A Panhellenic sanctuary was a sanctuary, shrine or place of worship in Ancient Greece , that was open to all Greeks regardless of the city-state it belonged to. These places were often the subject of pilgrimages from all the Greek world.
107-406: Normally, a sanctuary or shrine belonged to the city in which territory it was situated. Panhellenic sanctuaries were places of neutrality, and were therefore used as neutral places of political meetings between different Greek city-states, places where Panhellenic Games were held, and well as places where different Greek powers could keep their treasuries. Known Panhellenic sanctuaries were: In
214-586: A council of bishops at the First Council of Constantinople in 381, which confirmed the former as orthodoxy and the latter as a heresy. Although Theodosius interfered little in the functioning of traditional pagan cults and appointed non-Christians to high offices, he failed to prevent or punish the damaging of several Hellenistic temples of classical antiquity, such as the Serapeum of Alexandria , by Christian zealots. During his earlier reign, Theodosius ruled
321-407: A court where "everything was up for sale". In the late 380s, Ambrose , the bishop of Milan took the lead in opposing this, presenting the need for the rich to care for the poor as "a necessary consequence of the unity of all Christians". This led to a major development in the political culture of the day called the “advocacy revolution of the later Roman empire". This revolution had been fostered by
428-564: A cover over them as a mark of their status. From the perspective of style, it has served as "the key monument in identifying a so-called Theodosian court style, which is usually described as a "renaissance" of earlier Roman classicism". It is traditionally stated that the Arian Controversy, a dispute concerning the nature of the divine trinity, and its accompanying struggles for political influence, started in Alexandria during
535-478: A favor of Poseidon to bestow upon him a chariot fast enough to bring him victory. Poseidon granted him a golden chariot and winged horses. With this chariot, Pelops won the race and was able to marry Hippodameia. It’s also claimed that Pelops had Myrtilus sabotage King Oenomaus’ chariot which caused him to lose the race and die during the process. After his victory, Pelops organized a festival to take place at Olympia with chariot races and other Games in tribute to
642-550: A few. Tsouvala points out that other than as chariot horse owners, it was likely that girls and women would take part in footraces in the festivals in honor of Artemis and Iphigeneia . There was also evidence discovered in Naples that held inscriptions detailing young women who participated in the stadion and dolichos foot races. The male athletes that participated in the Panhellenic Games did so nude. This
749-486: A final battle near Frigidus in 394 is a romantic myth. Theodosius suffered from a disease involving severe edema . He died in Mediolanum ( Milan ) on 17 January 395, and his body lay in state in the palace there for forty days. His funeral was held in the cathedral on 25 February. Bishop Ambrose delivered a panegyric titled De obitu Theodosii in the presence of Stilicho and Honorius in which Ambrose praised
856-430: A letter offering what McLynn calls a different way for the emperor to "save face" and restore his public image. Ambrose urges a semi-public demonstration of penitence, telling the emperor he will not give Theodosius communion until this is done. Wolf Liebeschuetz says "Theodosius duly complied and came to church without his imperial robes, until Christmas, when Ambrose openly admitted him to communion". Washburn says
963-410: A pious fiction". Wolfe Liebeschuetz says Ambrose advocated a course of action which avoided the kind of public humiliation Theodoret describes, and that is the course Theodosius chose. According to the early twentieth century historian Henry Smith Williams , history's assessment of Theodosius's character has been stained by the massacre of Thessalonica for centuries. Williams describes Theodosius as
1070-426: A selective killing ... got out of hand". Doleźal says Sozomen is very specific in saying that in response to the riot, the soldiers made random arrests in the hippodrome to perform a few public executions as a demonstration of imperial disfavor, but the citizenry objected. Doleźal suggests, "The soldiers, realizing that they were surrounded by angry citizens, perhaps panicked ... and ... forcibly cleared
1177-561: A senior civilian official. According to another theory, the future emperor Theodosius lost his father, his military post, or both, in the purges of high officials that resulted from the accession of the 4-year-old emperor Valentinian II in November 375. Theodosius's period away from service in Hispania, during which he was said to have received threats from those responsible for his father's death, did not last long, however, as Maximinus,
SECTION 10
#17327811584831284-591: A settlement on 3 October 382. In return for military service to Rome, the Goths were allowed to settle some tracts of Roman land south of the Danube. The terms were unusually favorable to the Goths, reflecting the fact that they were entrenched in Roman territory and had not been driven out. Namely, instead of fully submitting to Roman authority, they were allowed to remain autonomous under their own leaders, and thus remaining
1391-646: A similar renaissance of classicism. According to Armin Wirsching, two obelisks were shipped by the Romans from Karnak to Alexandria in 13/12 BC. In 357, Constantius II had one (that became known as the Lateran obelisk ) shipped to Rome. Wirsching says the Romans had previously watched and learned from the Egyptians how to transport such large heavy objects, so they constructed "a special sea‐going version of
