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123-486: The name "Petrushka" originally and primarily refers to the specific stock character of the Russian carnival puppetry . However, like Guignol , due to the central role Petrushka played in the puppet theatre, it also has come to refer to the tradition more generally (sometimes referred to as balagan (балаган) after the carnival booths in which the plays were enacted), or even the general category of Russian hand puppets as

246-399: A kaftan and kolpak ) and carrying a club called a dubinka (дубинка). His face is defined primarily by his long nose and pointed red hat, with static features that do not have any articulation points. Instead, emotions are conveyed through movement, and the downward slope of the face is designed in such a way that expressions are made possible through the angle at which the puppet's face

369-456: A circus . Elaborate costumes and masks allow people to set aside their everyday individuality and experience a heightened sense of social unity. Participants often indulge in excessive consumption of alcohol, meat, and other foods that will be forgone during upcoming Lent. Traditionally, butter, milk, and other animal products were not consumed "excessively", rather, their stock was fully consumed during Shrovetide as to reduce waste. This festival

492-578: A central role, from the Queen elections to the Grand Parade. Street parades continue in various districts throughout the month, with brass band, steelpan and roadmarch tunes. On the evening before Lent, Carnival ends with the symbolic burning of King Momo. Junkanoo is the principal street parade in the Bahamas, it has been practiced in the Bahamas before and after the 1834 emancipation of slavery in

615-433: A certain object or activity of desire. As such, during the season of Shrovetide, it is customary for Christians to ponder what Lenten sacrifices they will make for the coming Lent. The traditions of carrying Shrovetide rods and consuming Shrovetide buns after attending church are celebrated. On the final day of the season, Shrove Tuesday, many traditional Christians, such as Lutherans, Anglicans, and Roman Catholics, "make

738-408: A coherent festival or link these festivals. These similarities may represent a reservoir of cultural resources that can embody multiple meanings and functions. For example, Easter begins with the resurrection of Jesus , followed by a liminal period, and ends with rebirth . Carnival reverses this as King Carnival comes to life, and a liminal period follows before his death. Both feasts are calculated by

861-480: A common root. In early Christianity , Christ is figured as the victim of summary judgment , and is tortured and executed by Romans before a Jewish mob ("His blood is on us and on our children!" Matthew 27:24–25 ). Holy Week processions in Spain include crowds who vociferously insult the figure of Jesus. Irreverence, parody, degradation, and laughter at a tragicomic effigy of God can be seen as intensifications of

984-463: A counterpart to "Pul'chinel," a companion who would take the stage as sidekick to the puppet whose antics would become his own. As others who came before and after him, Dostoevsky saw the Petrushka theatre as an exploration of Russian cultural identity. By the 1880s, Petrushka was the hero of these comedies, the sole constant among the moving parts of other characters and scenes. His popularity grew to

1107-443: A day where all are meant to perform a "mask" that differs from their typical identity, all members of a society are able to connect through their theatricality and satire. Mircea Eliade , historian of religions, writes: "Any new year is a revival of time at its beginning, a repetition of the cosmogony. Ritual fights between two groups of extras, the presence of the dead, Saturnalia and orgies, are all elements which indicate that at

1230-505: A food shortage at the end of the winter as stores ran out. Until spring produce was available, people were limited to the minimum necessary meals during this period. On what nowadays is called vastenavond (the days before fasting ), all the remaining winter stores of lard, butter, and meat which were left would be eaten, for these would otherwise soon start to rot and decay. The selected livestock had already been slaughtered in November and

1353-471: A giant celebration that involved the whole community, and is thought to be the origin of Carnival. In many Christian sermons and texts, the example of a vessel is used to explain Christian doctrine: "the nave of the church of baptism", "the ship of Mary ", etc. The writings show that processions with ship-like carts were held and lavish feasts were celebrated on the eve of Lent or the greeting of spring in

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1476-455: A historical and religious point of view, the Carnival therefore represented a period of celebration, but above all of symbolic renewal, during which chaos replaced the established order, which, however, once the festive period was over, re-emerged new or renewed and guaranteed for a cycle valid until the beginning of the following Carnival. From an anthropological point of view, Carnival is

1599-455: A large dog, who would drag Petrushka off the stage to end the play. Much of what we know about the Petrushka comedies comes from the folklorist Anna Fyodorovna Nekrylova, who analyzed the collected text of about forty Petrushka plays from the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Nekrylova described twenty-three distinct scenes that make up the building blocks of a Petrushka comedy, which could then be combined (or omitted) as desired to fit

1722-660: A long time, the most famous Carnival (although Napoleon abolished it in 1797 and only in 1979 was the tradition restored). From Italy, Carnival traditions spread to Spain, Portugal, and France, and from France to New France in North America. From Spain and Portugal, it spread with colonization to the Caribbean and Latin America . In the early 19th century in the German Rhineland and Southern Netherlands ,

1845-528: A marriage would be consummated as a fertility ritual . Tacitus wrote in his Germania : Germania 9.6: Ceterum nec cohibere parietibus deos neque in ullam humani oris speciem adsimulare ex magnitudine caelestium arbitrator – "The Germans, however, do not consider it consistent with the grandeur of celestial beings to confine the gods within walls, or to liken them to the form of any human countenance." Germania 40: mox vehiculum et vestis et, si credere velis, numen ipsum secreto lacu abluitur – "Afterwards

1968-475: A method of empowering themselves in spite of social conflicts. For example, when the Caribbean Carnival was established as a result of French settlers, even the slaves had their version of the masquerade , where they would reverse roles to mock those of higher social status. Along with empowering individuals for a period of time, despite their typical status, Carnival brings communities together. In

2091-474: A national holiday, when costume bands fill the streets with pulsating Barbadian rhythms and fireworks. San Pedro is one of Belize 's few cities to observe Carnaval before Lent. Elsewhere, Carnaval (sometimes referred to as Carnival) often occurs in September. The Fiesta de Carnaval is often the most popular celebration, usually held over three days prior to Ash Wednesday, but the festivities often extend to

