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158-535: The Petticoat affair rattled the entire Jackson administration and eventually led to the resignation of all but one Cabinet member. The ordeal facilitated Martin Van Buren 's rise to the presidency and was in part responsible for Calhoun's transformation from a nationwide political figure with presidential aspirations into a sectional leader of the Southern United States . Margaret "Peggy" Eaton

316-587: A mail campaign against the peculiar institution . Tens of thousands of antislavery pamphlets and tracts were sent to Southern destinations through the U.S. mail. Across the South, reaction to the abolition mail campaign bordered on apoplexy. In Congress, Southerners demanded the prevention of delivery of the tracts, and Jackson moved to placate Southerners in the aftermath of the nullification crisis. Abolitionists decried Postmaster General Amos Kendall's decision to give Southern postmasters discretionary powers to discard

474-629: A pulmonary hemorrhage , revealing that she was suffering from tuberculosis . Plans for her to return to Washington were canceled. That fall, it appeared that she was beginning to recover. Her husband left to return to the White House in October to resume his duties for two months while relatives cared for her. Many of the nation's most prominent figures regularly asked about her health, including Senator James Buchanan , Chief Justice Roger B. Taney , Secretary of State John Forsyth , Secretary of

632-608: A rotation in office (the removal of governmental officials) was actually a democratic reform preventing nepotism, and that it made civil service responsible to the popular will. Reflecting this view, Jackson told Congress in December 1829, "In a country where offices are created solely for the benefit of the people, no one man has any more intrinsic right to official station than another." Jackson rotated about 20% of federal office holders during his first term, some for dereliction of duty rather than political purposes. The Post Office

790-420: A charming little girl ... who very frequently plays the piano, and entertains us with agreeable songs". As a young girl, her reputation had already begun to come under scrutiny because of her employment in a bar frequented by men, as well as her casual bantering with the boarding house's clientele. In her later years, Peggy reminisced, "While I was still in pantalettes and rolling hoops with other girls, I had

948-578: A close ally of Calhoun's who had been Adams's Postmaster General. Because McLean was reluctant to make full use of his office's powers of patronage, Jackson delicately removed him from office with an appointment to the Supreme Court. McLean "turned Whig and forever schemed to win" the presidency. Jackson's next two appointees– Henry Baldwin and James Moore Wayne –disagreed with Jackson on some points but were poorly regarded even by Jackson's enemies. In reward for his services, Jackson nominated Taney to

1106-512: A congressional override of his veto was unlikely, Jackson still wanted to ensure that the national bank would be abolished. His administration was unable to legally remove federal deposits from the national bank unless the Secretary of the Treasury issued an official finding that the national bank was a fiscally unsound institution, but the national bank was clearly solvent. In January 1833, at

1264-465: A considerable amount of his time during his early years in office responding to what came to be known as the "Petticoat affair" or "Eaton affair." Washington gossip circulated among Jackson's cabinet members and their wives, including Vice President Calhoun's wife Floride Calhoun , concerning Secretary of War Eaton and his wife Peggy Eaton . Salacious rumors held that Peggy, as a barmaid in her father's tavern, had been sexually promiscuous or had even been

1422-635: A constitutional amendment that would, once the national debt was paid off, distribute surplus revenues from tariffs to the states. Calhoun was not as extreme as some within South Carolina, and he and his allies kept more radical leaders like Robert James Turnbull in check early in Jackson's presidency. As the Petticoat affair strained relations between Jackson and Calhoun, South Carolina nullifiers became increasingly strident in their opposition to

1580-457: A courtship with Andrew Donelson as he began his law practice, and they soon became engaged. They chose to marry early to avoid long periods of separation, as Jackson had enlisted the prospective groom to be his personal secretary in Washington, D.C. Planning of the wedding was complicated by a period of illness for Donelson in early 1824 and her parents' reluctance to see her marry at such

1738-592: A friend and close political ally, as Secretary of War. Recognizing the growing importance of the Post Office , Jackson elevated the position of Postmaster General to the cabinet, and he named William T. Barry of Kentucky to lead the department. Of the six officials in Jackson's initial cabinet, only Van Buren was a major political figure in his own right. Jackson's cabinet choices were criticized from various quarters; Calhoun and Van Buren were both disappointed that their respective factions were not more prominent in

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1896-572: A high-profile Cabinet post helped intensify the opposition of Mrs. Calhoun's group. In addition, Calhoun was becoming the focal point of opposition to Jackson; Calhoun's supporters opposed a second term for Jackson because they wanted Calhoun elected president. In addition, Jackson favored and Calhoun opposed the protective tariff that came to be known as the Tariff of Abominations . U.S. tariffs on imported goods generally favored Northern industries by limiting competition, but Southerners opposed them because

2054-410: A home of their own. While her husband managed the crops, Donelson began a garden to grow geraniums and lagerstroemia . Donelson traveled to Florence, Alabama , in October 1828 with her son to visit her sister. When she returned to Tennessee the following month, it was known that Jackson had won the 1828 presidential election . Jackson's wife asked Donelson to go to the White House and fulfill

2212-605: A lucrative posting to the U.S. Navy's Mediterranean Squadron ; many rumormongers asserted that Eaton aided Timberlake as a means to remove him from Washington, in order for Eaton to socialize with Peggy. While with the Mediterranean Squadron, Timberlake died on April 2, 1828. This served to fuel new rumors throughout Washington, suggesting he had taken his own life as the result of Eaton's supposed affair with Peggy. Medical examiners concluded Timberlake had died of pneumonia, brought on by pulmonary disease. Jackson

2370-409: A man sexual favors without the assurance that went with marriage. Historian Daniel Walker Howe argues that the actions of the cabinet wives reflected the feminist spirit that in the next decade shaped the woman's rights movement. Jackson refused to believe the rumors regarding Peggy Eaton, telling his cabinet that "She is as chaste as a virgin!" He was infuriated by those who, in attempting to drive

2528-400: A middle position. Believing that Calhoun was leading a conspiracy to undermine his administration, Jackson built a network of informants in South Carolina and prepared for a possible insurrection. He also threw his support behind a tariff reduction bill that he believed would defuse the nullification issue. In May 1832, Representative John Quincy Adams introduced a slightly revised version of

2686-592: A narrow margin, the United States Senate voted to ratify the treaty in May 1836. The Treaty of New Echota was enforced by Jackson's successor, Van Buren; subsequently, as many as 4,000 out of 18,000 Cherokees died on the " Trail of Tears " in 1838. Jackson, Eaton, and General John Coffee negotiated with the Chickasaw, who quickly agreed to move. Jackson put Eaton and Coffee in charge of negotiating with

2844-509: A national ticket, the Democrats held their first national convention in May 1832. Van Buren emerged as Jackson's preferred running mate after the Eaton affair, and the former Secretary of State won the vice presidential nomination on the first ballot of the 1832 Democratic National Convention . Later that year, on December 28, Calhoun resigned as vice president, after having been elected to

3002-960: A new era in Indian- Anglo American relations, as he initiated a policy of Indian removal. Previous presidents had at times supported removal or attempts to "civilize" the Native Americans, but had generally not made Native American affairs a top priority. By the time Jackson took office, approximately 100,000 Native Americans lived east of the Mississippi River within the United States, with most located in Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin Territory , Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, and Florida Territory . Jackson prioritized removing Native Americans from

