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62-555: The style of petroglyph in discussion was originally identified at a number of sites located on Panaramitee sheep station as seen in figure 2. The first person to publish about the petroglyphs was Herbert Basedow , having examined several sites from the Panaramitee region. In this publication he also made the first qualified claims for the Pleistocene antiquity of rock art outside of Europe. In 1976 Lesley Maynard published

124-518: A petrograph (or pictograph ) is a rock painting. In common usage, the words are sometimes used interchangeably. Both types of image belong to the wider and more general category of rock art or parietal art . Petroforms , or patterns and shapes made by many large rocks and boulders over the ground, are also quite different. Inuksuit are not petroglyphs, but human-made rock forms found in Arctic regions. Petroglyphs have been found in all parts of

186-414: A saltwater crocodile was depicted at Panaramitee station. Since the extinction of most megafauna transpired at least 20,000 years ago and the extinction of saltwater crocodiles in this region millions of years ago, these speculations would suggest a very late antiquity. Modern dating techniques have not supported these claims, with the general consensus being that the style emerged during the first half of

248-453: A basis for the maps included in his Encyclopaedia of Aboriginal Australia: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander History, Society and Culture (1994) and the separate map published in 1996. The prevailing criticism of Tindale's influential overview of Australian tribes stresses the dangers in his guiding premise that there is an overlap between the language spoken by a group, and its tribal domains. In short, Tindale thought that speakers of

310-814: A doctorate by the Australian National University in 1980. During 1993 Tindale received unofficial confirmation of his appointment as an Officer of the Order of Australia (AO); this was presented posthumously, to his widow Muriel. Also in 1993, the South Australian Museum board named a public gallery in his honour. The editor of Tindale's paper on Groote Eylandt in 1925, Edgar Waite, changed his drawn boundaries as dotted lines, obtrusively insisting that Aboriginal people were nomadic, and not place-bound. When Tindale finally managed to print, unaltered, his own map, he represented

372-692: A landform or the surrounding terrain, such as rivers and other geographic features. Some petroglyph maps, depicting trails, as well as containing symbols communicating the time and distances travelled along those trails, exist; other petroglyph maps act as astronomical markers. As well as holding geographic and astronomical importance, other petroglyphs may also have been a by-product of various rituals: sites in India, for example, have seen some petroglyphs identified as musical instruments or " rock gongs ". Some petroglyphs likely formed types of symbolic communication, such as types of proto-writing . Later glyphs from

434-417: A later essay, argues that Tindale's map of Australian territories had not only achieved "iconic status", but had begun to exercise a deleterious impact on native title judgements made in suits that have been brought to court by Indigenous peoples following the landmark Mabo decision of 1992 , and negatively affect their rights to land tenure in a number of cases. In evaluating claims, there is, Burke argues,

496-443: A major work of reference even into the 21st century. He dedicated the book to German Pallottine missionary, linguist, and anthropologist Ernest Ailred Worms , with these words "To the memory of Father Ernest A. Worms whose active encouragement, beginning in the year 1952, led to the preparation of this work in its present form". The Adelaide Board for Anthropological Research began a programme for filming Aboriginal life in 1926, and

558-402: A paper called An archaeological approach to the study of Australian rock art which divided Australian rock art into three main styles: Panaramitee; simple figurative; and complex figurative. These styles were then considered to be chronological, morphing into more advanced styles as time progressed eventually evolving into more sophisticated art. This point of view is no longer widely accepted by

620-497: A particular study of the primitive Hepialidae or ghost moth family of the order Lepidoptera . In the 1920s he began to revise understanding of the Australian Mantidae ( Archimantis mantids ) and mole crickets . A point of departure was a meticulous analysis of the male genitalia of each species, as a guide to more precise classification, and, starting in 1932, over three decades he wrote several papers reordering

682-565: A position as a library cadet at the Adelaide Public Library , together with another cadet, the future physicist, Mark Oliphant . In 1919, he began work as an entomologist at the South Australian Museum . From his early years, he had acquired the habit of taking notes on everything he observed, and cross-indexing them before going to sleep, a practice which he continued throughout his life, and which lay at

