225-404: Charles Sanders Peirce ( / p ɜːr s / PURSS ; September 10, 1839 – April 19, 1914) was an American scientist, mathematician, logician , and philosopher who is sometimes known as "the father of pragmatism ". According to philosopher Paul Weiss , Peirce was "the most original and versatile of America's philosophers and America's greatest logician". Bertrand Russell wrote "he was one of
450-501: A r y ) ∧ Q ( J o h n ) ) {\displaystyle \exists Q(Q(Mary)\land Q(John))} " . In this case, the existential quantifier is applied to the predicate variable " Q {\displaystyle Q} " . The added expressive power is especially useful for mathematics since it allows for more succinct formulations of mathematical theories. But it has drawbacks in regard to its meta-logical properties and ontological implications, which
675-632: A San Francisco , California, newspaper into an addendum to that year ' s Annual Report of the Superintendent of the Coast Survey . Although the Survey had previously published its work indirectly via the Blunts ' American Coast Pilot , it was the first time that the Survey had published its sailing directions directly in any way other than through local newspapers. On June 21, 1860,
900-444: A countable noun , the term "a logic" refers to a specific logical formal system that articulates a proof system . Logic plays a central role in many fields, such as philosophy , mathematics , computer science , and linguistics . Logic studies arguments, which consist of a set of premises that leads to a conclusion. An example is the argument from the premises "it's Sunday" and "if it's Sunday then I don't have to work" leading to
1125-548: A secessionist until the outbreak of the war, after which he became a Union partisan, providing donations to the Sanitary Commission , the leading Northern war charity. Peirce liked to use the following syllogism to illustrate the unreliability of traditional forms of logic (for the first premise arguably assumes the conclusion ): All Men are equal in their political rights. Negroes are Men. Therefore, negroes are equal in political rights to whites. He
1350-570: A solar eclipse from a vantage point off Aulezavik , Labrador , on July 18, 1860, as part of an international effort to study the eclipse. Bibb became the first Coast Survey vessel to operate in subarctic waters. The outbreak of the American Civil War in April 1861 caused a dramatic shift in direction for the Coast Survey. All U.S. Army officers were withdrawn from the Survey, as were all but two U.S. Navy officers. Since most men of
1575-434: A tripartite theory of predication . Additionally, he defined the concept of abductive reasoning , as well as rigorously formulating mathematical induction and deductive reasoning . He was one of the founders of statistics . As early as 1886, he saw that logical operations could be carried out by electrical switching circuits . The same idea was used decades later to produce digital computers. In metaphysics , Peirce
1800-522: A Bachelor of Science degree, Harvard's first summa cum laude chemistry degree. His academic record was otherwise undistinguished. At Harvard, he began lifelong friendships with Francis Ellingwood Abbot , Chauncey Wright , and William James . One of his Harvard instructors, Charles William Eliot , formed an unfavorable opinion of Peirce. This proved fateful, because Eliot, while President of Harvard (1869–1909—a period encompassing nearly all of Peirce's working life), repeatedly vetoed Peirce's employment at
2025-622: A Johns Hopkins trustee that Peirce, while a Hopkins employee, had lived and traveled with a woman to whom he was not married; the ensuing scandal led to his dismissal in January 1884. Over the years Peirce sought academic employment at various universities without success. He had no children by either marriage. In 1887, Peirce spent part of his inheritance from his parents to buy 2,000 acres (8 km) of rural land near Milford, Pennsylvania , which never yielded an economic return. There he had an 1854 farmhouse remodeled to his design. The Peirces named
2250-445: A central role in many arguments found in everyday discourse and the sciences. Ampliative arguments are not automatically incorrect. Instead, they just follow different standards of correctness. The support they provide for their conclusion usually comes in degrees. This means that strong ampliative arguments make their conclusion very likely while weak ones are less certain. As a consequence, the line between correct and incorrect arguments
2475-480: A certain cost: the premises support the conclusion in the sense that they make its truth more likely but they do not ensure its truth. This means that the conclusion of an ampliative argument may be false even though all its premises are true. This characteristic is closely related to non-monotonicity and defeasibility : it may be necessary to retract an earlier conclusion upon receiving new information or in light of new inferences drawn. Ampliative reasoning plays