1498-608: A strong, unified body. The Goths now settled within the Empire would largely fight for the Romans as a national contingent, as opposed to being fully integrated into the Roman forces. According to the Chronicon Paschale , Theodosius celebrated his quinquennalia on 19 January 383 at Constantinople; on this occasion he raised his eldest son Arcadius to co-emperor ( augustus ). Sometime in 383, Gratian's wife Constantia died. Gratian remarried, wedding Laeta , whose father
1605-404: A virtuous-minded, courageous man, who was vigorous in pursuit of any important goal, but through contrasting the "inhuman massacre of the people of Thessalonica" with "the generous pardon of the citizens of Antioch" after civil war, Williams also concludes Theodosius was "hasty and choleric". It is only modern scholarship that has begun disputing Theodosius's responsibility for those events. From
1712-513: Is commemorated as ktetor of Vatopedi and donator of Vatopedi icon of the Mother of God. According to art historian David Wright, art of the era around the year 400 reflects optimism amongst the traditional polytheists. This is likely connected to what Ine Jacobs calls a renaissance of classical styles of art in the Theodosian period (AD 379–395) often referred to in modern scholarship as
1819-480: Is created by these events moving into legend in art and literature almost immediately. Doležal explains that yet another problem is created by aspects of these accounts contradicting one another to the point of being mutually exclusive. Nonetheless, most classicists accept at least the basic account of the massacre, although they continue to dispute when it happened, who was responsible for it, what motivated it, and what impact it had on subsequent events. Theodosius
1926-432: The 8th century BCE , these sites became popular and were often old sacred sites and buildings given new roles to match the politics of the age. This article relating to Ancient Greek religion is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Panhellenic Games Panhellenic Games is the collective term for four separate religious festivals held in ancient Greece that became especially well known for
2033-665: The Attic Greek word for crown), because winners received only a garland for victory. No financial or material prizes were awarded, unlike at other ancient Greek athletic or artistic contests, such as the Panathenaic Games , at which winners were awarded many amphorae of first-class Athenian olive-oil. Though victors received no material awards at the Games, they were often showered with gifts and honours on returning to their polis . According to Pindar’s Olympian 1 ,
2140-719: The Consularia Constantinopolitana , a Roman triumph over the Gothic Greuthungi was then celebrated at Constantinople. The same year, work began on the great triumphal column in the Forum of Theodosius in Constantinople, the Column of Theodosius . The Consularia Constantinopolitana records that on 19 January 387, Arcadius celebrated his quinquennalia in Constantinople. By the end of
2247-566: The Consultationes Zacchei et Apollonii , re-dated to the 390s, reinforces the view that religion was not the key ideological element in the events at the time". According to Maijastina Kahlos , Finnish historian and Docent of Latin language and Roman literature at the University of Helsinki, the notion of pagan aristocrats united in a "heroic and cultured resistance" who rose up against the ruthless advance of Christianity in
SECTION 20
#17327811584832354-471: The Praetorian Prefect of Italy . In the summer of 384, Theodosius met his co-emperor Valentinian II in northern Italy. Theodosius brokered a peace agreement between Valentinian and Magnus Maximus which endured for several years. Theodosius I was based in Constantinople, and according to Peter Heather , wanted, "for his own dynastic reasons (for his two sons each eventually to inherit half of
2461-532: The Theodosian renaissance . The Forum Tauri in Constantinople was renamed and redecorated as the Forum of Theodosius , including a column and a triumphal arch in his honour. The missorium of Theodosius, the city of Aprodisias's statue of the emperor, the base of the Obelisk of Theodosius , the columns of Theodosius and Arcadius, and the diptych of Probus were all commissioned by the court and reflect
2568-493: The eastern empire as foederati , and Caucasian and Saracen auxiliaries , and marched against Eugenius. The battle began on 5 September 394, with Theodosius's full frontal assault on Eugenius's forces. Thousands of Goths died, and in Theodosius's camp, the loss of the day decreased morale. It is said by Theodoret that Theodosius was visited by two "heavenly riders all in white" who gave him courage. The next day,
2675-457: The praetorian prefecture of Illyricum for the duration of the conflict, giving his new colleague full charge the war effort. Theodosius implemented stern and desperate recruiting measures, resorting to the conscription of farmers and miners. Punishments were instituted for harboring deserters and furnishing unfit recruits, and even self-mutilation did not exempt men from service. Theodosius also admitted large numbers of non-Roman auxiliaries into
2782-469: The " Great Conspiracy ", a concerted Celtic and Germanic invasion of the island provinces. After probably serving in his father's staff on further campaigns, Theodosius received his first independent command by 374 when he was appointed the dux (commanding officer) of the province of Moesia Prima in the Danube . In the autumn of 374, he successfully repulsed an incursion of Sarmatians on his sector of
2889-434: The Empire during his lifetime, their status as an autonomous entity within Roman borders caused problems for succeeding emperors. Theodosius has also received criticism for defending his own dynastic interests at the cost of two civil wars. His two sons proved weak and incapable rulers, and they presided over a period of foreign invasions and court intrigues, which heavily weakened the empire. The descendants of Theodosius ruled