2214-515: A pagan." Confession books from around 800 contain more information about how people would dress as an animal or old woman during the festivities in January and February, even though this was a sin with no small penance. Also in Spain in the seventh century, San Isidoro de Sevilla complained in his writings about people coming out into the streets disguised, in many cases, as the opposite sex. Gradually, ecclesiastical authority began to realize that

2337-485: A predominantly children's entertainment, Petrushka became less vulgar and aggressive, moving away from his slapstick roots. Starting in the 1920s, troupes traveled from city to city doing Petrushka editions of the agitprop theatre in which Petrushka appeared defending poor peasants and attacking kulaks . Such groups directing Petrushka's last stand included the Red Petrushka Collective in 1927 and

2460-416: A proportionally smaller torso and legs that dangle beneath the structural body of the glove puppet. Overall, the size of the puppet is determined by the limiting factor of the human hand, with the width delineated by the space between the thumb and pinky, which act as the puppet's arms, while the three proximal fingers serve as the puppet's torso supporting the head. The length has more variation but typically

2583-524: A provincial form of entertainment, often frequented primarily by the urban lower class. At the same time, the Russian intelligentsia were more interested in the puppet theatres of Western Europe . It was during this period that a young Fyodor Dostoevsky frequented puppet shows with his brother, attesting in his writings for the relationship between Petrushka and Pulcinella . In his diaries and in "Gospodin Prokharchin ," he writes of Petrushka as

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2706-448: A reversal ritual, in which social roles are reversed and norms about desired behavior are suspended. During antiquity , winter was thought of as the reign of the winter spirits; these needed to be driven out in order for summer to return. Carnival can thus be regarded as a rite of passage from darkness to light, from winter to summer: a fertility celebration, the first spring festival of the new year. Several Germanic tribes celebrated

2829-535: A special point of self-examination, of considering what wrongs they need to repent, and what amendments of life or areas of spiritual growth they especially need to ask God's help in dealing with." During Shrovetide, many churches place a basket in the narthex to collect the previous year's Holy Week palm branches that were blessed and distributed during the Palm Sunday liturgies. On Shrove Tuesday (the final day of Shrovetide), churches burn these palms to make

2952-488: A whole. Although the Russian word "petrushka" has a homonym meaning " parsley ", in this context the word is actually a hypocoristic ( diminutive ) for "Pyotr" (Пётр), which is Peter in Russian. Despite this, the character has little or nothing in common with the commedia dell'arte stock characters of Petruccio or Pierrot (whose names are themselves diminutive forms of the Italian and French names for Peter), but

3075-623: A world turned upside down. The Russian Children's Welfare Society (RCWS) hosts an annual "Petroushka Ball", which is named after a version of the Petrushka character who fell in love with a graceful ballerina . Carnival Carnival or Shrovetide is a festive season that occurs at the close of the Christian pre-Lenten period , consisting of Quinquagesima or Shrove Sunday, Shrove Monday , and Shrove Tuesday or Mardi Gras . Carnival typically involves public celebrations , including events such as parades , public street parties and other entertainments, combining some elements of

3198-531: A yearly prize. It has imported various Brazilian Carnival traditions. The celebration in São Nicolau is more traditional, where established groups parade through the Ribeira Brava , gathering in the town square , although it has adopted drums, floats and costumes from Brazil. In São Nicolau, three groups, Copa Cabana, Estrela Azul, and Brilho Da Zona, construct a painted float using fire, newspaper for

3321-647: Is a popular musical style. In all major cities and many towns throughout the country, Carnival is celebrated. The Humahuaca Carnival is a popular celebration, which takes place at the beginning of Lent (40 days before Holy Week), in the Quebrada de Humahuaca area, Jujuy province, Argentina. As Carnival coincides with summer in the Southern Hemisphere, in many parts of Argentina children play with water. The 19th century tradition of filling empty egg shells with water has evolved into water games that include

3444-478: Is a traditional harvest festival celebrated in Barbados . Its early beginnings were on the sugar cane plantations during the colonial period. Crop Over began in 1688, and featured singing, dancing, and accompaniment by shak-shak , banjo , triangle , fiddle , guitar, bottles filled with water, and bones. Other traditions included climbing a greased pole, feasting, and drinking competitions. Originally signaling

3567-798: Is celebrated during the last week before Great Lent . In German -speaking Europe and the Netherlands , the Carnival season traditionally opens on 11/11 (often at 11:11 a.m.). This dates back to celebrations before the Advent season or with harvest celebrations of St. Martin's Day . The word "Carnival" is of Christian origin. The Latin -derived name of the holiday is sometimes also spelled Carnaval , typically in areas where Dutch , French , Spanish , and Portuguese are spoken, or Carnevale in Italian -speaking contexts. Alternative names are used for regional and local celebrations. The word

3690-400: Is fewer than 19 inches since the legs hang toward the proximal part of the forearm. The head of the Petrushka puppet was traditionally made with wood, such as birch , with papier-mâché applied to it so as to be lightweight and to make a sound when hit, such as was often the case in the slapstick comedy of carnival theatre. Petrushka is most often represented wearing red clothing (typically

3813-593: Is held from the end of July to the first Tuesday in August. The most important day is that of the j'ouvert (or juvé ), in which brass and steelpan bands perform. Barbuda 's Carnival, held in June, is known as "Caribana". The Antiguan and Barbudan Carnivals replaced the Old Time Christmas Festival in 1957, with hopes of inspiring tourism. In Argentina , the most representative Carnival performed

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3936-478: Is held in the capital city of Victoria and takes place over three days. On Day 1, the grand opening is held in the city center near the clock tower. The second day is parade day. On Day 3, the closing ceremony is held, and a lottery winner is announced. The Harare Carnival is held late in May. Events include fashion and music shows. The climax is a street party featuring costumes and music. The Antiguan Carnival