3160-578: A new era of mass politics. Critics led by Jackson attacked Adams's policies as a dangerous expansion of federal power. Senator Martin Van Buren , who had been a prominent supporter of Crawford in the 1824 election, emerged as one of the strongest opponents of Adams's policies, and he settled on Jackson as his preferred candidate in the 1828 election. Jackson also won the support of Vice President John C. Calhoun , who opposed much of Adams's agenda on states' rights grounds. Van Buren and other Jackson allies established numerous pro-Jackson newspapers and clubs around

3318-474: A note to Eaton discourteously declining the invitation and describing his situation as one of "pity and contempt". Eaton wrote a letter back to Ingham accusing him of cowardice. Ingham was then informed that Eaton, Randolph, and others were looking to assault him. He gathered together his own bodyguard and was not immediately molested. However, he reported that for the next two nights Eaton and his men continued to lurk about his dwelling and threaten him. He then left

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3476-483: A prostitute. Some also accused the Eatons of having engaged in an adulterous affair while Peggy's previous husband, John B. Timberlake , was still living. Petticoat politics emerged when the wives of cabinet members, led by Floride Calhoun, refused to socialize with the Eatons. The cabinet wives insisted that the interests and honor of all American women were at stake. They believed a responsible woman should never accord

3634-420: A reformed version of the national bank in a way that would free up funds, partly through the sale of government stock in the national bank. The funds would in turn be used to strengthen the military or pay off the nation's debt. Over the objections of Attorney General Taney, an irreconcilable opponent of the national bank, Jackson allowed McLane to publish a Treasury Report which essentially recommended rechartering

3792-668: A removal treaty with a small group of Seminoles, but the treaty was repudiated by the tribe. Jackson sent soldiers into Florida to remove the Seminoles, marking the start of the Second Seminole War . The Second Seminole War dragged on until 1842, and hundreds of Seminole still remained in Florida after 1842. A shorter conflict broke out in the Northwest in 1832 after Chief Black Hawk led a band of Native Americans across

3950-406: A renewal of the national bank's charter without any of McLane's proposed reforms. In May 1832, after months of congressional debate, Biddle assented to a revised bill that would re-charter the national bank but give Congress and the president new powers in controlling the institution, while also limiting the national bank's ability to hold real estate and establish branches. The recharter bill passed

4108-565: A resolution that denounced the petitions as "sickly sentimentality", declared that Congress had no right to interfere with slavery, and tabled all further anti-slavery petitions. Southerners in Congress, including many of Jackson's supporters, favored the measure (the 21st Rule , commonly called the " gag rule "), which was passed quickly and without any debate, thus temporarily suppressing abolitionist activities in Congress. Two other important slavery-related developments occurred while Jackson

4266-448: A romantic interest in her in 1816 while he escorted her home from school. Donelson's early life was spent in rural Tennessee, and she had little exposure to politics or urban social life. Her childhood was instead defined by the military events of the 1810s. The men in her family fought in the War of 1812 , and her uncle Andrew Jackson became a prominent general. At the age of eight when

4424-427: A smallpox vaccination program for Indian tribes. The goal was to eliminate the deadly threat of smallpox to a population with little or no immunity, and at the same time exhibit the benefits of cooperation with the government. In practice there were severe obstacles. The tribal medicine men launched a strong opposition, warning of white trickery and offering an alternative explanation and system of cure. They taught that

4582-435: A soldier who had lost his leg fighting on the battlefield to postmaster, he stated, "[i]f he lost his leg fighting for his country, that is ... enough for me." He also asked Congress to reform embezzlement laws, reduce fraudulent applications for federal pensions, and pass laws to prevent evasion of custom duties and improve government accounting. Despite these attempts at reform, historians believe Jackson's presidency marked

4740-492: A tariff reduction bill in the House of Representatives that would restore the tariff levels of the Tariff of 1816 , and South Carolina leaders decided to delay the onset of nullification while Congress considered a new tariff bill. As the debate over the tariff continued, Jackson asked Congress to pass a " Force Bill " explicitly authorizing the use of military force to enforce the government's power to collect import duties. Though

4898-403: A wide margin. He was succeeded by his hand-picked successor, Vice President Martin Van Buren , after Van Buren won the 1836 presidential election . Jackson's presidency saw several important developments in domestic policy. A strong supporter of the removal of Native American tribes from U.S. territory east of the Mississippi River , Jackson began the process of forced relocation known as

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5056-636: A young age. The couple was wed in a Presbyterian ceremony at the Hermitage on September 16, 1824. Emily was 17 years old, and Andrew was 25. Festivities were canceled after it was learned that her brother's wife had died that morning. Donelson was close to her aunt and uncle, Rachel and Andrew Jackson, who considered her a daughter of their own. The couple had four children: Andrew Jackson Donelson Jr. (1826–1859), Mary Emily Donelson (1829–1905), John Samuel Donelson (1832–1863), and Rachel Jackson Donelson (1834–1888). Three of their children were born while

5214-630: The Battle of New Orleans took place, she was aware of the danger her family was placed in by the war. Donelson began attending the Nashville Female Academy at the age of 13. Here she received an education above that of most American women at the time. She was eventually pulled out of the school because of her poor health and spent her time living at the Hermitage with her aunt. Donelson received many suitors as she grew into adulthood, including men such as Sam Houston . She began

5372-555: The Second Party System , which would dominate American politics in the decades leading up to the American Civil War . In the 1982 Siena College Research Institute survey asking historians to assess American first ladies, Donelson and several other "acting" first ladies were included. The first ladies survey, which has been conducted periodically since, ranks first ladies according to a cumulative score on

5530-467: The Whig Party , which favored the use of federal power to modernize the economy through support for banking, tariffs on manufactured imports, and internal improvements such as canals and harbors. Of all presidential reputations, Jackson's is perhaps the most difficult to summarize or explain. A generation after his presidency, biographer James Parton found his reputation a mass of contradictions: "he

5688-593: The " Bank War " and the federal charter of the Second Bank of the United States expired in 1836. The destruction of the bank and Jackson's hard money policies would contribute to the Panic of 1837 . Foreign affairs were less eventful than domestic affairs during Jackson's presidency, but Jackson pursued numerous commercial treaties with foreign powers and recognized the independence of the Republic of Texas . Jackson

5846-564: The " Trail of Tears ". He instituted the spoils system for federal government positions, using his patronage powers to build a powerful and united Democratic Party. In response to the nullification crisis , Jackson threatened to send federal soldiers into South Carolina, but the crisis was defused by the passage of the Tariff of 1833 . He engaged in a long struggle with the Second Bank of the United States , which he viewed as an anti-democratic bastion of elitism. Jackson emerged triumphant in

6004-400: The "Tariff of Abominations." Relations between Jackson and Calhoun reached a breaking point in May 1830, after Jackson discovered a letter that indicated that then-Secretary of War Calhoun had asked President Monroe to censure Jackson for his invasion of Spanish Florida in 1818. Jackson's adviser, William Lewis, acquired the letter from William Crawford, a former Monroe cabinet official who

6162-402: The "real reasons Washington society found Peggy unacceptable": She did not know her place; she forthrightly spoke up about anything that came to her mind, even topics of which women were supposed to be ignorant. She thrust herself into the world in a manner inappropriate for a woman. ... Accept her, and society was in danger of disruption. Accept this uncouth, impure, forward, worldly woman, and