2996-602: The Frigidus (the Vipava ) on 6 September 394. On 8 September, Arbogast killed himself. According to Socrates, on 1 January 395, Honorius arrived in Mediolanum and a victory celebration was held there. Zosimus records that, at the end of April 394, Theodosius's wife Galla had died while he was away at war. A number of Christian sources report that Eugenius cultivated the support of the pagan senators by promising to restore
3103-634: The Games take place in Olympia, the festival held and sacrifices/offerings are in honor of Zeus, the winner of the Games receives an olive wreath . This comes from the myth (as told by Pausanias) that Heracles started the Olympic Games and planted an olive tree that became sacred to the Greeks and from which the olympic victors' wreaths were cut. In Pindar's version of the Olympics, the chariot race
3210-441: The Games were chariot racing , wrestling , boxing , pankration , stadion and various other foot races, and the pentathlon (made up of wrestling, stadion , long jump , javelin throw , and discus throw ). Except for the chariot race, all the events were performed nude. Since the Olympic Games was the original and the pinnacle of all the games in the circuit, each festival might have had its own events but had to include all
3317-739: The Great , was a Roman emperor from 379 to 395. He won two civil wars and was instrumental in establishing the Nicene Creed as the orthodox doctrine for Nicene Christianity . Theodosius was the last emperor to rule the entire Roman Empire before its administration was permanently split between the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire . He ended the Gothic War (376–382) with terms disadvantageous to
Panhellenic sanctuary - Misplaced Pages Continue
3424-594: The Nemean Games, but in the spring (April or May). The winner of the Isthmian Games originally received a pine crown, but in the Classical era dry celery was substituted. Pausanias attributes the origin of the Games to King Sisyphus of Corinth . Sisyphus held the Games at a funeral in honor of Melikertes (later changed to Palaimon ), a boy who drowned in the gulf. According to Pausanias, Palaimon
3531-605: The Nemean and Isthmian Games did not occur in the same years. ) Participants could come from all over the Greek world, including the various Greek colonies from Asia Minor to Iberia . Substantial wealth was required to pay for training, transportation, lodging, and other expenses. However, competitors often were funded by their hometowns or private patrons, and many of them traveled together from one competition to another, winning cash awards as they went. The main events at each of
3638-451: The Nile vessels ... – a double‐ship with three hulls". In 390, Theodosius oversaw the removal of the other to Constantinople. The obelisk with its sculpted base in the former Hippodrome of Constantinople is well known as a rare datable work of Late Antique art. A sixth-century source puts the raising of the obelisk in the year 390, and Greek and Latin epigrams on the plinth (the lower part of
3745-474: The Olympics. Along with the fame and notoriety of winning the ancient Games, the athletes earned different crowns of leaves from the different Games. From the Olympics, the victor won an olive wreath, from the Pythian Games a laurel wreath, from the Nemean Games a crown of wild celery leaves, and from the Isthmian Games a crown of pine. The Olympiad , the four year cycle starting with the Olympic Games,
3852-649: The Panhellenic Games, often as chariot race horse owners. Historian, Georgia Tsouvala, gives three examples of inscriptions from lesser polis festivals that provide evidence of female athletes that were members of the gymnasia. Tsouvala also points out, while it's not common for women to have been able to partake in any form of physical education in ancient Greece, there are some states where it's encouraged like Sparta . In many ancient Greek works from Vergil , to Plutarch , to Ovid , there are reverences made to Spartan women taking part in traditionally male activities like boar hunting, pancration , and discus throwing to name
3959-532: The Roman world for the next six decades, and the east–west division endured until the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the late 5th century. Theodosius was born in Hispania on 11 January, probably in the year 347. His father of the same name, Count Theodosius , was a successful and high-ranking general ( magister equitum ) under the western Roman emperor Valentinian I , and his mother
4066-601: The Western emperor Valentinian II, while Theodosius attempted to rule the entire empire from Constantinople. On 15 May 392, Valentinian II died at Vienna in Gaul ( Vienne ), either by suicide or as part of a plot by Arbogast. Valentinian had quarrelled publicly with Arbogast, and was found hanged in his room. Arbogast announced that this had been a suicide. Stephen Williams asserts that Valentinian's death left Arbogast in "an untenable position". He had to carry on governing without
4173-632: The ability to issue edicts and rescripts from a legitimate acclaimed emperor. Arbogast was unable to assume the role of emperor himself because of his non-Roman background. Instead, on 22 August 392, Arbogast had Valentinian's master of correspondence, Eugenius , proclaimed emperor in the West at Lugdunum. At least two embassies went to Theodosius to explain events, one of them Christian in make-up, but they received ambivalent replies, and were sent home without achieving their goals. Theodosius raised his second son Honorius to emperor on 23 January 393, implying
4280-518: The altar of Victory and provide public funds for the maintenance of cults if they would support him and if he won the coming war against Theodosius. Cameron notes that the ultimate source for this is Ambrose's biographer Paulinus the Deacon , whom he argues fabricated the entire narrative and deserves no credence. Historian Michele Renee Salzman explains that "two newly relevant texts – John Chrysostom's Homily 6, adversus Catharos (PG 63: 491–492) and
