhizome is the main stem of the plant that runs typically underground and horizontally to
168-452: A branched inflorescence about 1 m in length. Plants are hermaphroditic and pollination is anemophilous . The fruit is a dry dehiscent triangular capsule, with three seed chambers and arillate seeds which are hispid (with sclerenchymatous fibres) and winged. The net-like, black fibrous, reticulate leaf sheaths are often found on beaches near rivers with colonies of palmiet (see Gallery). New flower shoots are cooked as vegetables. P. serratum
210-595: A chill snake lurks in the grass", and his imagery was taken up by medieval and early modern writers, the snake beneath the strawberry standing for dangerous literature, or beautiful but unfaithful women, or eventually any risky pleasure. In this vein, Shakespeare 's King Richard III asks for a dish of strawberries while feigning friendship to his enemy; while in Othello , Iago shows Desdemona 's handkerchief "spotted with strawberries", implying she has been unfaithful and hinting at Iago's own devious plans. The strawberry
252-421: A combination of blue and red LED lamps shows that this could be achieved in principle. In Florida , winter is the natural growing season and harvesting begins in mid-November. Nitrogen fertilizer is often needed at the beginning of every planting year. There are normally adequate levels of phosphorus and potash when fields have been fertilized for other crops in preceding years. To provide more organic matter,
294-612: A cover crop of wheat or rye can be planted in the year before planting the strawberries. Strawberries prefer a somewhat acidic pH from 5.5 to 6.5, so lime is usually not required. To achieve top quality, berries are harvested at least every other day. The berries are picked with the caps and a section of the stem still attached. Strawberries need to remain on the plant until fully ripe, because they do not continue to ripen after being picked. The harvesting and cleaning process has not changed substantially over time. As they are delicate, strawberries are still often harvested by hand and packed in
336-535: A longer cropping season and more fruit. During the Green Revolution of the 1950s, agronomists used selective breeding to expand phenotypic diversity of the garden strawberry. Adoption of perpetual flowering hybrids not sensitive to changes in photoperiod gave higher yields and enabled production in California to expand. The phylogeny of the cultivated strawberry within the genus Fragaria of
378-477: A strawberry is an edible fruit. From a botanical point of view, it is not a berry but an aggregate accessory fruit, because the fleshy part is derived from the receptacle . Each apparent seed on the outside of the strawberry is actually an achene , a botanical fruit with a seed inside it. Raw strawberries are 91% water, 8% carbohydrates , 1% protein , and contain negligible fat (table). A reference amount of 100 grams (3.5 oz) supplies 33 kilocalories ,
420-551: Is oral allergy syndrome , but symptoms may also mimic hay fever or include dermatitis or hives , and, in severe cases, may cause breathing problems. Proteomic studies indicate that the allergen may be tied to a protein for the red anthocyanin biosynthesis expressed in strawberry ripening, named Fra a1 (Fragaria allergen1). White-fruited strawberry cultivars , lacking Fra a1, may be an option for strawberry allergy sufferers. They ripen but remain pale, appearing like immature berries. A virtually allergen-free cultivar named 'Sofar'
462-470: Is a perennial system of matted rows or mounds which has been used in cold growing regions for many years. In some areas, greenhouses are used; in principle they could provide strawberries during the off season for field crops. In the plasticulture system, raised beds are covered with plastic to prevent weed growth and erosion. Plants are planted through holes punched in this covering. Irrigation tubing can be run underneath if necessary. Another method uses
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#1732786738063504-750: Is a rich source of vitamin C (65% of the Daily Value , DV), and a good source of manganese (17% DV), with no other micronutrients in significant content (table). Strawberries contain a modest amount of essential unsaturated fatty acids in the achene (seed) oil. Garden strawberries contain diverse phytochemicals , including the dimeric ellagitannin agrimoniin, which is an isomer of sanguiin H-6 . Other polyphenols present include flavonoids , such as anthocyanins , flavanols , flavonols and phenolic acids , such as hydroxybenzoic acid and hydroxycinnamic acid . Although achenes comprise only about 1% of
546-487: Is a widely grown hybrid species of the genus Fragaria in the rose family, Rosaceae , collectively known as the strawberries, which are cultivated worldwide for their fruit . This is appreciated for its aroma, bright red colour, juicy texture, and sweetness. It is eaten either fresh or in prepared foods such as jam , juice , pies , ice cream , milkshakes , and chocolates . Artificial strawberry flavourings and aromas are widely used in commercial products. Botanically,