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744-851: A temporary rock shelter were noticed adjacent to a Murugan temple which is in ruins on top of the Kothaiyurumbu hill. During recent years a large number of rock carvings has been identified in different parts of Iran. The vast majority depict the ibex . Rock drawings were found in December 2016 near Golpayegan , Iran , which may be the oldest drawings discovered, with one cluster possibly 40,000 years old. Accurate estimations were unavailable due to US sanctions. The oldest pictographs in Iran are seen in Yafteh cave in Lorestan that date back 40,000 and

806-454: A tendency to exaggerate the value of the earliest ethnographic reports of anthropologists like A. R. Radcliffe-Brown, A. P. Elkin , Tindale and others, and privilege it over more recent scholarship, although the accuracy of many of these "classic" texts and papers has, over time, often come to be viewed sceptically by modern anthropologists. Specifically, Burke noted that in his magnum opus , Tindale had recognised and mapped in

868-567: A year, accompanying the missionary Hubert E. Warren to sound out the area for an appropriate site for an Anglican mission, which as the Emerald River Mission , was subsequently established on west coast of Groote Eylandt . He followed this up with a further 9 months nearby on the mainland around the Roper River . Tindale wrote up his observations for the South Australian Museum in two continuous reports, which constitute

930-552: Is a key research tool for Australian Aboriginal people to discover evidence of their family lineage and connection with community. On the outbreak of World War 2, Tindale tried to enlist, but was rejected because of his poor eyesight. When Japan precipitated war with the United States however, Tindale's knowledge of Japanese, rare in Australia at the time, made him an asset for military intelligence. In 1942 Tindale joined

992-438: Is best remembered for his work mapping the various tribal groupings of Aboriginal Australians at the time of European settlement, shown in his map published in 1940. This map provided the basis of a map published by David Horton in 1996 and widely used in its online form today. Tindale's major work was Aboriginal Tribes of Australia: Their terrain, Environmental Controls, Distribution, Limits and Proper Names (1974). Tindale

1054-491: Is best remembered for his work mapping the various tribal groupings of Aboriginal Australians at the time of European settlement, which he based on his fieldwork and other sources, leading to the publication of his Map showing the distribution of the Aboriginal tribes of Australia in 1940. This interest began with a research trip to Groote Eylandt where Tindale's helper and interpreter, a Ngandi man, impressed him with

1116-771: Is harder to explain the common styles. This could be mere coincidence, an indication that certain groups of people migrated widely from some initial common area, or indication of a common origin. In 1853, George Tate presented a paper to the Berwick Naturalists' Club, at which a John Collingwood Bruce agreed that the carvings had "... a common origin, and indicate a symbolic meaning, representing some popular thought." In his cataloguing of Scottish rock art, Ronald Morris summarized 104 different theories on their interpretation. Other theories suggest that petroglyphs were carved by spiritual leaders, such as shamans , in an altered state of consciousness , perhaps induced by

1178-531: Is suspect, since there is evidence he disregarded the in situ observations of reliable earlier ethnographers in favour of material he later gathered from informants among the remnants in places like Palm Island . Margaret Sharpe has found problems with Tindale's mapping in South East Queensland , since he generally located other groups where Sharpe puts the Yugambeh people . When Tindale

1240-653: The Cape Barren Island Aboriginal reserve said that this contributed to their decision to advocate assimilation ("absorption") as a solution to "the half-caste problem". Tindale's vast collection, held at the South Australian Museum , is made up of genealogical information about Aboriginal communities throughout Australia, journals, papers, sound and film recordings, drawings, maps, photographs, vocabularies and personal correspondence. Each State Library in Australia holds copies of Tindale material pertaining to their respective state; for example,

1302-521: The Holocene epoch. Environmental changes allowed for the expansion of populations from refugia into more arid , central regions, subsequently spreading technological and social features including art. The oldest conclusive date for Panaramitee Style rock art belongs to Early Man cave with a minimum date range of 13,000 to 14,000 years before present. The art in the Laura region, although fitting within