4059-700: Is in fact no evidence that they existed much before 1200." Because Lent was a period of fasting , "Carnival therefore represented a last period of feasting and celebration before the spiritual rigors of Lent." Meat was plentiful during this part of the Christian calendar and it was consumed during Carnival as people abstained from meat consumption during the following liturgical season, Lent. During Carnival, also known as Shrovetide, people confessed (shrived) their sins in preparation for Lent as well. Shakespeare's 1601 play, The Merchant of Venice , Scene 5 of Act 2, mentions Christians who painted their faces to celebrate

4182-511: Is instead a Russian version of Punch or Pulcinella . Though Petrushka's name still likely comes to the Russian puppet theatre through the commedia dell'arte , Petrushka's popularization following the Peter the Great's Westernization efforts have led many to speculate about the relationship nonetheless. While the Petrushka puppet has been attested as both a marionette and a hand puppet , in

4305-403: Is known for being a time of great indulgence before Lent (which is a time stressing the opposite), with drinking, overeating, and various other activities of indulgence being performed. For example, pancakes , donuts, and other desserts are prepared and eaten for a final time. During Lent, dairy and animal products are eaten less, if at all, and individuals make a Lenten sacrifice , thus giving up

4428-681: Is named in honor of Saint Cyril . Since the script was conceived and popularised by the followers of Cyril and Methodius in Bulgaria, rather than by Cyril and Methodius themselves, its name denotes homage rather than authorship. The Cyrillic script was created during the First Bulgarian Empire . Modern scholars believe that the Early Cyrillic alphabet was created at the Preslav Literary School ,

4551-479: Is said to come from the Late Latin expression carne levare , which means "remove meat"; a folk etymology derives it from carne vale , "farewell to meat". In either case, this signifies the approaching fast. The word carne may also be translated as flesh, producing "a farewell to the flesh", a phrase embraced by certain Carnival celebrants to embolden the festival's carefree spirit. The etymology of

4674-478: Is the calypso competition. Calypso music, originating in Trinidad, uses syncopated rhythm and topical lyrics. It offers a medium in which to satirise local politics, amidst the general bacchanal. Calypso tents, also originating in Trinidad, feature cadres of musicians who perform biting social commentaries, political exposés or rousing exhortations to "wuk dah waistline" and "roll dat bumper". The groups compete for

4797-530: Is the so-called Murga , although other famous Carnivals, more like Brazil's, are held in Argentine Mesopotamia and the North-East. Gualeguaychú in the east of Entre Ríos Province is the most important Carnival city and has one of the largest parades. It adopts a musical background similar to Brazilian or Uruguayan Carnival. Corrientes is another city with a Carnival tradition. Chamamé

4920-577: Is the standard script for writing the following languages: Slavic languages : Non-Slavic languages of Russia : Non-Slavic languages in other countries : The Cyrillic script has also been used for languages of Alaska, Slavic Europe (except for Western Slavic and some Southern Slavic ), the Caucasus , the languages of Idel-Ural , Siberia , and the Russian Far East . The first alphabet derived from Cyrillic

5043-522: Is typically based on ⟨p⟩ from Latin typefaces, lowercase ⟨б⟩ , ⟨ђ⟩ and ⟨ћ⟩ are traditional handwritten forms), although a good-quality Cyrillic typeface will still include separate small-caps glyphs. Cyrillic typefaces, as well as Latin ones, have roman and italic forms (practically all popular modern computer fonts include parallel sets of Latin and Cyrillic letters, where many glyphs, uppercase as well as lowercase, are shared by both). However,

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5166-455: Is used to paint people on the streets, the goal being to paint as many people as you can." Street fights often occur during the festivities – some locals treat this festival as an opportunity to exact revenge on their enemies. Vandalism is common and "businesses constantly have to prepare in covering or repainting their advertisements during Carnival season because of the mischief performed." The tradition continues despite critics who advocate

5289-413: Is viewed. Petrushka's personality typically follows that of Pulcinella . He was described by prominent Soviet puppeteer Nina Simonovich-Efimova as the "classical ne'er-do-well in the puppet family." He is presented as mischievous, self-serving, gluttonous, aggressive, and cowardly. He is usually at the center of conflict in the Petrushka carnival plays, often getting himself out of trouble by killing

5412-656: The Indiculus superstitionum et paganiarum ("small index of superstitious and pagan practices"), which was drafted by the Synod of Leptines in 742. It condemned the Spurcalibus en februario . Pope Gregory the Great (590–604) decided that fasting would start on Ash Wednesday. The whole Carnival event was set before the fasting, to set a clear division between celebrations and penitence. He also dispatched missionaries to sanctify any excesses in popular Carnival customs. It

5535-593: The faux row to ensure it can be rendered properly across all systems; in some cases, such as ж with k -like ascender, no such approximation exists. Computer fonts typically default to the Central/Eastern, Russian letterforms, and require the use of OpenType Layout (OTL) features to display the Western, Bulgarian or Southern, Serbian/Macedonian forms. Depending on the choices made by the (computer) font designer, they may either be automatically activated by

5658-518: The Caucasus , Central Asia , North Asia , and East Asia , and used by many other minority languages. As of 2019 , around 250 million people in Eurasia use Cyrillic as the official script for their national languages, with Russia accounting for about half of them. With the accession of Bulgaria to the European Union on 1 January 2007, Cyrillic became the third official script of

5781-524: The Cyrillic alphabet that originated in medieval period . Paleographers consider the earliest features of script had likely begun to appear between the 10th or 11th century, with the Humac tablet to be the first such document using this type of script and is believed to date from this period. Was weak used continuously until the 18th century, with sporadic usage even taking place in the 20th century. With