588-606: Is available. Strawberries are often grouped according to their flowering habit. Traditionally in the Northern Hemisphere, this has consisted of a division between "June-bearing" strawberries, which bear their fruit in the early summer and "ever-bearing" strawberries, which often bear several crops of fruit throughout the season. One plant throughout a season may produce 50 to 60 times or roughly once every three days. Strawberries occur in three basic flowering habits: short-day, long-day, and day-neutral. These describe
630-803: Is found in Italian, Flemish, and German art, and in English miniatures. In medieval depictions, the strawberry often appears in the Virgin Mary 's garden, while in the Madonna of the Strawberries , she is seated on a strawberry bed and garlanded with strawberry leaves. In the work of the late medieval painter Hieronymus Bosch , strawberries feature in The Garden of Earthly Delights amongst "frolicking male nudes". Fray Jose de Siguenza described
672-460: Is one of only four species in the family Thurniaceae and the only member of the family native to southern Africa. This species has a disjunct distribution along the southern and south-eastern seaboard from the Western Cape to KwaZulu-Natal on sandstone substrates , growing in dense mats in marshy areas, and in and along streams and rivers. Palmiet wetlands are ecosystems that greatly reduce
714-403: Is placed on sugars, acids, and volatile compounds, which improve the taste and fragrance of the ripe fruit. Esters , terpenes , and furans are the chemical compounds having the strongest relationships to strawberry flavour, sweetness and fragrance, with a total of 31 out of some 360 volatile compounds significantly correlated to desirable flavour and fragrance. In breeding strawberries for
756-554: Is up to 100 mm (3.9 in) in diameter and covered with the black, fibrous bases of old spirally arranged leaves, four-ranked or tristichous, as in the closely related family Juncaceae , a family in which it was previously placed - it also has close affinities with the bergpalmiet ( Tetraria thermalis ) in the Cyperaceae . The strap-like lanceolate leaves are rigid, with a high silica content, narrow, leathery, grey-green, and with toothed margins. The small, brown flowers are on
798-888: The Rosaceae family was determined by chloroplast genomics in 2021. The polyploidy (number of sets of chromosomes ) is shown as "2N" etc. by each species. Rosa and other genera [REDACTED] Potentilla (cinquefoils) [REDACTED] at least 11 other species F. viridis 2N (green strawberry) [REDACTED] F. orientalis 4N (eastern strawberry) [REDACTED] F. moschata 6N (musk strawberry) [REDACTED] F. mandshurica F. vesca ssp. vesca 2N (wild strawberry) [REDACTED] F. vesca ssp. bracteata 2N F. virginiana 8N (Virginia strawberry, parent species) [REDACTED] F. chiloensis 8N (Chilean strawberry, parent species) [REDACTED] F. x ananassa 8N (the hybrid garden strawberry) [REDACTED] In culinary terms,
840-583: The Keens Imperial cultivar from many hybrids, winning the Royal Horticultural Society 's Silver Cup. Both the names 'pine' and 'ananassa' meant "pineapple", for the fruit's flavour. Modern strawberries and both parent species are octoploid (8N, meaning they have 8 sets of 7 chromosomes ). The genome sequence of the garden strawberry was published in 2019. Further breeding in the following centuries produced varieties with
882-653: The Swedish botanist Carl Peter Thunberg in about 1772. The name evolved into wilde palmiet and then palmiet. Several rivers in the Western Cape have been named Palmiet River for this species growing along their courses - two of the larger ones are the Palmiet River mouthing between Betty's Bay and Kleinmond , and one having its source just west of Formosa Peak and eventually joining the Keurbooms River . Rhizomatous In botany and dendrology ,
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#1732786738063924-551: The United Kingdom, strawberries and cream is a popular dessert at the Wimbledon tennis tournament. Desserts using strawberries include pavlova , fraisier , and strawberry shortcake . The Roman poet Ovid wrote that in the past Golden Age, people had lived on wild fruits such as mountain strawberries. Virgil wrote in his Eclogues that "Ye who cull flowers and low-growing strawberries, / Away from here lads;
966-565: The commercial market in the United States, the volatile compounds methyl anthranilate and gamma-decalactone , prominent in aromatic wild strawberries, are especially desired for their "sweet and fruity" aroma characteristics. As strawberry flavour and fragrance appeal to consumers, they are used widely in manufacturing, including foods, beverages, perfumes and cosmetics. Some people experience an anaphylactoid reaction to eating strawberries. The most common form of this reaction