6320-554: The 1832 election. In November 1832, South Carolina held a state convention that declared the tariff rates of 1828 and 1832 to be void within the state, and further declared that federal collection of import duties would be illegal after January 1833. After the convention, the South Carolina Legislature elected Calhoun to the U.S. Senate, replacing Robert Y. Hayne , who had resigned to become that state's governor. Hayne had often struggled to defend nullification on

6478-535: The Auditor at the Treasury Department during Adams's presidency. John Neal , a friend of Watkins and critic of Jackson, said that this prosecution served to "feed fat his ancient grudge" and was "characteristic of that willful, unforgiving, inexorable man, who was made President by the war-cry." Jackson's approach incorporated patriotism for country as qualification for holding office. Having appointed

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6636-505: The Cherokee culminated in the 1832 Supreme Court decision of Worcester v. Georgia . In that decision, Chief Justice John Marshall, writing for the court, ruled that Georgia could not forbid whites from entering tribal lands, as it had attempted to do with two missionaries supposedly stirring up resistance among the tribespeople. The Supreme Court's ruling helped establish the doctrine of tribal sovereignty , but Georgia did not release

6794-580: The Choctaw tribe. Lacking Jackson's skills at negotiation, they frequently bribed the chiefs in order to gain their submission. The Choctaw chiefs agreed to move with the signing of the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek . The removal of the Choctaw took place in the winter of 1831 and 1832, and was wrought with misery and suffering. Members of the Creek Nation signed the Treaty of Cusseta in 1832, allowing

6952-474: The Constitution authorized the federal government to impose tariffs for the collection of revenue, it did not sanction tariffs that were designed to protect domestic production. Jackson sympathized with states' rights concerns, but he rejected the idea of nullification. In his 1829 Annual Message to Congress, Jackson advocated leaving the tariff in place until the national debt was paid off. He also favored

7110-563: The Court to fill a vacancy in January 1835, but the nomination failed to win Senate approval. Chief Justice John Marshall died later that year, leaving two vacancies on the court. Jackson nominated Taney for Chief Justice and Philip P. Barbour for Associate Justice, and both were confirmed by the new Senate. Taney served as Chief Justice until 1864, presiding over a court that upheld many of

7268-664: The Creek to either sell or retain their land. Conflict later erupted between the Creek who remained and the white settlers, leading to the Second Creek War . The Creek uprising was quickly crushed by the army, and the remaining Creek were escorted across the Mississippi River. Of all the tribes in the Southeast, the Seminoles proved to be the most resistant to mass relocation. The Jackson administration reached

7426-552: The Democratic Party's skillful campaigning. Jackson won the election by a landslide, winning 219 electoral votes, well over the 145 needed. Jackson won 54.2 percent of the popular vote nationwide, a slight decline from his 1828 popular vote victory. Jackson received 88 percent of the popular vote in states south of Kentucky and Maryland, while Clay received no votes in Georgia, Alabama, or Mississippi. Clay received 37% of

7584-650: The Donelson and Jackson families in Tennessee, marrying her first cousin Andrew Jackson Donelson . The Donelsons worked for their uncle as his career in politics progressed and he attained the presidency. They moved into the White House with President Jackson, where Donelson served as the White House hostess. She was successful in the role despite her lack of formal training in etiquette, and she

7742-493: The Donelsons lived at the White House , and all four had present or future presidents as godfathers; President Jackson was the godfather of their sons, while Martin Van Buren and James K. Polk were the respective godfathers of their two daughters. The Donelsons accompanied Jackson to Washington, D.C., two weeks after the wedding, as Jackson was a candidate in the 1824 presidential election . Donelson immersed herself in

7900-469: The Donelsons were to return unless they relented in the dispute against the Eatons. Donelson's husband returned on his own, discovering that Eaton and most of the other cabinet members had resigned. Donelson returned to the White House, arriving in Washington on September 5. In November, Jackson's son married Sarah Yorke . There was uncertainty as to whether she would take over Donelson's role, but

8058-422: The Eatons out, dared to tell him who he could and could not have in his cabinet. The affair also reminded him of similar attacks that had been made against his wife. Though he initially blamed Henry Clay for the controversy over Eaton, by the end of 1829 Jackson had come to believe that Vice President Calhoun had masterminded the dissension in his cabinet. The controversy over Eaton dragged on into 1830 and 1831, as

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8216-417: The Eatons. Jackson's sympathy for the Eatons stemmed in part from his late wife Rachel being the subject of innuendo during the presidential campaign, when questions arose as to whether her first marriage had been legally ended before she married Jackson. Jackson believed these attacks were the cause of Rachel's death on December 22, 1828, several weeks after his election to the presidency. Eaton's entry into

8374-433: The Hermitage, instead choosing to stay at her mother's house. When Jackson returned to Washington, Donelson's husband accompanied him, but Donelson did not. It is unknown whether Donelson was asked to leave by the president or if she left of her own accord. Mary Ann Lewis, one of Eaton's defenders, served as White House hostess in Donelson's stead. Donelson spent the following months raising her children while her husband

8532-602: The House and 29–16 in the Senate. Despite his intense anger over the scrapping of the Verplanck bill and the new alliance between Clay and Calhoun, Jackson saw the tariff bill as an acceptable way to end the crisis. He signed both the Tariff of 1833 and the Force Bill into law on March 2. Simultaneous passage of the Force Bill and the tariff allowed both the nullifiers and Jackson to claim that they had emerged victorious from

8690-432: The House effort to write a new tariff bill collapsed, Clay initiated Senate consideration of the topic by introducing his own bill. Clay, the most prominent protectionist in the country, worked with Calhoun's allies rather than Jackson's allies to pass the bill. He won Calhoun's approval for a bill that provided for gradual tariff reductions until 1843, with tariff rates ultimately reaching levels similar to those proposed in

8848-569: The Mississippi River to their ancestral homeland in Illinois. A combination of the army and the Illinois militia drove out the Native Americans by the end of the year, bringing a close to the Black Hawk War . By the end of Jackson's presidency, nearly 50,000 Native Americans had moved across the Mississippi River, and Indian removal would continue after he left office. Jackson in 1832 signed Congressional authorization and funding to set up

9006-494: The Navy Levi Woodbury , and Postmaster General Amos Kendall . Donelson's recovery halted in December as she again became severely ill. On December 16, she resigned herself to the fact that she was soon going to die. She said her farewell to her children, and she asked to be propped up so she could watch for her husband out the window, hoping for his return from Washington. Donelson died on December 19, 1836, at

9164-519: The Navy, and Woodbury became the fourth and final Secretary of the Treasury under Jackson. Jackson dismissed Barry in 1835 after numerous complaints about the latter's effectiveness as Postmaster General, and Jackson chose Amos Kendall as Barry's replacement. Jackson appointed six Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States . Most were undistinguished. His first nominee was John McLean ,

9322-530: The North, rejected Indian removal and instead favored continuing efforts to "civilize" Native Americans. Overcoming opposition led by Senator Theodore Frelinghuysen , Jackson's allies won the passage of the Indian Removal Act in May 1830. The bill passed the House by a 102 to 97 vote, with most Southern congressmen voting for the bill and most Northern congressmen voting against it. The act authorized

9480-537: The Second Bank of the United States and the Cherokee Nation. The political struggle over the national bank emerged as the major issue of the 1832 campaign, although the tariff and especially Indian removal were also important issues in several states. National Republicans also focused on Jackson's alleged executive tyranny; one cartoon described the president as " King Andrew the First ." At Biddle's direction,