5904-730: The European Union , following the Latin and Greek alphabets. The Early Cyrillic alphabet was developed during the 9th century AD at the Preslav Literary School in the First Bulgarian Empire during the reign of Tsar Simeon I the Great , probably by the disciples of the two Byzantine brothers Cyril and Methodius , who had previously created the Glagolitic script . Among them were Clement of Ohrid , Naum of Preslav , Constantine of Preslav , Joan Ekzarh , Chernorizets Hrabar , Angelar , Sava and other scholars. The script

6027-622: The Red Army Petrushka Group in 1928. However, by the late 1930s, this version of Petrushka, too, declined. Sergei Obraztsov claimed that Petrushka failed because before the revolution, Petrushka, who beat people with his club and enacted his own justice, was commenting on wrongs in the world that simply did not exist after the war. The lack of meaningful social commentary in Red Petrushka resulted in conflicts that seemed arbitrary and missing their carnivalesque sense of

6150-754: The Shrovetide carnival context, likely in response to growing revolutionary sentiments and an attempt by artists and audiences to connect with cultural roots. In 1916, the influential theater critic and puppeteer Yulia Slonimskaia Sazonova opened her puppet theatre in Saint Petersburg . That same year in Moscow, Nina Simonovich-Efimova performed her first public Petrushka plays in Moscow before opening her own theatre with her husband sculptor and artist Ivan Efimov . The Efimovs were highly influential in

6273-408: The local variant locl feature for text tagged with an appropriate language code , or the author needs to opt-in by activating a stylistic set ss## or character variant cv## feature. These solutions only enjoy partial support and may render with default glyphs in certain software configurations, and the reader may not see the same result as the author intended. Among others, Cyrillic

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6396-410: The lunar calendar . Both Jesus and King Carnival may be seen as expiatory figures who make a gift to the people with their deaths. In the case of Jesus, the gift is eternal life in heaven , and in the case of King Carnival, the acknowledgement that death is a necessary part of the cycle of life. Besides Christian anti-Judaism , the commonalities between church and Carnival rituals and imagery suggest

6519-463: The medieval stage to the late Baroque , without a Renaissance phase as in Western Europe . Late Medieval Cyrillic letters (categorized as vyaz' and still found on many icon inscriptions today) show a marked tendency to be very tall and narrow, with strokes often shared between adjacent letters. Peter the Great , Tsar of Russia, mandated the use of westernized letter forms ( ru ) in

6642-683: The 19th century). After the disintegration of the Soviet Union in 1991, some of the former republics officially shifted from Cyrillic to Latin. The transition is complete in most of Moldova (except the breakaway region of Transnistria , where Moldovan Cyrillic is official), Turkmenistan , and Azerbaijan . Uzbekistan still uses both systems, and Kazakhstan has officially begun a transition from Cyrillic to Latin (scheduled to be complete by 2025). The Russian government has mandated that Cyrillic must be used for all public communications in all federal subjects of Russia , to promote closer ties across

6765-544: The 890s as a more suitable script for church books. Cyrillic spread among other Slavic peoples, as well as among non-Slavic Romanians . The earliest datable Cyrillic inscriptions have been found in the area of Preslav , in the medieval city itself and at nearby Patleina Monastery , both in present-day Shumen Province , as well as in the Ravna Monastery and in the Varna Monastery . The new script became

6888-533: The British Empire. The Bahamas announced the first Bahamas Junkanoo Carnival to commence in May 2015. Carnival in the Bahamas rivals various carnivals throughout the Caribbean in that it is a unique blend between the revered Junkanoo and traditional Carnival. This fairly new festival has been referred to as the ultimate celebration of everything Bahamian. "Crop Over" (formerly called "Harvest Home")

7011-613: The Byzantine Saints Cyril and Methodius and their Bulgarian disciples, such as Saints Naum , Clement , Angelar , and Sava . They spread and taught Christianity in the whole of Bulgaria. Paul Cubberley posits that although Cyril may have codified and expanded Glagolitic, it was his students in the First Bulgarian Empire under Tsar Simeon the Great that developed Cyrillic from the Greek letters in

7134-611: The Calypso Monarch Award, while the air is redolent with the smells of Bajan cooking during the Bridgetown Market Street Fair. The Cohobblopot Festival blends dance, drama, and music with the crowning of the King and Queen of costume bands. Every evening the "Pic-o-de-Crop" Show is performed after the King of Calypso is finally crowned. The climax of the festival is Kadooment Day, celebrated with

7257-452: The Devil or Barbos. The puppeteer for the show did the voices for all the characters present in the show. However, the voice of Petrushka was distinct from the other characters on stage through use of a swazzle (Russian: пищик, pishchik ). The dialogue was based on a momentary change of the swazzle and the "live" voice of other characters. Pietro-Mira Pedrillo of Italy, the court jester of

7380-582: The Empress Anna Ioannovna , allegedly served as a prototype for Petrushka. The popularity of Petrushka comedies in particular largely began in the mid-nineteenth century, with the century from 1830–1930 being the height of its popularity. The origins of the Petrushka puppet in Russia are debated, with some claiming that there were origins of the tradition pre-dating the arrival of the commedia dell'arte with traveling Italian puppeteers after

7503-577: The Serbian constitution; however, the law does not regulate scripts in standard language, or standard language itself by any means. In practice the scripts are equal, with Latin being used more often in a less official capacity. The Zhuang alphabet , used between the 1950s and 1980s in portions of the People's Republic of China, used a mixture of Latin, phonetic, numeral-based, and Cyrillic letters. The non-Latin letters, including Cyrillic, were removed from

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7626-635: The Unicode definition of a character: this aspect is the responsibility of the typeface designer. The Unicode 5.1 standard, released on 4 April 2008, greatly improved computer support for the early Cyrillic and the modern Church Slavonic language. In Microsoft Windows, the Segoe UI user interface font is notable for having complete support for the archaic Cyrillic letters since Windows 8. Some currency signs have derived from Cyrillic letters: The development of Cyrillic letter forms passed directly from