1008-428: The day-length sensitivity of the plant and the type of photoperiod that induces flower formation. Day-neutral cultivars produce flowers regardless of the photoperiod. Strawberry cultivars vary widely in size, colour, flavour, shape, degree of fertility, season of ripening, liability to disease and constitution of plant. In 2022, world production of strawberries was 9.6 million tonnes , led by China with 35% of
1050-492: The ends, they are often also called runners such as in the strawberry plant. A stem tuber is a thickened part of a rhizome or stolon that has been enlarged for use as a storage organ . In general, a tuber is high in starch , e.g. the potato , which is a modified stolon. The term "tuber" is often used imprecisely and is sometimes applied to plants with rhizomes. The plant uses the rhizome to store starches , proteins , and other nutrients. These nutrients become useful for
1092-425: The ephemerality of earthly joys, or the benefit that blessed souls get from religion, or to allegorize death and resurrection; by the late 20th century, it had come to symbolize female sexuality. In Europe, until the 17th century cultivated plants were obtained by transplanting strawberries from the forests; the plants were propagated asexually by pegging down the runners , allowing them to root, and then separating
1134-458: The erosive damage done by floodwater. When palmiet is removed, streams may become choked by sediment and banks eroded by unchecked floodwater. Prionium is from the Greek for sawblade, while serratum is Latin for toothed. The name wilde palmit was used by Jan van Riebeeck for this plant, doubtless because of its close resemblance to palmito and the palmettos , and it was first noted by
1176-554: The field. Strawberries are popular in home gardens, and numerous cultivars have been selected for consumption and for exhibition purposes. The following cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society 's Award of Garden Merit : Around 200 species of pest arthropods attack strawberries. These include moths , fruit flies , chafers, strawberry root weevils, strawberry thrips, strawberry sap beetles, strawberry crown moth, mites , and aphids . Non-arthropod pests include slugs. Some are vectors of plant diseases; for instance,
1218-445: The growth of rhizomes, specifically in rhubarb . Ethylene that was applied externally was found to affect internal ethylene levels, allowing easy manipulations of ethylene concentrations. Knowledge of how to use these hormones to induce rhizome growth could help farmers and biologists to produce plants grown from rhizomes, and more easily cultivate and grow better plants. Some plants have rhizomes that grow above ground or that lie at
1260-600: The new plants. F. virginiana , the Virginia strawberry, was brought to Europe from eastern North America; F. chiloensis , the Chilean strawberry, was brought from Chile by Amédée-François Frézier in 1714. At first introduction to Europe, the Chilean strawberry plants grew vigorously, but produced no fruit. French gardeners in Brittany in the 1750s noticed that the Chilean plants bore only female flowers. They planted
1302-416: The painting as embodying the strawberry as a symbol of the ephemerality of earthly joys. Modern scholars have seen the symbolism entirely differently: Clement Wertheim-Aymes believed it meant the blessed souls' benefit from religion; Pater Gerlach supposed it meant spiritual love; and Laurinda Dixon asserted it was part of an allegory of death and resurrection. By the late 20th century, the strawberry (and
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1344-469: The plant when new shoots must be formed or when the plant dies back for the winter. If a rhizome is separated, each piece may be able to give rise to a new plant. This is a process known as vegetative reproduction and is used by farmers and gardeners to propagate certain plants. This also allows for lateral spread of grasses like bamboo and bunch grasses . Examples of plants that are propagated this way include hops , asparagus , ginger , irises, lily of
1386-809: The soil surface, including some Iris species as well as ferns , whose spreading stems are rhizomes. Plants with underground rhizomes include gingers , bamboo , snake plant , the Venus flytrap , Chinese lantern , western poison-oak , hops, and Alstroemeria , and some grasses, such as Johnson grass , Bermuda grass , and purple nut sedge . Rhizomes generally form a single layer, but in giant horsetails , can be multi-tiered. Many rhizomes have culinary value, and some, such as zhe'ergen , are commonly consumed raw. Some rhizomes that are used directly in cooking include ginger, turmeric , galangal , fingerroot , and lotus . Strawberry The garden strawberry (or simply strawberry ; Fragaria × ananassa )