9638-399: The Senate floor. It manifestly seeks to influence the poor against the rich. It wantonly attacks whole classes of the people, for the purpose of turning against them the prejudices and resentments of other classes. It is a State paper which finds no topic too exciting for its use, no passion too inflammable for its address and its solicitation. In the years leading up to the 1832 election, it

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9796-423: The Senate on June 11 and the House on July 3, 1832. When Van Buren met Jackson on July 4, Jackson declared, "The Bank, Mr. Van Buren, is trying to kill me. But I will kill it." Jackson officially vetoed the bill on July 10. His veto message, crafted primarily by Taney, Kendall, and Andrew Jackson Donelson, attacked the national bank as an agent of inequality that supported only the wealthy. He also noted that, as

9954-475: The Senate vote would end Van Buren's career, but in fact it strengthened Van Buren's position with Jackson and many other Democrats. By cultivating the support of Jackson, Van Buren emerged from the Petticoat Affair as Jackson's heir apparent. Three decades later, biographer James Parton would write that "the political history of the United States, for the last thirty years, dates from the moment when

10112-400: The Senate, and by the end of his presidency, Jackson had had more nominees rejected than all previous presidents combined. In an effort to purge the government from the alleged corruption of previous administrations, Jackson launched presidential investigations into all executive cabinet offices and departments. His administration conducted a high-profile prosecution against Tobias Watkins ,

10270-493: The South, as he believed that the Native Americans of the Northwest could be "pushed back." In his 1829 Annual Message to Congress, Jackson advocated for setting aside land west of the Mississippi River for Native American tribes; while he favored voluntary relocation, he also proposed that any Native Americans who did not relocate would lose their independence and be subject to state laws. A significant political movement, consisting largely of evangelical Christians and others from

10428-513: The Treasury, Senator Edward Livingston of Louisiana became Secretary of State, and Senator Levi Woodbury of New Hampshire became Secretary of the Navy. Roger Taney , who had previously served as the Attorney General of Maryland, replaced Berrien as the U.S. Attorney General. In contrast to Jackson's initial choices, the cabinet members appointed in 1831 were prominent national leaders, none of whom were aligned with Calhoun. Outside of

10586-685: The U.S. Senate. In the 1832 election, Jackson would face a divided opposition in the form of the Anti-Masonic Party and the National Republicans. Since the disappearance and possible murder of William Morgan in 1827, the Anti-Masonic Party had emerged by capitalizing on opposition to Freemasonry . In 1830, a meeting of Anti-Masons called for the first national nominating convention, and in September 1831

10744-492: The U.S. government. The national bank had not been a major issue in the 1828 election, but some in the country, including Jackson, despised the institution. The national bank's stock was mostly held by foreigners, Jackson insisted, and it exerted an undue amount of control over the political system. Jackson had developed a life-long hatred for banks earlier in his career, and he wanted to remove all banknotes from circulation. In his address to Congress in 1830, Jackson called for

10902-765: The Union at any cost. Because Calhoun was the most visible opponent of the Jackson administration, Jackson felt that Calhoun and other anti-Jackson officials were fanning the flames of the Peggy Eaton controversy in an attempt to gain political leverage. Duff Green , a Calhoun protégé and editor of the United States Telegraph, accused Eaton of secretly working to have pro-Calhoun Cabinet members Samuel D. Ingham and John Branch removed from their positions. Eaton took his revenge on Calhoun. In 1830, reports had emerged which accurately stated that while Calhoun

11060-451: The United States , led the wives of other Washington political figures, mostly those of Jackson's cabinet members, in an "anti-Peggy" coalition, which served to shun the Eatons socially and publicly. The women refused to pay courtesy calls to the Eatons at their home and to receive them as visitors, and denied them invitations to parties and other social events. Emily Donelson , niece of Andrew Jackson's late wife Rachel Donelson Robards and

11218-467: The Verplanck bill. Southern leaders would have preferred lower rates, but they accepted Clay's bill as the best compromise they could achieve at that point in time. The Force Bill, meanwhile, passed both houses of Congress; many Southern congressmen opposed the bill but did not vote against it in an effort to expedite consideration of the tariff bill. Clay's tariff bill received significant support across partisan and sectional lines, and it passed 149–47 in

11376-471: The White House hostess. Jackson's inaugural cabinet suffered from bitter partisanship and gossip, especially between Eaton, Vice President John C. Calhoun, and Van Buren. By mid-1831, all except Barry (and Calhoun) had resigned. Governor Lewis Cass of the Michigan Territory became Secretary of War, ambassador and former Congressman Louis McLane of Delaware took the position of Secretary of

11534-570: The White House while her husband and the president traveled through the Northeastern United States the following summer, though she and her children accompanied the president to the Rip Raps that August. Donelson had her fourth child on April 9, 1834, and her health grew worse. Due to her sickness, Donelson effectively stopped serving as White House hostess in 1834, and Sarah Yorke Jackson took over her responsibilities at

11692-408: The White House, the president was grief-stricken by the loss of his wife, and Donelson found herself caring for him. Donelson was bothered by the lack of privacy afforded by the White House, as visitors were able to travel freely through the building, and her bedroom was visible from the central corridor. The president ultimately had partitions installed to block off the private residence. Donelson

11850-503: The White House. Donelson's health declined further in spring of 1836, and it was decided that she would leave Washington and return to Tennessee. She arrived in Tennessee in June 1836, where she went to recuperate at Poplar Grove (later named Tulip Grove), her plantation adjacent to the Hermitage. The plantation had recently been renovated, and after arriving she oversaw the placement of furniture. She overexerted herself and suffered from

12008-499: The abolition of the national bank. Senator Thomas Hart Benton , a strong supporter of the president despite a brawl years earlier, gave a speech strongly denouncing the Bank and calling for open debate on its recharter, but Senator Daniel Webster led a motion that narrowly defeated the resolution. Seeking to reconcile with the Jackson administration, Biddle appointed Democrats to the boards of national bank branches and worked to speed up

12166-412: The administration to put an end to the situation, convincing Georgia Governor Wilson Lumpkin to pardon the missionaries. As the Supreme Court was no longer involved, and the Jackson administration had no interest in interfering with Indian removal, the state of Georgia was free to extend its control over the Cherokee. In 1832, Georgia held a lottery to distribute Cherokee lands to white settlers. Under

12324-495: The affliction could best be cured by a sweat bath followed by a rapid plunge into cold water. Furthermore, the vaccines often lost their potency when transported and stored over long distances with primitive storage facilities. It was too little and too late to avoid the great smallpox epidemic of 1837 to 1840 that swept across North America west of the Mississippi, all the way to Canada and Alaska. Deaths have been estimated in

12482-751: The aftermath of the Nullification Crisis. The Second Bank of the United States ("national bank") had been chartered under President James Madison to restore an economy devastated by the War of 1812 , and President Monroe had appointed Nicholas Biddle as the national bank's executive in 1822. The national bank operated branches in several states, and granted these branches a large degree of autonomy. The national bank's duties included storing government funds, issuing banknotes , selling Treasury securities , facilitating foreign transactions, and extending credit to businesses and other banks. The national bank also played an important role in regulating

12640-402: The age of 29. Her husband arrived home two days later. Donelson became the first in a long line of young acting first ladies in the mid-19th century. She did not meaningfully change the position of White House hostess. A multivolume biography of her life was written by Pamela Wilcox Burke and published as Emily Donelson of Tennessee in 1941. Donelson's daughter Mary would claim that she