4387-455: The army, even Gothic deserters from beyond the Danube. Some of these foreign recruits were exchanged with more reliable Roman garrison troops stationed in Egypt . In the second half of 379, Theodosius and his generals, based at Thessalonica , won some minor victories over individual bands of raiders. However, they suffered at least one serious defeat in 380, which was blamed on the treachery of
Panhellenic sanctuary - Misplaced Pages Continue
4494-437: The army, participating in his father's campaigns throughout the provinces, as was customary at the time for families with a tradition of military service. One source says he received a decent education and developed a particular interest in history, which Theodosius then valued as a guide to his own conduct throughout life. Theodosius is first attested accompanying his father to Britain on his expedition in 368–369 to suppress
4601-641: The athletes the opportunity to compete in the event at all the Games in the Panhellenic circuit. Another origin story from Pausanias was that Heracles challenged his younger brothers to a foot race. The winner of the race would receive an olive branch as a reward since they were in such high supply. Pausanias attributes another origin myth to Zeus . It's thought he started the Olympic Games in honor of his victory defeating his father, Cronus . The Pythian Games were established in 582 BC in Delphi to honor
4708-839: The athletic competitions they included. The four festivals were: the Olympic Games , which were held at Olympia in honor of Zeus ; the Pythian Games , which took place in Delphi and honored Apollo ; the Nemean Games , occurring at Nemea and also honoring Zeus; and, finally, the Isthmian Games set in Isthmia and held in honor of Poseidon . The places at which these games were held were considered to be "the four great panhellenic sanctuaries." Each of these Games took place in turn every four years, starting with
4815-495: The base) credit Theodosius I and the urban prefect Proclus with this feat. Linda Safran says that relocating the obelisk was motivated by Theodosius's victory over "the tyrants" (most likely Maximus Magnus and his son Victor). It is now known as the obelisk of Theodosius and still stands in the Hippodrome of Constantinople , the long Roman circus that was, at one time, the centre of Constantinople's public life. Re-erecting
4922-454: The campaigning season of 381, reinforcements from Gratian drove the Goths out of the Diocese of Macedonia and Thessaly into the Diocese of Thrace , while, in the latter sector, Theodosius or one of his generals repulsed an incursion by a group of Sciri and Huns across the Danube. Following negotiations which likely lasted at least several months, the Romans and Goths finally concluded
5029-520: The documents revealing the relationship between these two formidable men do not show the personal friendship the legends portray. Instead, those documents read more as negotiations between the institutions the men represent: the Roman state and the Italian Church. In 391, Theodosius left his trusted general Arbogast , who had served in the Balkans after Adrianople, to be magister militum for
5136-520: The eastern Roman emperor, Valens , had been killed at the Battle of Adrianople in August 378 against invading Goths . The disastrous defeat left much of Rome's military leadership dead, discredited, or barbarian in origin, to the result that Theodosius, notwithstanding his own modest record, became the establishment's choice to replace Valens and assume control of the crisis. With the begrudging consent of
5243-499: The eastern provinces, while the west was overseen by the emperors Gratian and Valentinian II , whose sister he married. Theodosius sponsored several measures to improve his capital and main residence, Constantinople , most notably his expansion of the Forum Tauri , which became the biggest public square known in antiquity. Theodosius marched west twice, in 388 and 394, after both Gratian and Valentinian had been killed, to defeat
5350-460: The empire's established process of decision making, which required the emperor "to listen to his ministers" before acting. There is some indication in the sources Theodosius did listen to his counselors but received bad or misleading advice. J. F. Matthews argues that the Emperor first tried to punish the city by selective executions. Peter Brown concurs: "As it was, what was probably planned as
5457-484: The empire), refused to appoint a recognized counterpart in the west. As a result he was faced with rumbling discontent there, as well as dangerous usurpers , who found plentiful support among the bureaucrats and military officers who felt they were not getting a fair share of the imperial cake." Theodosius's second son Honorius was born on 9 December 384 and titled nobilissimus puer (or nobilissimus iuvenis ). The death of Aelia Flaccilla, Theodosius's first wife and
SECTION 50
#17327811584835564-527: The empire, with the Goths remaining within Roman territory but as nominal allies with political autonomy. Born in Hispania , Theodosius was the son of a high-ranking general of the same name, Count Theodosius , under whose guidance he rose through the ranks of the Roman army . Theodosius held independent command in Moesia in 374, where he had some success against the invading Sarmatians . Not long afterwards, he
5671-517: The events that took place at the Olympics, according to Young. This gave the athletes the opportunity to compete in the same core events at all the Games in the Panhellenic circuit. The Games were hugely popular not only for their three-day sporting competitions but also because they brought many spectators from all over, according to classics historian Jason König. This allowed for people to partake in other activities like religious events, speeches, and even musical performances. The Olympic Games were