1428-445: The soil surface. Rhizomes have nodes and internodes and auxiliary buds. Roots do not have nodes and internodes and have a root cap terminating their ends. In general, rhizomes have short internodes, send out roots from the bottom of the nodes, and generate new upward-growing shoots from the top of the nodes. A stolon is similar to a rhizome, but stolon sprouts from an existing stem having long internodes and generating new shoots at
1470-1008: The strawberry aphid, Chaetosiphon fragaefolii , can carry the strawberry mild yellow-edge virus . Strawberry plants are subject to many diseases, especially when subjected to stress. The leaves may be infected by powdery mildew , leaf spot (caused by the fungus Sphaerella fragariae ), leaf blight (caused by the fungus Phomopsis obscurans ), and by a variety of slime molds . The crown and roots may fall victim to red stele, verticillium wilt, black root rot , and nematodes . The fruits are subject to damage from gray mold ( Botrytis cinerea ), rhizopus rot, and leather rot. The NPR1 gene from Arabidopsis thaliana , AtNPR1 , confers A. thaliana ' s broad-spectrum resistance when transexpressed in F. ananassa . This includes resistance to anthracnose, powdery mildew, and angular leaf spot. A 1997 study found that many wound volatiles were effective against gray mold ( B. cinerea ). Both Tribute and Chandler varieties benefited from
1512-461: The strawberry is not a berry but an aggregate accessory fruit; each apparent 'seed' on the outside of the strawberry is actually an achene , a botanical fruit with a seed inside it. The garden strawberry was first bred in Brittany , France, in the 1750s via a cross of F. virginiana from eastern North America and F. chiloensis , which was brought from Chile by Amédée-François Frézier in 1714. Cultivars of F. × ananassa have replaced
1554-583: The total and the United States and Turkey as other significant producers. Due to the relatively fragile nature of the strawberry, approximately 35 percent of the $ 2.2 billion United States crop was spoiled in 2020. An Idaho company announced plans to launch more durable gene-edited strawberries. In the U.S., as of 2021 , it cost growers around $ 35,000 per acre to plant and $ 35,000 per acre to harvest strawberries. For commercial production, plants can be propagated from bare root plants or plugs. One method of cultivation uses annual plasticulture ; another
1596-559: The total fresh weight of a strawberry, they contribute 11% of all polyphenols in the whole fruit; achene phytochemicals include ellagic acid , ellagic acid glycosides , and ellagitannins. Pelargonidin-3-glucoside is the major anthocyanin pigment in strawberries, giving them their red colour, with cyanidin-3-glucoside in smaller amounts. Strawberries also contain purple minor pigments, such as dimeric anthocyanins. Sweetness, fragrance and complex flavour are important attributes of strawberries. In plant breeding and farming, emphasis
1638-421: The treatments, although the effects vary widely with substance and variety. Strawberry plants metabolize these volatiles, more rapidly than do either blackberry or grape . Strawberries were eaten fresh with cream in the time of Thomas Wolsey in the court of King Henry VIII . Strawberries can be frozen or made into jam or preserves , as well as dried and used in prepared foods, such as cereal bars. In
1680-475: The valley , cannas , and sympodial orchids . Stored rhizomes are subject to bacterial and fungal infections , making them unsuitable for replanting and greatly diminishing stocks. However, rhizomes can also be produced artificially from tissue cultures . The ability to easily grow rhizomes from tissue cultures leads to better stocks for replanting and greater yields. The plant hormones ethylene and jasmonic acid have been found to help induce and regulate
1722-652: The wild woodland strawberry F. vesca among the Chilean plants to provide pollen; the Chilean strawberry plants then bore abundant fruits. In 1766, Antoine Nicolas Duchesne , in the gardens of the Palace of Versailles , France, found that F. ananassa was a hybrid of the recently arrived F. chiloensis and F. virginiana . In 1759, Philip Miller recorded the 'pine strawberry' ( F. ananassa ) in Chelsea, England . In 1806, also in England, Michael Keens of Isleworth selected
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1764-531: The woodland strawberry F. vesca in commercial production. In 2022, world production of strawberries exceeded nine million tons, led by China with 35% of the total. Strawberries have appeared in literature and art from Roman times; Virgil wrote about the snake lurking beneath the strawberry, an image reinterpreted by later writers including Shakespeare . Strawberries appear in Italian, Flemish, and German paintings, including Hieronymus Bosch 's The Garden of Earthly Delights . It has been understood to symbolize
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