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1364-645: The Nordic Bronze Age in Scandinavia seem to refer to some form of territorial boundary between tribes , in addition to holding possible religious meanings. Petroglyph styles have been recognised as having local or regional "dialects" from similar or neighboring peoples. Siberian inscriptions loosely resemble an early form of runes , although no direct relationship has been established. Petroglyphs from different continents show similarities. While people would be inspired by their direct surroundings, it

1426-658: The Royal Australian Air Force and, assigned the rank of wing commander , he was transferred to The Pentagon , where he worked with the Strategic Bombing Survey as an analyst for estimating the impact of bombing on the military and civilian population of Japan. In 1942 an Air Technical Intelligence Unit was established under Captain Frank T. McCoy at Hangar 7, Eagle Farm airfield just outside Brisbane, and on Tindale's initiative it

1488-564: The State Library of New South Wales has copies of genealogical charts and photographs from the communities of Boggabilla , Brewarrina , Cummeragunja , Kempsey , Menindee , Pilliga , Walgett , Wallaga Lake and Woodenbong . while the State Library of Queensland has genealogical sheets for the communities of Bentinck Island , Cherbourg , Doomadgee , Mona Mona Mission , Mornington Island , Palm Island , Woodenbong , Woorabinda and Yarrabah . Tindale's genealogical collection

1550-434: The Aboriginal peoples as filling every nook and cranny of what became colonial Australia, avowing their former presence, much to the unease of many cartographers, everywhere. In doing so he placed a disappearing people back "on the map", much to the later discontent of mining corporations, which fund research that would revise Tindale's approach and restrict Aboriginal territoriality. David Horton later used Tindale's map as

1612-515: The Americas is known as the "Horny Little Man." It is petroglyph depicting a stick figure with an oversized phallus and carved in Lapa do Santo , a cave in central-eastern Brazil and dates from 12,000 to 9,000 years ago. Norman Tindale Norman Barnett Tindale AO (12 October 1900 – 19 November 1993) was an Australian anthropologist , archaeologist , entomologist and ethnologist . He

1674-882: The Australian ghost moths. Tindale was awarded the Verco Medal of the Royal Society of South Australia during 1956, the Australian Natural History Medallion during 1968 and the John Lewis Medal of the Royal Geographical Society of Australasia during 1980. In 1967, at the age of sixty-six, he received an honorary doctorate from the University of Colorado. He was eventually honoured with

1736-462: The Japan military was beginning to suffer shortfalls in. Tindale also played a major intelligence role in putting a halt to Japan's balloon bombing assault on the western coast of the United States. His team's forensic analysis of the debris enabled the U.S. Air Force to identify and bomb the production facilities in Japan. Jones adds two other key contributions by Tindale to the war effort: He

1798-680: The Laura region of Queensland and possibly the Nappapethera Waterhole in the southwest of the state, Sturt's Meadows in NSW and Scott River in WA. There have been some claims for Panaramitee style being present in Tasmania (locations marked on figure 3) however there has been a great deal of speculation being dated to the last 2,000 years which is inconsistent with Tasmania being sundered from

1860-573: The Panaramitee Style petroglyphs, and have continued that tradition to this day. Petroglyph A petroglyph is an image created by removing part of a rock surface by incising, picking, carving, or abrading , as a form of rock art . Outside North America , scholars often use terms such as "carving", "engraving", or other descriptions of the technique to refer to such images. Petroglyphs, estimated to be 20,000 years old are classified as protected monuments and have been added to

1922-409: The Panaramitee Style, has been recognised as different to "Classic Panaramitee" styles, with differing proportions of motifs, perhaps originating in the Laura region but changing geographically. It is known that the practice of Panaramitee Style rock art is still practised in modernity through a number of ethnographic examples. From at least 13,000 years ago Australian Aboriginal people were producing

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1984-676: The Witwatersrand studies present-day links between religion and rock art among the San people of the Kalahari Desert . Though the San people's artworks are predominantly paintings, the beliefs behind them can perhaps be used as a basis for understanding other types of rock art, including petroglyphs. To quote from the RARI website: Using knowledge of San beliefs, researchers have shown that