12798-423: The article. Ingham sent back a contemptuous letter stating that, while he was not the source for the article, the information was still true. On June 18, Eaton challenged Ingham to a duel through Eaton's brother in law, Dr. Philip G. Randolph, who visited Ingham twice and the second time threatened him with personal harm if he did not comply with Eaton's demands. Randolph was dismissed, and the next morning Ingham sent

12956-483: The attention of men, young and old; enough to turn a girl's head." When Peggy was 15 years old, her father intervened to prevent her attempt to elope with an Army officer. In 1816, the 17-year-old Peggy married John B. Timberlake , a purser in the United States Navy . Timberlake, aged 39, had a reputation as a drunkard and was heavily in debt. The Timberlakes became acquainted with John Eaton in 1818. At

13114-706: The beginning of an era of decline in public ethics. Supervision of bureaus and departments whose operations were outside of Washington, such as the New York Customs House, the Postal Service, and the Bureau of Indian Affairs proved to be difficult. However, some of the practices that later became associated with the spoils system, including the buying of offices, forced political party campaign participation, and collection of assessments, did not take place until after Jackson's presidency. Eventually, in

13272-491: The best way to ensure democratic rule. Instead of choosing party leaders for his cabinet, Jackson chose "plain businessmen" whom he intended to control. For the key positions of Secretary of State and Secretary of the Treasury, Jackson chose two Northerners, Martin Van Buren of New York and Samuel Ingham of Pennsylvania. He appointed John Branch of North Carolina as Secretary of the Navy, John Macpherson Berrien of Georgia as Attorney General, and John Eaton of Tennessee,

13430-536: The bill, which Jackson accepted, and it was passed into law in July 1832. The bill failed to satisfy many in the South, and a majority of southern Congressmen voted against it, but passage of the Tariff of 1832 prevented tariff rates from becoming a major campaign issue in the 1832 election. Seeking to compel a further reduction in tariff rates and bolster the ideology of states' rights, South Carolina leaders prepared to follow through on their nullification threats after

13588-412: The cabinet, journalist Francis Preston Blair emerged as an influential adviser. At the start of his second term, Jackson transferred McLane to the position of Secretary of State, while William J. Duane replaced McLane as Secretary of the Treasury and Livingston became the ambassador to France. Due to his opposition to Jackson's removal of federal funds from the Second Bank of the United States, Duane

13746-424: The cabinet, while leaders from the state of Virginia and the region of New England complained about their exclusion. In addition to his official cabinet, Jackson would come to rely on an informal " Kitchen Cabinet " of advisers, including General William Berkeley Lewis and journalist Amos Kendall . Jackson's nephew, Andrew Jackson Donelson , served as the president's personal secretary, and wife, Emily , acted as

13904-503: The ceremony, eliciting this response from Francis Scott Key : "It is beautiful; it is sublime!" Jackson was the first president to invite the public to attend the White House inaugural ball. Many poor people came to the inaugural ball in their homemade clothes and rough-hewn manners. The crowd became so large that the guards could not keep them out of the White House, which became so crowded with people that dishes and decorative pieces inside were broken. Jackson's raucous populism earned him

14062-553: The city and returned safely to his home. Ingham communicated to Jackson his version of what took place, and Jackson asked Eaton to explain himself. Eaton admitted that he "passed by" the place where Ingham had been staying, "but at no point attempted to enter ... or besiege it". In 1832, Jackson nominated Van Buren as minister to Great Britain. Calhoun killed the nomination with a tie-breaking vote against it, claiming his act would "...kill him, sir, kill him dead. He will never kick, sir, never kick." However, Calhoun only made Van Buren seem

14220-410: The city's fashion and culture, making connections with other women in the city. Among the closest of her new friends was the wife of Delaware Senator Louis McLane . She was well received by the community and compared favorably to her aunt, who had been the victim of a mudslinging campaign against her husband. Upon returning home to Tennessee in early 1825, the Donelsons began their married life in

14378-427: The confrontation. Despite his earlier support for a similar measure, Jackson vetoed a third bill that would have distributed tariff revenue to the states. The South Carolina Convention met and rescinded its nullification ordinance, and, in a final show of defiance, nullified the Force Bill. Though the nullifiers had largely failed in their quest to lower tariff rates, they established firm control over South Carolina in

14536-474: The country, while Jackson made himself available to visitors at his Hermitage plantation. The 1828 campaign was very much a personal one. As was the custom at the time, neither candidate personally campaigned, but their political followers organized many campaign events. Jackson was attacked as a slave trader, and his conduct was attacked in pamphlets such as the Coffin Handbills . Rachel Jackson

14694-639: The definitive end of the one-party " Era of Good Feelings ", as the Democratic-Republican Party broke apart. Jackson's supporters coalesced into the Democratic Party , while Adams's followers became known as the National Republicans . Rachel had begun experiencing significant physical stress during the election season, and she died of a heart attack on December 22, 1828, three weeks after her husband's victory in

14852-638: The election. Jackson felt that the accusations from Adams's supporters had hastened her death, and he never forgave Adams. "May God Almighty forgive her murderers", Jackson swore at her funeral. "I never can." Jackson's first inauguration, on March 4, 1829, was the first time in which the ceremony was held on the East Portico of the United States Capitol . Due to the acrimonious campaign and mutual antipathy, Adams did not attend Jackson's inauguration. Ten thousand people arrived in town for

15010-476: The end of his term and returned with his wife to South Carolina. Quickly elected to the U.S. Senate, he returned to Washington not as a national leader with presidential prospects but as a regional leader who argued in favor of states' rights and the expansion of slavery. In regard to the Petticoat affair, Jackson later remarked, "I [would] rather have live vermin on my back than the tongue of one of these Washington women on my reputation." To Jackson, Peggy Eaton

15168-422: The family returned to the Hermitage after the adjournment of Congress in 1830. Donelson reunited with her recently widowed mother to grieve for her father. Donelson's family sided with her in the Petticoat affair, prompting a further rift with the president, who believed that they were plotting against him politically. By then the rift between the president and Donelson had grown so great that she refused to stay at

15326-409: The farmers, mechanics, and laborers — who have neither the time nor the means of securing like favors to themselves, have a right to complain of the injustice of their Government. Jackson's enemies castigated the veto as "the very slang of the leveller and demagogue", claiming Jackson was using class warfare to gain support from the common man. Whig leader Daniel Webster denounced the veto message on

15484-484: The fledgling party nominated a national ticket led by William Wirt of Maryland. In December 1831, the National Republicans convened and nominated a ticket led by Henry Clay. Clay had rejected overtures from the Anti-Masonic Party, and his attempt to convince Calhoun to serve as his running mate failed, leaving the opposition to Jackson split among different leaders. For vice president, the National Republicans nominated John Sergeant , who had served as an attorney for both

15642-483: The floor of the Senate, especially against fierce criticism from Senator Daniel Webster of Massachusetts. In his December 1832 Annual Message to Congress, Jackson called for another reduction of the tariff, but he also vowed to suppress any rebellion. Days later, Jackson issued his Proclamation to the People of South Carolina , which strongly denied the right of states to nullify federal laws or secede. Jackson ordered

15800-514: The height of the Nullification Crisis, Congressman James K. Polk introduced a bill that would provide for the removal of the federal government's deposits from the national bank, but it was quickly defeated. Following the end of the Nullification Crisis in March 1833, Jackson renewed his offensive against the national bank, despite some opposition from within his own cabinet. Throughout mid-1833, Jackson made preparations to remove federal deposits from