7749-521: The United Kingdom, West Indian immigrants brought with them the traditions of Caribbean Carnival ; however, the Carnivals now celebrated at Notting Hill , Leeds , Yorkshire, and other places became divorced from their religious origin and became secular events that take place in the summer months. Interpretations of Carnival present it as a social institution that degrades or "uncrowns"

7872-541: The ashes used during the services held on the very next day, Ash Wednesday. The term "Carnival" is traditionally used in areas with a large Catholic presence, as well as in Greece . The celebration is known as Fastelavn in historically Evangelical Lutheran countries. It is called Shrovetide in areas with a high concentration of Anglicans ( Church of England / US Episcopal Church ), Methodists , and other Protestants . In Slavic Eastern Orthodox nations, Maslenitsa

7995-445: The audience. This was significantly larger than the small huts that Petrushka performances began in at the beginning of their popularity in the mid 19th century, where their booths were situated at the periphery of the fairgrounds and held fewer than 200 patrons, which allowed audience members to see the small puppets in their booth. The plays themselves were often referred to as Kamed' o Petrushke or Comedy of Petrushka, though there

8118-635: The basis of alphabets used in various languages in Orthodox Church -dominated Eastern Europe, both Slavic and non-Slavic languages (such as Romanian , until the 1860s). For centuries, Cyrillic was also used by Catholic and Muslim Slavs. Cyrillic and Glagolitic were used for the Church Slavonic language , especially the Old Church Slavonic variant. Hence expressions such as "И is the tenth Cyrillic letter" typically refer to

8241-609: The car, the vestments, and, if you like to believe it, the divinity herself, are purified in a secret lake." In the Middle Ages , Carnival referred to a period following Epiphany season that reached its climax before midnight on Shrove Tuesday . British historian John Bossy , in writing on the origin of the practices during Carnival, states that "These were, despite some appearances, Christian in character, and they were medieval in origin: although it has been widely supposed that they continued some kind of pre-Christian cult, there

8364-419: The carnival remained the primary venue for Petrushka, puppet theatre became increasingly associated with children's entertainment. The early twentieth century saw both the growth and shift of Petrushka's popularity before its decline. In particular, the years leading up to and immediately surrounding the Russian revolution saw the growth of puppet theaters as year-round standalone cultural institutions outside of

8487-410: The context of the performance. These variants include a scene in which Petrushka declares his intent to find a wife, Petrushka purchasing a horse, Petrushka with his fiancee, several variations of a scene with the doctor character treating Petrushka for medical injuries, a confrontation with a policeman, Petrushka meeting with a soldier, and several variations of Petrushka being dragged off stage by either

8610-782: The correspondence between uppercase and lowercase glyphs does not coincide in Latin and Cyrillic types: for example, italic Cyrillic ⟨ т ⟩ is the lowercase counterpart of ⟨ Т ⟩ not of ⟨ М ⟩ . Note: in some typefaces or styles, ⟨ д ⟩ , i.e. the lowercase italic Cyrillic ⟨д⟩ , may look like Latin ⟨ g ⟩ , and ⟨ т ⟩ , i.e. lowercase italic Cyrillic ⟨т⟩ , may look like small-capital italic ⟨T⟩ . In Standard Serbian, as well as in Macedonian, some italic and cursive letters are allowed to be different, to more closely resemble

8733-749: The desired result could not be achieved by banning Carnivals, which eventually led to a degree of Christianization of the traditions. They then became part of the liturgy and the liturgical year. In the Middle Ages, "Carnival and Lent were both necessary, inevitable episodes in the eternal cycle of the Church year." While forming an integral part of the Christian calendar, particularly in Catholic regions, many Carnival traditions resemble those antedating Christianity. While medieval pageants and festivals such as Corpus Christi were church-sanctioned, Carnival

8856-418: The early 18th century. Over time, these were largely adopted in the other languages that use the script. Thus, unlike the majority of modern Greek typefaces that retained their own set of design principles for lower-case letters (such as the placement of serifs , the shapes of stroke ends, and stroke-thickness rules, although Greek capital letters do use Latin design principles), modern Cyrillic types are much

8979-540: The early Middle Ages. The Lenten period of the liturgical calendar , the six weeks directly before Easter , was historically marked by fasting, study, and other pious or penitential practices. During Lent, no parties or celebrations were held, and people refrained from eating rich foods, such as meat, dairy, fat, and sugar. The first three classes were often totally unavailable during this period because of late winter shortages. While Christian festivals such as Corpus Christi were Church-sanctioned celebrations, Carnival

9102-421: The end of the year and in the expectation of the new year the mythical moments of the passage of chaos to the cosmogony are repeated". Eliade also writes: "Then the dead will come back, because all barriers between the dead and the living are broken (is the primordial chaos not revived?), and will come back since – at this paradoxical moment – time will be interrupted, so that the dead may be again contemporaries of

9225-566: The end of the yearly cane harvest, it evolved into a national festival. In the late 20th century, Crop Over began to closely mirror the Trinidad Carnival. Beginning in June, Crop Over runs until the first Monday in August when it culminates in the finale, the Grand Kadooment. Crop Over time for many islanders is one big party. Craft markets, food tents/stalls, street parties, and cavalcades fill every week. A major feature

9348-409: The entire period between Christmas and the beginning of Lent. In those two months, Christian populations used their several holidays as an outlet for their daily frustrations. Many synods and councils attempted to set things "right". Caesarius of Arles (470–542) protested around 500 CE in his sermons against the pagan practices. Centuries later, his statements were adapted as the building blocks of

9471-562: The features of national languages, and was subjected to academic reform and political decrees. A notable example of such linguistic reform can be attributed to Vuk Stefanović Karadžić , who updated the Serbian Cyrillic alphabet by removing certain graphemes no longer represented in the vernacular and introducing graphemes specific to Serbian (i.e. Љ Њ Ђ Ћ Џ Ј), distancing it from the Church Slavonic alphabet in use prior to