2046-543: The archaeological community. Panaramitee Style rock art is produced by pecking on rock surfaces through indirect percussion, typically with a pointed hammer stone. There are some instances, however where tracks, circular designs and cupules have been produced by using a large blunt hammer as seen at two sites located in the Middle Arm Peninsula , 16 km (9.9 mi) south-east of Darwin, Northern Territory (see figure 4). It has been estimated that 60% of

2108-686: The art played a fundamental part in the religious lives of its painters. The art captured things from the San's world behind the rock-face: the other world inhabited by spirit creatures, to which dancers could travel in animal form, and where people of ecstasy could draw power and bring it back for healing, rain-making and capturing the game. Tunisia Eight sites in Hong Kong : Kethaiyurumpu, Tamil Nadu. Situated 28 km north west of Dindigal, Tamil Nadu nearby Idaiyakottai and six km south west of Oddanchartam has revealed several petroglyphs mostly represent abstract symbols on two rocks, which looks like

2170-415: The artwork (Mulvaney and Kamminga 1999:367). However, it has been long assumed that the Panaramitee Style is very old based on Basedow's aforementioned early publication. Basedow justified a Pleistocene age by using four main arguments: This was furthered by later claims from Norman Tindale , suggesting genyornis and procoptodon tracks near Yunta Springs, and reports from Charles P. Mountford that

2232-494: The authority of early ethnographers for the "extinction" of tribes and for their putative territorial boundaries weighs more heavily than modern anthropological studies of their descendants. If, for example, there are no "Jadira", but their ostensible land was mapped by Tindale, the actual tribes in that area face immense difficulties in proving their links to what is conventionally accepted to be "Jadira" territory. Ray Wood argues that Tindale's mapping of Cape York Peninsula tribes

2294-510: The basis of the vast archive of notes he left to posterity: he was observed writing by lamplight far into the night long after others had gone to bed, during an expedition to the Pinacate . Shortly after this, Tindale lost the sight in one eye in an acetylene gas explosion which occurred while assisting his father with photographic processing . In January 1919, he secured a position at the South Australian Museum as Entomologist's Assistant to

2356-616: The ethnographic aspect being almost an accidental sideline that developed, as his curiosity was stimulated, into close observation of the indigenous people he encountered from the Cobourg Peninsula to the Gulf of Carpentaria . Tindale's family background had qualified him to be taken on by the Church Missionary Society of Australia and Tasmania which was interested in proselytizing in the north. He spent half

2418-540: The first detailed account of the Warnindhilyagwa people on that island. In 1938–39, Tindale teamed up with Joseph Birdsell , an anthropological graduate student, who was under Earnest Hooton of Harvard University , after meeting the pair on a 1936 visit to the US. They were to undertake an extensive anthropological survey of Aboriginal reserves and missions across Australia, and the relationship forged between

2480-512: The formidable Arthur Mills Lea . He had already published thirty-one papers on entomological , ornithological and anthropological subjects before receiving his Bachelor of Science degree at the University of Adelaide in March 1933. Tindale's first ethnographic expedition took place over 1921–1922. His principal aim was to gather entomological specimens for the South Australian Museum,

2542-827: The globe except Antarctica , with highest concentrations in parts of Africa, Scandinavia and Siberia, many examples of petroglyphs found globally are dated to approximately the Neolithic and late Upper Paleolithic boundary (roughly 10,000 to 12,000 years ago). Around 7,000 to 9,000 years ago, following the introduction of a number of precursors of writing systems , the existence and creation of petroglyphs began to suffer and tail off, with different forms of art, such as pictographs and ideograms , taking their place. However, petroglyphs continued to be created and remained somewhat common, with various cultures continuing to use them for differing lengths of time, including cultures who continued to create them until contact with Western culture

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2604-448: The importance of knowing with precision tribal boundaries. This led Tindale to question the official orthodoxy of the time, which was that Aboriginal people were purely nomadic and had no connection to any specific region. While Tindale's methodology and his notion of the "dialectal tribe" have been superseded, this basic premise has been proved correct. His salvage ethnography also involved collecting by trade objects for his museum. He