15958-457: The latter succeeded outgoing President James Monroe in March 1825. Jackson was nominated for president by the Tennessee legislature in October 1825, more than three years before the 1828 election . It was the earliest such nomination in presidential history, and it attested to the fact that Jackson's supporters began the 1828 campaign almost as soon as the 1824 campaign ended. Adams's presidency floundered, as his ambitious agenda faced defeat in

16116-414: The leadership of Chief John Ross , most Cherokee refused to leave their homeland, but a group led by John Ridge and Elias Boudinot negotiated the Treaty of New Echota . In return for $ 5 million and land west of the Mississippi River, Ridge and Boudinot agreed to lead a faction of the Cherokee out of Georgia; a fraction of the Cherokee would leave in 1836. Many other Cherokee protested the treaty, but, by

16274-403: The money supply, which consisted of government-issued coins and privately issued banknotes. By presenting private banknotes for redemption (exchange for coins) to their issuers, the national bank limited the supply of paper money in the country. By the time Jackson took office, the national bank had approximately $ 35 million in capital, which represented more than twice the annual expenditures of

16432-468: The national bank poured thousands of dollars into the campaign to defeat Jackson, seemingly confirming Jackson's view that it interfered in the political process. On July 21, Clay said privately, "The campaign is over, and I think we have won the victory." Jackson, however, managed to successfully portray his veto of the national bank recharter as a defense of the common man against governmental tyranny. Clay proved to be no match for Jackson's popularity and

16590-400: The national bank's charter would not expire for another four years, the next two Congresses would be able to consider new re-chartering bills. Jackson's message ended on a sharp note that Remini says "almost sounded like a call to class warfare": when the laws undertake to add ... artificial distinctions ... to make the rich richer and the potent more powerful, the humble members of society —

16748-528: The national bank, sending Amos Kendall to meet with the leaders of various banks to see whether they would accept federal deposits. Emily Donelson Emily Tennessee Donelson (June 1, 1807 – December 19, 1836) was the acting first lady of the United States from 1829 to 1834 during the presidency of her uncle Andrew Jackson . She was the daughter of the brother of Jackson's wife. Jackson's wife, Rachel Donelson Jackson , died weeks before her husband's presidential inauguration . Donelson grew up among

16906-452: The national bank. Hoping to make the national bank a major issue in the 1832 election, Clay and Webster urged Biddle to immediately apply for recharter rather than wait to reach a compromise with the administration. Biddle received advice to the contrary from moderate Democrats such as McLane and William Lewis, who argued that Biddle should wait because Jackson would likely veto the recharter bill. In January 1832, Biddle submitted to Congress

17064-416: The need for a meritocratic appointment policy. Many of Jackson's appointees, including Amos Kendall and Isaac Hill , were controversial, and many of those who Jackson removed from office were popular. Jackson's appointment policy also created political problems within his own coalition, as Calhoun, Van Buren, Eaton, and others clashed over various appointments. His appointments encountered some resistance in

17222-457: The nickname "King Mob". Though numerous political disagreements had marked Adams's presidency and would continue during his own presidency, Jackson took office at a time when no major economic or foreign policy crisis faced the United States. He announced no clear policy goals in the months before Congress convened in December 1829, save for his desire to pay down the national debt . Jackson's name has been associated with Jacksonian democracy or

17380-419: The other cabinet wives continued to ostracize Eaton. Jackson's cabinet and closest advisers became polarized between Vice President Calhoun and Secretary of State Van Buren, a widower who remained on good terms with the Eatons. In early 1831, as the controversy continued unabated, Van Buren proposed that the entire cabinet resign, and the Petticoat Affair finally ended after Eaton stepped down in June 1831. With

17538-464: The popular vote and 49 electoral votes, whereas Wirt received 8% of the vote and seven electoral votes. The South Carolina legislature awarded the state's electoral votes to states' rights advocate John Floyd . Despite Jackson's victory in the presidential election, his allies lost control of the Senate. Jackson's victory in the 1832 election meant that he could veto an extension of the national bank's charter before that charter expired in 1836. Though

17696-529: The precedents set by the Marshall Court . On the last full day of his presidency, Jackson nominated John Catron , who was confirmed. By the time Jackson left office, he had appointed a majority of the sitting members of the Supreme Court, the only exceptions being Joseph Story and Smith Thompson . Jackson also appointed eighteen judges to the United States district courts . Jackson devoted

17854-401: The president decided that Yorke would be hostess at the Hermitage while Donelson would retain her position at the White House, as Jackson needed Donelson's husband to stay in Washington. Donelson's health began to decline after the birth of her son John in May 1832, and she chose to stay in Washington rather than risk a journey to Tennessee with the president in July. She similarly stayed in

18012-928: The president to negotiate treaties to buy tribal lands in the east in exchange for lands farther west, outside of existing state borders. The act specifically pertained to the " Five Civilized Tribes " in the Southern United States, the conditions being that they could either move west or stay and obey state law. The Five Civilized Tribes consisted of the Cherokee , Muscogee (also known as the Creek), Chickasaw , Choctaw , and Seminole Indians, all of whom had adopted aspects of European culture, including some degree of sedentary farming. With Jackson's support, Georgia and other states sought to extend their sovereignty over tribes within their borders, despite existing U.S. treaty obligations. Georgia's dispute with

18170-446: The prisoners. Jackson is frequently attributed the following response: "John Marshall has made his decision, now let him enforce it." Remini argues that Jackson did not say it because, while it "certainly sounds like Jackson...[t]here was nothing for him to enforce." The court had held that Georgia must release the prisoners, but it had not compelled the federal government to become involved. In late 1832, Van Buren intervened on behalf of

18328-493: The publication of the letters. Calhoun published them in the Telegraph. Their publication gave the appearance of Calhoun trying to justify himself against a conspiracy, which further enraged the president. The dispute was finally resolved when Van Buren offered to resign, giving Jackson the opportunity to reorganize his Cabinet by asking for the resignations of the anti-Eaton Cabinet members. Postmaster General William T. Barry

18486-571: The range of 100,000 to 300,000, with entire tribes wiped out. Over 90 percent of the Mandans died. A slave owner himself, Jackson favored the expansion of slavery into the territories and disapproved of anti-slavery agitation. Though slavery was not a major issue of Jackson's presidency, two notable controversies related to slavery arose while he was in the White House. In 1835, the American Anti-Slavery Society launched

18644-637: The required majority, of the electoral vote in the 1824 election, while Adams, Secretary of War William H. Crawford , and Speaker of the House Henry Clay also received a significant share of the vote. Under the rules of the Twelfth Amendment , the U.S. House of Representatives held a contingent election . The House elected Adams as president. Jackson denounced the House vote as the result of an alleged "corrupt bargain" between Adams and Clay, who became Adams's Secretary of State after

18802-485: The retirement of the national debt. Though Jackson and many of his allies detested the national bank, others within the Jacksonian coalition, including Eaton and Senator Samuel Smith , supported the institution. Despite some misgivings, Jackson supported a plan proposed in late 1831 by his moderately pro-national bank Treasury Secretary Louis McLane, who was secretly working with Biddle. McLane's plan would recharter