9594-484: The federation. This act was controversial for speakers of many Slavic languages; for others, such as Chechen and Ingush speakers, the law had political ramifications. For example, the separatist Chechen government mandated a Latin script which is still used by many Chechens. Standard Serbian uses both the Cyrillic and Latin scripts . Cyrillic is nominally the official script of Serbia's administration according to

9717-425: The full week. This festival "always includes music, dancing, costumes and parades". Comparsas are held throughout the week, consisting of large groups "of dancers dancing and traveling on the streets, followed by a Carrosa (carriage) where the musicians play. The Comparsa is a development of African processions where groups of devotees follow a given saint or deity during a particular religious celebration." One of

9840-471: The handwritten letters. The regular (upright) shapes are generally standardized in small caps form. Notes: Depending on fonts available, the Serbian row may appear identical to the Russian row. Unicode approximations are used in the faux row to ensure it can be rendered properly across all systems. In the Bulgarian alphabet , many lowercase letterforms may more closely resemble the cursive forms on

9963-443: The higher functions of thought, speech, and the soul by translating them into the grotesque body , which serves to renew society and the world, as a release for impulses that threaten the social order that ultimately reinforces social norms, as a social transformation, or as a tool for different groups to focus attention on conflicts and incongruities by embodying them in "senseless" acts. Furthermore, some cultures use Carnival as

10086-428: The image to comment on how the position of humanity between a mythic past and a tenuous future and the decline of society and the arts in Russia. Andrei Bely 's 1913 novel Petersburg about the failed revolution of 1905 , for instance, features a scene wherein the protagonist, Nikolai Apollonovich goes from a masked Harlequin of the commedia dell'arte to seeing himself in the mirror as the image of Petrushka amidst

10209-408: The letters' Greek ancestors . Computer fonts for early Cyrillic alphabets are not routinely provided. Many of the letterforms differ from those of modern Cyrillic, varied a great deal between manuscripts , and changed over time. In accordance with Unicode policy, the standard does not include letterform variations or ligatures found in manuscript sources unless they can be shown to conform to

10332-554: The living." Eliade speculates that people have "a deep need to regenerate themselves periodically by abolishing the elapsed time and making topical the cosmogony". As regards masks (monsters, animals, demons), he assigns them an apotropaic meaning. For the Canary Islands, see its section under Europe. Carnival was introduced by Portuguese settlers. It is celebrated on each of the archipelago's nine inhabited islands. In Mindelo , São Vicente , groups challenge each other for

10455-428: The meat would no longer be preservable. All the food that had survived the winter had to be eaten to assure that everyone was fed enough to survive until the coming spring would provide new food sources. Traditionally, the feast also was a time to indulge in sexual desires , which were supposed to be suppressed during the following period fasting. Before Lent began, all rich food and drink were consumed in what became

10578-435: The mold, and iron and steel for structure. Carnival São Nicolau is celebrated over three days: dawn Saturday, Sunday afternoon, and Tuesday. The celebrations are captured in the award-winning feature documentary Tchindas , nominated at the 12th Africa Movie Academy Awards . Carnival was introduced by German settlers. The celebration is based on the "Rheinische" Carnival tradition. The Seychelles carnival began in 2011. It

10701-532: The most important early literary and cultural center of the First Bulgarian Empire and of all Slavs : Unlike the Churchmen in Ohrid, Preslav scholars were much more dependent upon Greek models and quickly abandoned the Glagolitic scripts in favor of an adaptation of the Greek uncial to the needs of Slavic, which is now known as the Cyrillic alphabet. A number of prominent Bulgarian writers and scholars worked at

10824-437: The most popular comparsas of Fiesta de Carnaval is the male group comparsa, usually composed of notable men from the community who dress up in outlandish costumes or cross-dress and dance to compete for money and prizes. Other popular activities include body painting and flour fighting. "On the last day of Carnival painters flood the street to paint each other. This simply means that a mixture of water paint and water or raw eggs

10947-478: The native typeface terminology in most Slavic languages (for example, in Russian) does not use the words "roman" and "italic" in this sense. Instead, the nomenclature follows German naming patterns: Similarly to Latin typefaces, italic and cursive forms of many Cyrillic letters (typically lowercase; uppercase only for handwritten or stylish types) are very different from their upright roman types. In certain cases,

11070-459: The one hand and Latin glyphs on the other hand, e.g. by having an ascender or descender or by using rounded arcs instead of sharp corners. Sometimes, uppercase letters may have a different shape as well, e.g. more triangular, Д and Л, like Greek delta Δ and lambda Λ. Notes: Depending on fonts available, the Bulgarian row may appear identical to the Russian row. Unicode approximations are used in

11193-533: The order of the Church Slavonic alphabet; not every Cyrillic alphabet uses every letter available in the script. The Cyrillic script came to dominate Glagolitic in the 12th century. The literature produced in Old Church Slavonic soon spread north from Bulgaria and became the lingua franca of the Balkans and Eastern Europe. Cyrillic in modern-day Bosnia, is an extinct and disputed variant of

11316-484: The orthographic reform of Saint Evtimiy of Tarnovo and other prominent representatives of the Tarnovo Literary School of the 14th and 15th centuries, such as Gregory Tsamblak and Constantine of Kostenets , the school influenced Russian, Serbian, Wallachian and Moldavian medieval culture. This is known in Russia as the second South-Slavic influence. In 1708–10, the Cyrillic script used in Russia

11439-424: The other puppets on stage with a swing of his club . Petrushka plays were primarily performed in the setting of the carnivals held in cities such as Saint Petersburg , particularly during Shrovetide . At these carnivals surrounding Easter , booths were specially constructed and situated for commedia dell'arte performances, which were performed in wooden structures called balagany that held up to 1500 people in