5778-452: The extremely bloody battle began again and Theodosius's forces were aided by a natural phenomenon known as the Bora , which can produce hurricane-strength winds. The Bora blew directly against the forces of Eugenius and disrupted the line. Eugenius's camp was stormed; Eugenius was captured and soon after executed. According to Socrates Scholasticus, Theodosius defeated Eugenius at the Battle of
5885-536: The first Pythian festival to 586 BC. This argument is because there are few references to the date in Pindar’s poems whereas Pausanias more clearly articulates numbered festivals. These Games include a mix of athletic events that took place at the previous Olympic Games, and musical events. The prize to the winner of the Pythian Games is a laurel wreath (also known as bay laurel, Laurus nobilis ). In Pausanias' Description of Greece , he lists Cleisthenes of Sicyon as
5992-413: The frontier and forced them into submission. Not long afterwards, however, under mysterious circumstances, Theodosius's father suddenly fell from imperial favor and was executed, and the future emperor felt compelled to retire to his estates in Hispania. Although these events are poorly documented, historians usually attribute this fall from grace to the machinations of a court faction led by Maximinus ,
6099-591: The games progressed, less wealthy athletes were able to eventually take part in the Festival by being sponsored by their home towns or wealthy backers. Many of the less wealthy had to work their way up through the local festivals in order to prove themselves. Young describes how the men were divided into different class groups for the Games however, the division was different at different festivals. These groups consisted of boys, youths and men but sometimes may just be broken into men and boys. Edward Norman Gardiner makes
6206-507: The god Apollo . Originally, these games occurred every eight years and there was just one contest--the singing of a hymn to Apollo, accompanied on the cithara. The Pythian Games were the second most important of the Panhellenic Games and took place in late August of the third year of every Olympiad. However, there is some debate about the start of the Pythian Festival amongst historians. Some historians believe Pausanias who dates
6313-484: The gods and to honor King Oenomaus. The Olympic Games took place every four years at the site of Olympia in Greece. It's thought that first recorded Games were in 776 BC but it is possible that they could have been around for many years before this according to scholar David C. Young. The Olympics were the first established Games for approximately 200 years before the remaining Panhellenic Games came into creation. Since
6420-491: The hippodrome at the cost of several thousands of lives of local inhabitants". McLynn says Theodosius was “unable to impose discipline upon the faraway troops" and covered that failure by taking responsibility for the massacre on himself, declaring he had given the order then countermanded it too late to stop it. Ambrose , the bishop of Milan and one of Theodosius's many counselors, was away from court. After being informed of events concerning Thessalonica, he wrote Theodosius
6527-486: The illegality of Eugenius's rule. Williams and Friell say that by the spring of 393, the split was complete, and "in April Arbogast and Eugenius at last moved into Italy without resistance". Flavianus , the praetorian prefect of Italy whom Theodosius had appointed, defected to their side. Through early 394, both sides prepared for war. Theodosius gathered a large army, including the Goths whom he had settled in
SECTION 60
#17327811584836634-462: The image of the mitered prelate braced in the door of the cathedral in Milan blocking Theodosius from entering is a product of the imagination of Theodoret who wrote of the events of 390 "using his own ideology to fill the gaps in the historical record". Peter Brown also says there was no dramatic encounter at the church door. McLynn states that "the encounter at the church door has long been known as
6741-509: The imperial government, and it encouraged appeals and denunciations of bad government from below. However, Brown adds that, "in the crucial area of taxation and the treatment of fiscal debtors, the late Roman state [of the 380s and 390s] remained impervious to Christianity". The peace with Magnus Maximus was broken in 387, and Valentinian escaped to the east with Justina, reaching Thessalonica ( Thessaloniki ) in summer or autumn 387 and appealing to Theodosius for aid; Valentinian II's sister Galla
6848-535: The invaders out; in 382 the Goths were allowed to settle south of the Danube as autonomous allies of the empire. In 386, Theodosius signed a treaty with the Sasanian Empire which partitioned the long-disputed Kingdom of Armenia and secured a durable peace between the two powers. Theodosius was a strong adherent of the Christian doctrine of consubstantiality and an opponent of Arianism . He convened
6955-480: The lion and followed him to his cave. He blocked on entrances then went in after the lion and attacked. Heracles returned to Molorchus' home on the 30th day and they made a sacrifice to Zeus. The Games are said to be in honor of both Zeus and Heracles each year. The Isthmian Games started near Corinth in 582 B.C., the same year as the Pythian Games began in Delphi. They are held every second and fourth year, just like
7062-527: The meeting of Christians deemed heretics was banned by Valentinian. The armies of Theodosius and Maximus fought at the Battle of Poetovio in 388, which saw Maximus defeated. On 28 August 388 Maximus was executed. Now the de facto ruler of the Western empire as well, Theodosius celebrated his victory in Rome on 13 June 389 and stayed in Milan until 391, installing his own loyalists in senior positions including
7169-407: The monolith was a challenge for the technology that had been honed in the construction of siege engines . The obelisk's white marble base is entirely covered with bas-reliefs documenting Theodosius's imperial household and the engineering feat of removing the obelisk to Constantinople. Theodosius and the imperial family are separated from the nobles among the spectators in the imperial box , with