18960-531: The right not only to elect but also to "instruct their agents & representatives." He rejected the need for a powerful and independent Supreme Court , arguing that "the Congress, the Executive, and the Court must each or itself be guided by its own opinions of the Constitution ." Jackson thought that Supreme Court justices should be made to stand for election, and believed in strict constructionism as

19118-421: The role that she played in social affairs. The Eatons wrote to Donelson at the onset of the dispute to learn what she knew of the situation and encourage her to ignore the gossip, but Donelson stood against them and her husband followed her lead. The feud became more personal during a boat ride in July 1829, when Donelson, suffering from pregnancy sickness , chose to fall rather than be assisted by Eaton. It

19276-413: The same year that Garrison founded The Liberator , Nat Turner launched his slave rebellion . After killing dozens of whites in southeastern Virginia across two days, Turner's rebels were suppressed by a combination of vigilantes, the state militia, and federal soldiers. In 1828, Congress had approved the so-called " Tariff of Abominations ", which set the tariff at a historically high rate. The tariff

19434-543: The shift and expansion of democracy as political power shifted from established elites to ordinary voters based in political parties. "The Age of Jackson" shaped the national agenda and American politics. Jackson's philosophy as president was similar to that of Thomas Jefferson , as he advocated republican values held by the Revolutionary War generation. He believed in the ability of the people to "arrive at right conclusions," and he thought that they should have

19592-458: The social role of first lady of the United States . Jackson's wife died shortly before his inauguration , and Donelson was made responsible for hosting social events after Jackson became president. She moved to the White House at the age of 21 with her husband, who served as Jackson's presidential aide . Jackson chose not to attend his inaugural ball due to his wife's death, and the Donelsons attended in his stead. During their first days in

19750-552: The soft hand of Mr. Van Buren touched Mrs. Eaton's knocker." Meanwhile, Jackson and Vice President Calhoun became increasingly alienated from one another. Following the Petticoat Affair, Jackson acquired the Globe newspaper to use as a weapon against the rumor mills. Jackson removed an unprecedented number of presidential appointees from office, though Thomas Jefferson had dismissed a smaller but still significant number of Federalists during his own presidency. Jackson believed that

19908-399: The sole exception of Postmaster General Barry, the other cabinet officials also left office, marking the first mass resignation of cabinet officials in U.S. history. Van Buren was rewarded with a nomination to the position of ambassador to Great Britain, but the Senate rejected his nomination. Calhoun, who cast a tie-breaking vote in the Senate to defeat Van Buren's nomination, believed that

20066-415: The tariffs raised the price of finished goods but not the raw materials produced in the South. The dispute over the tariff led to the nullification crisis of 1832, with Southerners – including Calhoun – arguing that states could refuse to obey federal laws to which they objected, even to the point of secession from the Union, while Jackson vowed to prevent secession and preserve

20224-499: The time, Eaton was a wealthy 28-year-old widower and newly elected U.S. Senator from Tennessee, despite not yet having reached the constitutionally-mandated minimum age of 30. He was also a long-time friend of Andrew Jackson. Once Timberlake told Eaton of his financial troubles, Eaton unsuccessfully attempted to have the Senate pass legislation that would authorize payment of the debts Timberlake had accrued during his Naval service. Eventually, Eaton paid Timberlake's debts and procured him

20382-503: The tracts as a suppression of free speech. Another conflict over slavery in 1835 ensued when abolitionists sent the U.S. House of Representatives petitions to end the slave trade and slavery in Washington, D.C. These petitions infuriated pro-slavery Southerners, who attempted to prevent acknowledgement or discussion of the petitions. Northern Whigs objected that anti-slavery petitions were constitutional and should not be forbidden. South Carolina Representative Henry L. Pinckney introduced

20540-613: The unionist South Carolina leader, Joel Roberts Poinsett , to organize a posse to suppress any rebellion, and promised Poinsett that 50,000 soldiers would be dispatched if any rebellion did break out. At the same time, Governor Hayne asked for volunteers for the state militia, and 25,000 men volunteered. Jackson's nationalist stance split the Democratic Party and set off a national debate over nullification. Outside of South Carolina, no Southern states endorsed nullification, but many also expressed opposition to Jackson's threat to use force. Democratic Congressman Gulian C. Verplanck introduced

20698-704: The victim of petty politics, which were rooted largely in the Eaton controversy. This raised Van Buren even further in Jackson's esteem. Van Buren succeeded Calhoun as vice president when Jackson won a second term in 1832 . Van Buren thus became the de facto heir to the presidency and succeeded Jackson in 1837. Although Emily Donelson had supported Floride Calhoun, after the controversy ended Jackson asked her to return as his official hostess; she resumed these duties in conjunction with Sarah Yorke Jackson until returning to Tennessee after contracting tuberculosis, leaving Sarah Yorke Jackson to serve alone as Jackson's hostess. John Calhoun resigned as vice president shortly before

20856-485: The wall of virtue and morality would be breached and society would have no further defenses against the forces of frightening change. Margaret Eaton was not that important in herself; it was what she represented that constituted the threat. Proper women had no choice; they had to prevent her acceptance into society as part of their defense of that society's morality. When Jackson assumed the presidency, he appointed Eaton as Secretary of War . Floride Calhoun , Second Lady of

21014-551: The wife of Jackson's adopted son and confidant Andrew Jackson Donelson , served as Jackson's "surrogate First Lady". Emily Donelson chose to side with the Calhoun faction, which led Jackson to replace her with his daughter-in-law Sarah Yorke Jackson as his official hostess. Secretary of State Martin Van Buren was a widower and the only unmarried member of the Cabinet; he raised himself in Jackson's esteem by aligning himself with

21172-620: The years after Jackson left office, presidents would remove appointees as a matter of course; while Jackson dismissed 45 percent of those who held office, Abraham Lincoln would dismiss 90 percent of those who had held office prior to the start of his presidency. Prior to taking office, Jackson had spent much of his career fighting the Native Americans of the Southwest , and he considered Native Americans to be inferior to those who were descended from Europeans. His presidency marked

21330-482: Was inaugurated as President of the United States , and ended on March 4, 1837. Jackson, the seventh president , took office after defeating incumbent President John Quincy Adams in the bitterly contested 1828 presidential election . During the 1828 presidential campaign, Jackson founded the political force that coalesced into the Democratic Party during Jackson's presidency. Jackson won re-election in 1832 , defeating National Republican candidate Henry Clay by

21488-467: Was Secretary of War and Jackson was a major general in the U.S. Army, Calhoun had favored censuring Jackson for his 1818 invasion of Florida . These reports infuriated Jackson. Calhoun asked Eaton to approach Jackson about the possibility of Calhoun publishing his correspondence with Jackson at the time of the Seminole War . Eaton did nothing. This caused Calhoun to believe that Jackson had approved

21646-549: Was all so needless." Historian Kirsten E. Wood argues that it "was a national political issue, raising questions of manhood, womanhood, presidential power, politics, and morality." The 1936 film The Gorgeous Hussy is a fictionalized account of the Petticoat affair. It features Joan Crawford as Peggy O'Neill, Robert Taylor as John Timberlake, Lionel Barrymore as Andrew Jackson, and Franchot Tone as John Eaton. Presidency of Andrew Jackson The presidency of Andrew Jackson began on March 4, 1829, when Andrew Jackson