11562-489: The period of Tsar Peter I 's rule. While there was undoubtedly some form of puppet culture in traditional Russia, the influence of the commedia dell'arte on puppet theatre in Russia is undeniable. Originating as actors in clown makeup before gradually moving toward puppetry, Russian artists began to take over from the Russian-speaking Italian performers who had been running the scenes before. Entry to

11685-514: The point of anachronistic texts from later periods retroactively referring to puppet shows of previous centuries petrushka. This also accounts for the frequent mixing of surnames, such as when Nina Simonovich-Efimova refers to the Russian puppet as "Petroushka Guignol Pickelherring Punch ," describing him as a puppet who fell in with a bad crowd (i.e. a joke about the influence of the French, English, and Italian puppets on Russian puppetry). With

11808-498: The popularization of the genre, the target demographic began to shift. Though children were never excluded from the booths at the fairgrounds, they were not the primary audience. Rather, Petrushka--and carnival affairs more generally--were most popular among young, single men. Starting in the 1870s, Petrushka puppets began to be bought and sold at the carnival grounds, along with Russian chapbooks (Russian: лубки, lubki ) providing instructions on how to enact them. With this shift, though

11931-559: The practical art of puppetry was thriving under the Efimovs' influence, the image of Petrushka was outgrowing the puppet theatre in other ways. In 1911, the composer Igor Stravinsky wrote a ballet called Petrushka , in which the eponymous hero challenges the love interest of a ballerina he wants to marry. The plot of the ballet relies on knowledge of the Petrushka tradition, as the puppets are brought to life during Maslenitsa in 1830 Saint Petersburg, and plays with cultural expectations of

12054-423: The puppet booths was cheaper than to the larger, primary attractions at the late 19th-century Russian carnival, with standard entry as low as a grivennik (10 kopecks ), or even lower, depending on the development of the area. During the 1840s and especially after the emancipation of the serfs in 1961, industrialization in the cities brought more attention to the fairs. This was likely how Petrushka puppetry became

12177-580: The reform. Today, many languages in the Balkans , Eastern Europe, and northern Eurasia are written in Cyrillic alphabets. Cyrillic script spread throughout the East Slavic and some South Slavic territories, being adopted for writing local languages, such as Old East Slavic . Its adaptation to local languages produced a number of Cyrillic alphabets, discussed below. Capital and lowercase letters were not distinguished in old manuscripts. Yeri ( Ы )

12300-402: The returning of the daylight. Winter would be driven out, to make sure that fertility could return in spring. A central figure of this ritual was possibly the fertility goddess Nerthus . Also, there are some indications that the effigy of Nerthus or Freyr was placed on a ship with wheels and accompanied by a procession of people in animal disguise and men in women's clothes. Aboard the ship

12423-506: The sacred order. In 1466, in festivies sponsored by Pope Paul II , Jews were forced to race naked through the streets of the city of Rome. Clement IX stopped these practices and in their place assessed a heavy tax on the Jews to help pay for the costs of the city's Carnival celebrations. Some of the best-known traditions, including carnal parades and masquerade balls , were first recorded in medieval Italy . The Carnival of Venice was, for

12546-576: The same as modern Latin types of the same typeface family. The development of some Cyrillic computer fonts from Latin ones has also contributed to a visual Latinization of Cyrillic type. Cyrillic uppercase and lowercase letter forms are not as differentiated as in Latin typography. Upright Cyrillic lowercase letters are essentially small capitals (with exceptions: Cyrillic ⟨а⟩ , ⟨е⟩ , ⟨і⟩ , ⟨ј⟩ , ⟨р⟩ , and ⟨у⟩ adopted Latin lowercase shapes, lowercase ⟨ф⟩

12669-564: The school, including Naum of Preslav until 893; Constantine of Preslav ; Joan Ekzarh (also transcr. John the Exarch); and Chernorizets Hrabar , among others. The school was also a center of translation, mostly of Byzantine authors. The Cyrillic script is derived from the Greek uncial script letters, augmented by ligatures and consonants from the older Glagolitic alphabet for sounds not found in Greek. Glagolitic and Cyrillic were formalized by

12792-410: The season: What, are there masques? Hear you me, Jessica: Lock up my doors, and when you hear the drum And the vile squealing of the wry-nck'd fife, Clamber not you up o the casements then, Nor thrust your head into the public street To gaze on Christian fools with varnish'd faces. Traditionally, a Carnival feast was the last opportunity for common people to eat well, as there was typically

12915-594: The source of both the name and the parade floats . The characteristics of the celebration of Carnival take their origins from ancient European festivals, such as the Greek Dionysian (the Anthesteria ) or the Roman Saturnalia . During these festivities, there was a temporary release from social obligations and hierarchies to make way for the overthrow of order, joking and even debauchery. From

13038-583: The stage, and only matched in stage time by the character of the Musician--a human respondent ( Cyrillic : Russian : ответчик, otvetchik ) who served as a counterpart to the hero. In addition to the Musician, who often played a hurdy-gurdy throughout the performance, other characters included Petrushka's fiance or wife, a horse-trader, a German, a doctor, a corporal, the policeman, the Devil , and Barbos,

13161-432: The standard structure of a Petrushka comedy. Vaslav Nijinsky was the first to star on the stage as Petrushka. At the same time, Petrushka was being used by Russian Symbolists in poetry, stage plays, and novels. The Symbolists were less interested in the puppet theatre than in what the symbol of the puppet represented between past and future. Drawing on the idea that the puppet superseded the human comedic actor, they used

13284-540: The termination of these festivities. Cyrillic Co-official script in: The Cyrillic script ( / s ɪ ˈ r ɪ l ɪ k / sih- RIL -ik ), Slavonic script or simply Slavic script is a writing system used for various languages across Eurasia . It is the designated national script in various Slavic , Turkic , Mongolic , Uralic , Caucasian and Iranic -speaking countries in Southeastern Europe , Eastern Europe ,