7276-520: The month, there was an uprising or riot in Antioch (modern Antakya ). The Roman–Persian Wars concluded with the signing of the Peace of Acilisene with Persia. By the terms of the agreement, the ancient Kingdom of Armenia was divided between the powers. By the end of the 380s, Theodosius and the court were in Milan and northern Italy had settled down to a period of prosperity. Peter Brown says gold
7383-679: The mother of Arcadius, Honorius, and Pulcheria, occurred by 386. She died at Scotumis in Thrace and was buried at Constantinople, her funeral oration delivered by Gregory of Nyssa . A statue of her was dedicated in the Byzantine Senate . In 384 or 385, Theodosius's niece Serena was married to the magister militum , Stilicho . In the beginning of 386, Theodosius's daughter Pulcheria also died. That summer, more Goths were defeated, and many were settled in Phrygia . According to
7490-500: The murdered Roman official as Butheric, the commanding general of the field army in Illyricum (magister militum per Illyricum). According to Sozomen, a popular charioteer tried to rape a cup-bearer, (or possibly Butheric himself), and in response, Butheric arrested and jailed the charioteer. The populace demanded the chariot racer's release, and when Butheric refused, a general revolt rose up costing Butheric his life. Doležal says
7597-521: The name "Butheric" indicates he might have been a Goth, and that the general's ethnicity "could have been" a factor in the riot, but none of the early sources actually say so. There are no contemporaneous accounts. Church historians Sozomen , Theodoret the bishop of Cyrrhus , Socrates of Constantinople and Rufinus wrote the earliest accounts during the fifth century. These are moral accounts emphasizing imperial piety and ecclesial action rather than historical and political details. Further difficulty
7704-541: The new magister militum of the West, the Frankish general Arbogast . According to the Consularia Constantinopolitana , Arbogast killed Flavius Victor ( r. 384–388 ), Magnus Maximus's young son and co-emperor, in Gaul in August/September that year. Damnatio memoriae was pronounced against them, and inscriptions naming them were erased. The Massacre of Thessalonica (Thessaloniki) in Greece
7811-507: The new barbarian recruits. During the autumn of 380, a life-threatening illness, from which Theodosius recovered, prompted him to request baptism . Some obscure victories were recorded in official sources around this time, however, and, in November 380, the military situation was found to be sufficiently stable for Theodosius to move his court to Constantinople . There, the emperor enjoyed a propaganda victory when, in January 381, he received
7918-638: The oldest of the four, said to have begun in 776 BC. It is more likely though that they were founded sometime in the late 7th century BC. They lasted until the Roman Emperor Theodosius , a Christian, abolished them as heathen in AD 393. The Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian Games most likely began sometime in the first or second quarter of the 6th century BC. The Olympic Games are also known as the Stephanitic Games (derived from stephanos,
8025-486: The origin of the Ancient Olympic Games can be traced to Pelops , son of Tantalus . Pelops seeks to win the hand of Hippodameia in marriage. King Oenomaus , Hippodameia’s father, knows of a prophecy that declares his death to be at the hands of his son in law. King Oenomaus decides the only way for him to marry his daughter is to take part in a chariot race that has killed many other suitors. Pelops asks
8132-486: The point that physical fitness and athletics is incredibly important in the Ancient Greek world because every male is required to take part in the Greek military. Because of the environment of warfare, physical fitness was essential to men's life. While the majority of those that participated in the Games is overwhelmingly free Greek men, there is evidence that there were female athletes as well that participated in
8239-507: The probable culprit, was himself removed from power around April 376 and then executed. The emperor Gratian immediately began replacing Maximinus and his associates with relatives of Theodosius in key government positions, indicating the family's full rehabilitation, and by 377 Theodosius himself had regained his command against the Sarmatians. Theodosius's renewed term of office seems to have gone uneventfully, until news arrived that
8346-469: The prophecy. The Nemean Games were held in his honor with the prize to the victor being a wreath of wild celery. The second origination is that of Heracles first of ten labors by King Eurystheus . He was tasked with bringing back the skin of the lion that stalked the hills of Nemea. Heracles came to a village, Cleonae where he met Molorchus. Molorchus agreed to make a sacrifice to Heracles if he didn't return after 30 days, and Zeus if he did. Heracles found
8453-413: The reign of Constantine the Great between a presbyter, Arius of Alexandria, and his bishop, Alexander of Alexandria. However, “many of the issues raised by the controversy were under lively discussion before Arius and Alexander publicly clashed.” “The views of Arius were such as … to bring into unavoidable prominence a doctrinal crisis which had gradually been gathering. … He was the spark that started
8560-451: The remaining "Big Four" festivals, the athletes mostly came from the wealthy class of Greek male athletes. This is because the cost training and traveling would be too great for those of low birth to participate. Pleket and historian David Stone Potter describe a view from Alcibiades saying how he would rather breed horses for racing than take part in the gymnastic events because it was "not to be pursued by one of low estate." However, as