21804-583: Was also a frequent target of attacks, and was widely accused of bigamy, a reference to the controversial situation of her marriage with Jackson. Despite the attacks, in the 1828 election, Jackson won a commanding 56 percent of the popular vote and 68 percent of the electoral vote, carrying most states outside of New England . Concurrent congressional elections also gave Jackson's allies nominal majorities in both houses of Congress, although many of those who campaigned as supporters of Jackson would diverge form Jackson during his presidency. The 1828 election marked

21962-456: Was also made worse when the president asked Donelson to visit Eaton and invite her to her child's christening. Secretary of State Martin van Buren, a close confidant of the president, sought a personal meeting with Donelson to resolve the issue, but his intervention did little to alleviate the conflict. Donelson explained to him that she did not have a moral dispute with Eaton, but that she found Eaton to be an unpleasant character. Jackson and

22120-475: Was also praised for the food and alcohol she had served during her tenure. Despite her lack of experience, the president trusted her judgement regarding etiquette at the White House, allowing her to make decisions in such matters. Donelson's relationship with the president was permanently affected by the Petticoat affair in his first term. Washington socialite Peggy Eaton was the subject of scandal when it

22278-468: Was away. Both Donelson and Jackson wished for her return to the White House, but Donelson refused to accept Jackson's requirement of social acceptance for Eaton. Jackson conceded in early 1831, allowing Donelson to return unconditionally. Donelson's husband returned home in March and preparations to return to Washington began in April, but they were interrupted when Jackson changed his position. Neither of

22436-524: Was born on June 1, 1807, in Donelson, Tennessee , as the 13th child of Mary Purnell (1763–1848) and John Donelson (1755–1830), the brother of Rachel Donelson Jackson , the wife of future President Andrew Jackson . As a child, she attended a log house school in Nashville. While she was a young girl, she was close to her first cousin and future husband Andrew Jackson Donelson , and he developed

22594-410: Was dictator or democrat, ignoramus or genius, Satan or saint". Thirteen polls of historians and political scientists taken between 1948 and 2009 ranked Jackson always in or near the top ten presidents. The 1828 election was a rematch between Jackson and John Quincy Adams , who had faced–off against each other four years earlier in the 1824 presidential election . Jackson had won a plurality, but not

22752-402: Was dismissed from the cabinet before the end of 1833. Taney became the new Secretary of the Treasury, while Benjamin F. Butler replaced Taney as Attorney General. Jackson was forced to shake up his cabinet again in 1834 after the Senate rejected Taney's nomination and McLane resigned. John Forsyth of Georgia was appointed Secretary of State, Mahlon Dickerson replaced Woodbury as Secretary of

22910-486: Was eager to help Van Buren at the expense of Calhoun. Jackson and Calhoun began an angry correspondence which lasted until July 1830. By the end of 1831, an open break had emerged not just between Calhoun and Jackson but also between their respective supporters. Writing in the early 1830s, Calhoun claimed that three parties existed. One party (led by Calhoun himself) favored free trade, one party (led by Henry Clay) favored protectionism, and one party (led by Jackson) occupied

23068-404: Was elected president in 1828 , with his term set to begin on March 4, 1829. He was reportedly fond of Peggy Timberlake and encouraged Eaton to marry her. They were wed on January 1, 1829, only nine months after her husband's death. Customarily, it would have been considered proper for their marriage to have followed a longer mourning period . Historian John F. Marszalek explains his opinion on

23226-521: Was in office. In January 1831, William Lloyd Garrison established The Liberator , which emerged as the most influential abolitionist newspaper in the country. While many slavery opponents sought the gradual emancipation of all slaves, Garrison called for the immediate abolition of slavery throughout the country. Garrison also established the American Anti-Slavery Society, which grew to approximately 250,000 members by 1838. In

23384-399: Was just another of many wronged women whom over his lifetime he had known and defended. He believed that every woman he had defended in his life, including her, had been the victim of ulterior motives, so that political enemies could bring him down. Historian Robert V. Remini said that "the entire Eaton affair might be termed infamous. It ruined reputations and terminated friendships. And it

23542-502: Was most strongly affected by Jackson's rotation policy, but district attorneys, federal marshals, customs collectors, and other federal employees were also removed from office. Jackson's opponents labeled his appointments process a " spoils system ", arguing that he was primarily motivated by a desire to use government positions to reward supporters and build his own political strength. Because he believed that most public officials faced few challenges for their positions, Jackson dismissed

23700-716: Was popular in the Northeast and, to a lesser extent, the Northwest, since it protected domestic industries from foreign competition. Southern planters strongly opposed high tariff rates, as they resulted in higher prices for imported goods. This opposition to high tariff rates was especially intense in South Carolina , where the dominant planter class faced few checks on extremism. The South Carolina Exposition and Protest of 1828, secretly written by Calhoun, had asserted that their state could " nullify "—declare void—the tariff legislation of 1828. Calhoun argued that, while

23858-407: Was rumored that she had previously been the mistress of her husband . Donelson was one of the many prominent individuals in the president's confidence that wished for him to distance himself from the Eatons. Donelson tolerated Eaton at White House events, but she refused to call upon her at her home—a considerable snub at the time. Whom Donelson chose to associate with was especially important, given

24016-508: Was the eldest daughter of William O'Neill, owner of the Franklin House, a boarding house and tavern located in Washington, D.C. , a short distance from the White House , that was a well-known social hub popular with politicians and military officials. Peggy was well-educated for a woman of that era – she studied French and was known for her ability to play the piano. William T. Barry , who later served as Postmaster General , wrote "of

24174-413: Was the first baby to be born in the White House, though a grandson of Thomas Jefferson already held the title. Donelson played a major role in the Petticoat affair. Socially, she was one of the most powerful women in the country, and her decision to stand against Eaton was one of consequence. The resulting political and social disputes in Washington created a division that may have directly influenced

24332-491: Was the lone Cabinet member to stay, and Eaton eventually received appointments that took him away from Washington, first as governor of Florida Territory , and then as minister to Spain . On June 17, the day before Eaton formally resigned, a story appeared in the Telegraph stating that it had been "proved" that the families of Ingham, Branch, and Attorney General John M. Berrien had refused to associate with Mr. Eaton. Eaton wrote to all three men demanding that they answer for

24490-585: Was the most influential and controversial political figure of the 1830s, and his two terms as president set the tone for the quarter-century era of American public discourse known as the Jacksonian Era . Historian James Sellers has stated that "Andrew Jackson's masterful personality was enough by itself to make him one of the most controversial figures ever to stride across the American stage". His actions encouraged his political opponents to coalesce into

24648-431: Was unclear whether Jackson, frequently in poor health, would seek re-election. However, Jackson announced his intention to seek re-election in 1831. Various individuals were considered as possible Democratic vice presidential nominees in the 1832 election, including Van Buren, Judge Philip P. Barbour , Treasury Secretary McLane, Senator William Wilkins , Associate Justice John McLean, and even Calhoun. In order to agree on

24806-501: Was well received by Washington society. The Petticoat affair caused a split between the Donelsons and the president, and Donelson returned home for much of 1830 and 1831. She eventually returned to the White House, but she grew sick, returning home and dying of tuberculosis at the age of 29. Donelson was the first First Lady born after the Declaration of Independence and the first born in the 19th century. Emily Tennessee Donelson

24964-430: Was well received in her social role. Though she was not as well traveled or well educated as would have been expected of a White House hostess, her age was considered a valid excuse. Her inexperience in social custom was sometimes noted, but she was celebrated for her kindness as a hostess and her proficiency in dance. She was, however, well equipped to manage a large household, as she had done so regularly at home. She

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