13407-483: The threat of failure in his revolutionary activity. During the early Soviet years, the puppet theatre again was transformed. Fairgrounds, the traditional home of the Petrushka theatre, were replaced with Parks of Culture in Rest throughout the late 1920s and 30s. Despite this, Petrushka continued. In the 1920s and 1930s, Petrushka increasingly became the subject of the children's literature. As puppet theatre gradually became

13530-694: The throwing of water balloons . Carnival in Aruba means weeks of events that bring colourfully decorated floats, contagiously throbbing music, luxuriously costumed groups of celebrants of all ages, King and Queen elections, electrifying jump-ups and torchlight parades, the Jouvert morning: the Children's Parades, and finally the Grand Parade. Aruba's biggest celebration is a month-long affair consisting of festive "jump-ups" (street parades), spectacular parades, and creative contests. Music and flamboyant costumes play

13653-410: The vast majority of occurrences he takes the form of the latter. He typically appears as a small figure with exaggerated features, taking aesthetic cues from the clown performers upon which such stock puppets are originally based, while also allowing the important aspects of his appearance to be seen from an audience despite his small size. His face, for instance, is the largest portion of the puppet, with

13776-512: The weakened medieval tradition also revived. Continuously in the 18th and 19th centuries CE, as part of the annual abuse of the Carnival in Rome, rabbis of the ghetto were forced to march through the city streets wearing foolish guise, jeered upon and pelted by a variety of missiles from the crowd. A petition of the Jewish community of Rome sent in 1836 to Pope Gregory XVI to stop the annual abuse

13899-541: The word Carnival thus points to a Christian origin of the celebratory period. Other scholars argue that the origin of the word is a common meat-based country feast (in Latin carnualia ) or the festival of the Navigium Isidis ("ship of Isis"), where the image of Isis was carried to the seashore to bless the start of sailing season. The festival consisted of a parade of masks following an adorned wooden boat, called in Latin carrus navalis , possibly

14022-887: The world of puppetry, including training Sergei Obraztsv who himself eventually became the President of the International Union of Puppeteers as well as named the Head of the Sergei Obraztsov State Academic Central Puppet Theatre by the Soviet government in 1931. Simonovich-Efimova published the most extensive description of practical puppet knowledge about Petrushka glove puppets in her theory " O Petrushke" ("About Petrushka") in 1919, along with books, pamphlets and guides for aspiring Petrushka puppeteers. Meanwhile, while

14145-708: Was Abur , used for the Komi language . Other Cyrillic alphabets include the Molodtsov alphabet for the Komi language and various alphabets for Caucasian languages . A number of languages written in a Cyrillic alphabet have also been written in a Latin alphabet , such as Azerbaijani , Uzbek , Serbian , and Romanian (in the Moldavian SSR until 1989 and in the Danubian Principalities throughout

14268-462: Was also a manifestation of European folk culture . In the Christian tradition, fasting is to commemorate the 40 days that Jesus fasted in the desert , according to the New Testament , and also to reflect on Christian values. It was a time for catechumens (those converting to Christianity ) to prepare for baptism at Easter. Carnival in the Middle Ages took not just a few days, but almost

14391-599: Was also a manifestation of medieval folk culture . Many local Carnival customs are claimed to derive from local pre-Christian rituals, such as elaborate rites involving masked figures in the Swabian-Alemannic Fastnacht . However, evidence is insufficient to establish a direct origin from Saturnalia or other ancient festivals. No complete accounts of Saturnalia survive, and the shared features of feasting, role reversals, temporary social equality, masks, and permitted rule-breaking do not necessarily constitute

14514-570: Was also adopted. The pre-reform letterforms, called 'Полуустав', were notably retained in Church Slavonic and are sometimes used in Russian even today, especially if one wants to give a text a 'Slavic' or 'archaic' feel. The alphabet used for the modern Church Slavonic language in Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic rites still resembles early Cyrillic. However, over the course of the following millennium, Cyrillic adapted to changes in spoken language, developed regional variations to suit

14637-580: Was also the custom during Carnival that the ruling class would be playfully mocked using masks and disguises . In the year 743, the synod in Leptines (located near Binche in Belgium) spoke out furiously against the excesses in the month of February. Also from the same period dates the phrase: "Whoever in February by a variety of less honorable acts tries to drive out winter is not a Christian, but

14760-586: Was denied: "It is not opportune to make any innovation." In the Rhineland in 1823, the first modern Carnival parade took place in Cologne . Carnaval ( Karneval , Fasching or Fastnacht in Germany) mixed pagan traditions with Christian traditions. Pre-Lenten celebrations featured parades, costumes and masks to endure Lent's withdrawal from worldly pleasures. Other areas developed their own traditions. In

14883-457: Was heavily reformed by Peter the Great , who had recently returned from his Grand Embassy in Western Europe . The new letterforms, called the Civil script , became closer to those of the Latin alphabet; several archaic letters were abolished and several new letters were introduced designed by Peter himself. Letters became distinguished between upper and lower case. West European typography culture

15006-455: Was not a single play to which they were referring. Rather, the Comedy was collectively referring to the different characters and scenes arranged in various ways for various audiences, including regional differences. These variants ranged from a simple monologue performed by the hero Petrushka to a full ensemble cast. In each of these cases, Petrushka was at the center of the action, rarely leaving

15129-562: Was originally a ligature of Yer and I ( Ъ + І = Ы ). Iotation was indicated by ligatures formed with the letter І: Ꙗ (not an ancestor of modern Ya, Я, which is derived from Ѧ ), Ѥ , Ю (ligature of І and ОУ ), Ѩ , Ѭ . Sometimes different letters were used interchangeably, for example И = І = Ї , as were typographical variants like О = Ѻ . There were also commonly used ligatures like ѠТ = Ѿ . The letters also had numeric values, based not on Cyrillic alphabetical order, but inherited from

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