8667-571: The same years that the Isthmian Games are held, though at different times during the years. The Nemean Games were held in July, whereas the Isthmian were held in April or May. The Nemean Games have two origination stories. Pausanias tells of the most recognized myth that the Games were originally funeral Games to honor the death of baby Opheltes , the infant son of Lykourgos and Eurydike . Lykourgos
8774-718: The suppression of paganism by Theodosius. On 8 November 395, his body was transferred to Constantinople, where according to the Chronicon Paschale he was buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles . He was honored as: Divus Theodosius , lit. 'the Divine Theodosius';. He was interred in a porphyry sarcophagus that was described in the 10th century by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in his work De Ceremoniis . Theodosius
8881-519: The time Edward Gibbon wrote his Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire , Ambrose's action after the fact has been cited as an example of the church's dominance over the state in Antiquity. Alan Cameron says "the assumption is so widespread it would be superfluous to cite authorities. But there is not a shred of evidence for Ambrose exerting any such influence over Theodosius". Brown says Ambrose
8988-514: The two pretenders, Magnus Maximus and Eugenius , who rose to replace them. Theodosius's final victory in September 394 made him master of the entire empire; he died a few months later and was succeeded by his two sons, Arcadius in the eastern half of the empire and Honorius in the west. Theodosius was said to have been a diligent administrator, austere in his habits, merciful, and a devout Christian. For centuries after his death, Theodosius
9095-477: The victim to launched into the air and fall back down to the ground. Theseus killed Sinis in the same manner. He then held the funerary Games in honor of the deceased. Plutarch also credits Theseus with holding the Games in honor of Poseidon, since they were typically held in his sanctuary in Corinth. According to archaeologist, H.W. Pleket, in the early days of the Olympic Games, before the formation of local or
9202-399: The visit and submission of a minor Gothic leader, Athanaric . By this point, however, Theodosius seems to have no longer believed that the Goths could be completely ejected from Roman territory. After Athanaric died that very same month, the emperor gave him a funeral with full honors, impressing his entourage and signaling to the enemy that the Empire was disposed to negotiate terms. During
9309-495: The western emperor Gratian, Theodosius was formally invested with the purple by a council of officials at Sirmium on 19 January 379. The immediate problem facing Theodosius upon his accession was how to check the bands of Goths that were laying waste to the Balkans, with an army that had been severely depleted of manpower following the debacle at Adrianople. The western emperor Gratian, who seems to have provided only little immediate assistance, surrendered to Theodosius control of
9416-556: The winner of the first Pythian Games chariot race. Cleisthenes is also credited with the creation of the Pythian Games. He sought after a suitor for to wed his daughter, Agariste . He organized a competition for those who thought of themselves as worthy to compete in athletic competitions. These competitions evolved into the Pythian Festival. The Nemean Games were established at the sanctuary of Zeus in Nemea in 573 BC. These Games are held every other year, every second and fourth year, in
9523-537: Was a consularis of Roman Syria . Early 383 saw the acclamation of Magnus Maximus as emperor in Britain and the appointment of Themistius as praefectus urbi in Constantinople. On 25 August 383, according to the Consularia Constantinopolitana , Gratian was killed at Lugdunum ( Lyon ) by Andragathius , the magister equitum of the rebel emperor during the rebellion of Magnus Maximus . Constantia's body arrived in Constantinople on 12 September that year and
9630-457: Was a massacre of local civilians by Roman troops. The best estimate of the date is April of 390. The massacre was most likely a response to an urban riot that led to the murder of a Roman official. What most scholars, such as philosopher Stanislav Doležal, see as the most reliable of the sources is the Historia ecclesiastica written by Sozomen about 442; in it Sozomen supplies the identity of
9737-463: Was being made in Milan by those who owned land as well as by those who came with the court for government service. Great landowners took advantage of the court's need for food, "turning agrarian produce into gold", while repressing and misusing the poor who grew it and brought it in. According to Brown, modern scholars link the decline of the Roman empire to the avarice of the rich of this era. He quotes Paulinus of Milan as describing these men as creating
9844-736: Was buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles on 1 December. Gratian was deified as Latin : Divus Gratianus , lit. 'the Divine Gratian';. Theodosius, unable to do much about Maximus due to ongoing military inadequacy, opened negotiations with the Persian emperor Shapur III ( r. 383–388 ) of the Sasanian Empire . According to the Consularia Constantinopolitana , Theodosius received in Constantinople an embassy from them in 384. In an attempt to curb Maximus's ambitions, Theodosius appointed Flavius Neoterius as
9951-494: Was called Thermantia. The family appear to have been minor landed aristocrats in Hispania, although it is not clear if this social status went back several generations or if Theodosius the Elder was simply awarded land there for his military service. Their roots to Hispania were nevertheless probably long-standing, since various relatives of the future emperor Theodosius are likewise attested as being from there, and Theodosius himself