2666-490: The land of a Djukan people , despite the fact that it was absent from the map of the area prepared by Ernest Wurms . Tindale simply drew on Elkin's authority to do so. Again, Tindale conjured up, or made a separate entry for, a tribe, the Jadira , on the basis of very scant evidence, but there is almost no independent testimony that would allow the inference. Inaccuracies of this type compromise modern native title claims, since

2728-593: The landscape; plotting important routes to resources. Meanings may nonetheless change over time, with the potential of multiple meanings to different groups of people at different times. Apart from Panaramitee sheep station and Middle Arm, Panaramitee Style engravings have been found in several other locations across Australia. Panaramitee engravings exist at Wild Dog Creek, within the Woomera weapons range in South Australia. Carved by Kokatha people long ago,

2790-401: The mainland. The Panaramitee Style has been argued to be over 7,000 years old based on archaeological dating techniques , anthropological research, the recent occurrence of geographic barriers and animal tracks which possibly portray extinct megafauna . Rock art is notoriously difficult to accurately date with very few examples of stratigraphic association which are conclusively related to

2852-467: The oldest petroglyph discovered belongs to Timareh dating back to 40,800 years ago. Iran provides demonstrations of script formation from pictogram, ideogram, linear (2300 BC) or proto Elamite, geometric old Elamite script, Pahlevi script, Arabic script (906 years ago), Kufi script, and Farsi script back to at least 250 years ago. More than 50000 petroglyphs have been discovered, extended over all Iran's states. The oldest reliably dated rock art in

2914-631: The same language constituted a unified territorial group identity. It has been argued that Tindale's early familiarity with Japanese affected his hearing and transliteration of words in a number of Aboriginal languages, such as Ngarrindjeri . Japanese is written syllabically reflecting its phonetic consonant+vowel structure, and in writing down words like tloperi (ibis), throkeri (seagull) and pargi (wallaby) he perceived and transcribed them as toloperi , torokeri and paragi respectively. Aboriginal Legal Aid lawyer and land council lawyer Paul Burke, first in his book Law's Anthropology, and in

2976-518: The same time, these collections were often made using mere lollies or tobacco as barter goods for precious items, and at times exploited the dire conditions of undernourishment suffered by Aboriginal people. After one successful expedition at Flinders Island he wrote: "The Flinders Island people are hungry and in exchange for flour etc have been scouring the camp for specimens. We have pretty well cleaned them up, & nothing of much interest remains". In historical context, Tindale's firm insistence on

3038-643: The shapes include kangaroo footprints, human footprints, and representations of shelter, which impart much information about the area. Not restricted to South Australia, these engravings have been found in central Australia , New South Wales , the Northern Territory (NT), Queensland and Western Australia . Figure 3 shows a map of Australia with black dots indicating recorded Panaramitee-style sites. Among these sites include Puritjarra rock shelter, N'Dhala Gorge , Ewaninga and Ooraminna in central Australia (NT), Ingladdi (NT), Early Man cave in

3100-500: The style consists of animal tracks, 20% of circles, 10% lines and the other 10% miscellaneous motifs such as the lizard in picture 1. Circles in Australian Aboriginal art are often interpreted as being representative of water sources, while radiating lines indicate the path of an ancestral being . A common interpretation is that motifs such as Panaramitee ones provide shared knowledge to travellers moving through

3162-509: The tentative list of UNESCO 's World Heritage Sites . Petroglyphs are found worldwide, and are often associated with prehistoric peoples. The word comes from the Greek prefix petro- , from πέτρα petra meaning " stone ", and γλύφω glýphō meaning "carve", and was originally coined in French as pétroglyphe . In scholarly texts, a petroglyph is a rock engraving, whereas