10058-478: Was common and not viewed as something shameful or indecent because Ancient Greeks did not have the same views on nudity as is common in Western Judeo-Christian views, according to David Young. Young also points out the etymology of the word gymnasium which breaks down to its core word gymnos which means naked, so literally “to train naked.” While Young points out that men believed there
10165-536: Was forced into retirement, and his father was executed under obscure circumstances. Theodosius soon regained his position following a series of intrigues and executions at Emperor Gratian 's court. In 379, after the eastern Roman emperor Valens was killed at the Battle of Adrianople against the Goths , Gratian appointed Theodosius as a successor with orders to take charge of the military emergency. The new emperor's resources and depleted armies were not sufficient to drive
10272-460: Was in his 40s, had been emperor for 11 years, had temporarily settled the Gothic wars, and won a civil war. As a Latin speaking Nicene western leader of the Greek largely Arian East, Boniface Ramsey says he had already left an indelible mark on history. McLynn asserts that the relationship between Theodosius and Ambrose transformed into myth within a generation of their deaths. He also observes that
10379-645: Was initially styled "the Great" simply as a way to differentiate him from his grandson Theodosius II. Later, at the Council of Chalcedon in 451, the honorific was deemed merited due to his promotion of Nicene Christianity. Theodosius the Great is venerated in Eastern and Oriental Orthodox Churches: Emperor (king) Theodosius is commemorated in Armenian Anaphora with saint kings : Abgar , Constantine and Tiridates . In Eastern Orthodox Church he
10486-549: Was just one among many advisors, and Cameron says there is no evidence Theodosius favored him above anyone else. By the time of the Thessalonian affair, Ambrose, an aristocrat and former governor, had been a bishop for 16 years, and during his episcopate, had seen the death of three emperors before Theodosius. These produced significant political storms, yet Ambrose held his place using what McLynn calls his "considerable qualities [and] considerable luck" to survive. Theodosius
10593-415: Was killed because Hera found out his parents were raising baby Dionysus which brought down her wrath. Plutarch and Apollodorus credit the origin of the Isthmian Games with Theseus . Theseus was travelling to Athens when he heard of Sinis. Sinis was a conqueror and a thief. He would kill his victims by tying them to the top of fir trees that he pulled down, then letting them spring back which caused
10700-539: Was not in Thessalonica when the massacre occurred. The court was in Milan. Several scholars, such as historian G. W. Bowersock and authors Stephen Williams and Gerard Friell, think that Theodosius ordered the massacre in an excess of "volcanic anger". McLynn also puts all the blame on the Emperor as does the less dependable fifth century historian, Theodoret. Other scholars, such as historians Mark Hebblewhite and N. Q. King, do not agree. Peter Brown points to
10807-566: Was nothing indecent about the nude form, women were not allowed to be nude because it led to promiscuity. However, in Plutarch's Life of Lycurgus , its discussed how Spartan women were encouraged to participate in all the activities they normally would naked except for some festivals that where singing and dancing with men was permitted. Theodosius I Theodosius I ( ‹See Tfd› Greek : Θεοδόσιος Theodosios ; 11 January 347 – 17 January 395), also known as Theodosius
10914-555: Was one of the ways the Ancient Greeks measured time. The Games took place over a four-year cycle that began with the Olympic Games in the first year. The Nemean Games were held in year two, the Pythian Games in year three, and the Isthmian Games in year four. They were structured this way so that individual athletes could participate in all of the Games. (Note that the dial on the Antikythera mechanism seems to show that
11021-416: Was regarded as a champion of Christian orthodoxy who decisively stamped out paganism. Modern scholars tend to see this as an interpretation of history by Christian writers more than an accurate representation of actual history. He is fairly credited with presiding over a revival in classical art that some historians have termed a "Theodosian renaissance". Although his pacification of the Goths secured peace for
11128-487: Was the first of the events at creation. In Pausanias' versions, the foot race is the only event until the fourteenth Olympic Festival. Then another race is added that is longer than the original race. Since the Olympic Games was the original and the pinnacle of all the games in the Circuit, each Festival may have its own events but it must include all the events that took place at the Olympics, according to Young. This gives
11235-452: Was then married to the eastern emperor at Thessalonica in late autumn. Theodosius may still have been in Thessalonica when he celebrated his decennalia on 19 January 388. Theodosius was consul for the second time in 388. Galla and Theodosius's first child, a son named Gratian, was born in 388 or 389. In summer 388, Theodosius recovered Italy from Magnus Maximus for Valentinian, and in June,
11342-528: Was told of a prophecy that his son could not touch the ground until he walked. Lykourgos appointed a slave to take care of his son and prevent him from being set down. One day the Seven Against Thebes came across the slave and baby Opheltes and asked for a drink. The slave set the babe on the ground amongst wild celery to assist the Seven. Opheltes was attacked by a snake and killed, thus fulfilling
11449-477: Was ubiquitously associated in the ancient literary sources and panegyrics with the image of fellow Spanish-born emperor Trajan – though he never again visited the peninsula after becoming emperor. Very little is recorded of the upbringing of Theodosius. The 5th-century author Theodoret claimed the future emperor grew up and was educated in his Iberian homeland, but his testimony is unreliable. One modern historian instead thinks Theodosius must have grown up among
#482517