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3224-562: The test of time. In particular Tindale's notion of a fixed tribal territory proved inadequate at least as regards the nomadic realities of the Western Desert cultural bloc , as Ronald Berndt and Catherine Berndt implicitly argued as early as 1942, and in more detail almost two decades later by Ronald Berndt. His major work was published in 1974, Aboriginal Tribes of Australia: Their terrain, Environmental Controls, Distribution, Limits and Proper Names , which has found its place as

3286-491: The two developed into a half century of collaboration. Tindale would study the genealogies , while Birdsell undertook the measuring, and with government support the pair travelled across south-east Australia, parts of Queensland , Western Australia , and Tasmania . In May 1938, the two men and their wives visited Cummeragunja Aboriginal reserve in New South Wales . A later study looking at their 1939 expedition to

3348-412: The unit of a tribe, with its set territory and fixed boundaries, flew in the face of A. R. Radcliffe-Brown 's dismissal of the idea of a higher integrating reality like the tribe, as opposed to the assemblies of hordes . Tribes did not hold land, each of their respective "hordes" did, and clan-attachment of land was Radcliffe-Brown's basic sociological unit for Australian groups. Neither notion has stood

3410-403: The use of natural hallucinogens . Many of the geometric patterns (known as form constants ) which recur in petroglyphs and cave paintings have been shown by David Lewis-Williams to be hardwired into the human brain. They frequently occur in visual disturbances and hallucinations brought on by drugs, migraine , and other stimuli. The Rock Art Research Institute (RARI) of the University of

3472-766: Was born on 12 October 1900 in Perth , Western Australia . His family moved to Tokyo and lived there from 1907 to 1915, where his father worked as an accountant at the Salvation Army mission in Japan . Norman attended the American School in Japan , where his closest friend was Gordon Bowles, a Quaker who, like him, later became an anthropologist. The family returned to Perth in August 1917, and soon after moved to Adelaide , South Australia , where Tindale took up

3534-645: Was instrumental in cracking the Japanese aircraft production code system, which gave the Allies reliable information as to Japanese air power. More importantly, he and his unit deciphered the Japanese master naval code. On retirement after 49 years service with the South Australian Museum, Tindale took up a teaching position at the University of Colorado and remained in the United States until his death, aged 93, in Palo Alto, California on 19 November 1993. Tindale

3596-485: Was made in the 19th and 20th centuries. Many hypotheses exist as to the purpose of petroglyphs, depending on their location, age, and subject matter. Some petroglyph images most likely held a deep cultural and religious significance for the societies that created them. Many petroglyphs are thought to represent a type of symbolic or ritualistic language or communication style that remains not fully understood. Others, such as geocontourglyphs , more clearly depict or represent

3658-525: Was meticulous in making notes on the provenance of each object purchased. Philip Jones writes: one of Tindale's key tasks was to record the names and sociological details of each of the Aboriginal people participating in the fortnight-long intensive survey. This had a crucial outcome in that each object, drawing, photograph, sound recording or even film record subsequently collected by Tindale during these expeditions could be keyed, not only to place and tribal group, but to their individual makers or owners.' At

3720-469: Was tasked with examining parts recovered from the wreckage of Japanese airplanes that had been shot down, working out whatever intelligence could be gathered from the manufacturing markings, and reassembling them where possible. Jones states that Tindale's unit's meticulous analysis of the metallurgical debris and serial numbers enabled them to arrive at the companies responsible for producing the components, deduce production figures and infer what crucial alloys

3782-411: Was the first to systematically do so. Over an 11-year period they produced over 10 hours of footage concerning many aspects of Aboriginal life, from material culture to hunting and gathering practices, cooking, love-making, and even ceremonies of circumcision observed during their field expeditions. Tindale produced the film while the camera-work was undertaken by E. O. Stocker. Tindale made

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3844-678: Was writing up his work on Aboriginal people at the University of Virginia in the 1930s, he worked alongside eugenics scientists who supported a proposed law on involuntary sterilisation of women with disabilities or mental illness, and who influenced the Nazi program in Germany. He also wrote of his attendance at a Nazi rally in Munich , writing of Hitler as an "impressive figure". A 2007 article looking at Tindale and Birdsell's 1939 expedition to Cape Barren Island reserve argues that this "was

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