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#17327728950232700-467: A circle onto a polygon of n sides (known as the Schwarz–Christoffel mapping). During the 1880s, Peirce's indifference to bureaucratic detail waxed while his Survey work's quality and timeliness waned. Peirce took years to write reports that he should have completed in months. Meanwhile, he wrote entries, ultimately thousands, during 1883–1909 on philosophy, logic, science, and other subjects for
2925-573: A complex argument to be successful, each link of the chain has to be successful. Arguments and inferences are either correct or incorrect. If they are correct then their premises support their conclusion. In the incorrect case, this support is missing. It can take different forms corresponding to the different types of reasoning . The strongest form of support corresponds to deductive reasoning . But even arguments that are not deductively valid may still be good arguments because their premises offer non-deductive support to their conclusions. For such cases,
3150-425: A conclusion. Logic is interested in whether arguments are correct, i.e. whether their premises support the conclusion. These general characterizations apply to logic in the widest sense, i.e., to both formal and informal logic since they are both concerned with assessing the correctness of arguments. Formal logic is the traditionally dominant field, and some logicians restrict logic to formal logic. Formal logic
3375-510: A formal language together with a set of axioms and a proof system used to draw inferences from these axioms. In logic, axioms are statements that are accepted without proof. They are used to justify other statements. Some theorists also include a semantics that specifies how the expressions of the formal language relate to real objects. Starting in the late 19th century, many new formal systems have been proposed. A formal language consists of an alphabet and syntactic rules. The alphabet
3600-686: A formal language while informal logic investigates them in their original form. On this view, the argument "Birds fly. Tweety is a bird. Therefore, Tweety flies." belongs to natural language and is examined by informal logic. But the formal translation "(1) ∀ x ( B i r d ( x ) → F l i e s ( x ) ) {\displaystyle \forall x(Bird(x)\to Flies(x))} ; (2) B i r d ( T w e e t y ) {\displaystyle Bird(Tweety)} ; (3) F l i e s ( T w e e t y ) {\displaystyle Flies(Tweety)} "
3825-415: A given argument is valid. Because of the reliance on formal language, natural language arguments cannot be studied directly. Instead, they need to be translated into formal language before their validity can be assessed. The term "logic" can also be used in a slightly different sense as a countable noun. In this sense, a logic is a logical formal system. Distinct logics differ from each other concerning
4050-551: A given conclusion based on a set of premises. This distinction does not just apply to logic but also to games. In chess , for example, the definitory rules dictate that bishops may only move diagonally. The strategic rules, on the other hand, describe how the allowed moves may be used to win a game, for instance, by controlling the center and by defending one's king . It has been argued that logicians should give more emphasis to strategic rules since they are highly relevant for effective reasoning. A formal system of logic consists of
4275-681: A grant to write a systematic book describing his life's work. The application was doomed; his nemesis, Newcomb, served on the Carnegie Institution executive committee, and its president had been president of Johns Hopkins at the time of Peirce's dismissal. The one who did the most to help Peirce in these desperate times was his old friend William James , dedicating his Will to Believe (1897) to Peirce, and arranging for Peirce to be paid to give two series of lectures at or near Harvard (1898 and 1903). Most important, each year from 1907 until James's death in 1910, James wrote to his friends in
4500-402: A great variety of topics. They include metaphysical theses about ontological categories and problems of scientific explanation. But in a more narrow sense, it is identical to term logic or syllogistics. A syllogism is a form of argument involving three propositions: two premises and a conclusion. Each proposition has three essential parts: a subject , a predicate, and a copula connecting
4725-582: A harbor red and those on the left black; instituted by Lieutenant Commander John R. Goldsborough in 1847, the "red right return" system of markings has been in use in the United States ever since. In the early 1840s, the Survey began work in Delaware Bay to chart the approaches to Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . Amid renewed calls for the Survey again to be transferred to the Department of
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#17327728950234950-617: A landmark empirical study with Peirce), and mathematics (taught by J. J. Sylvester , who came to admire Peirce's work on mathematics and logic). His Studies in Logic by Members of the Johns Hopkins University (1883) contained works by himself and Allan Marquand , Christine Ladd , Benjamin Ives Gilman , and Oscar Howard Mitchell, several of whom were his graduate students. Peirce's nontenured position at Hopkins
5175-614: A logical connective like "and" to form a new complex proposition. In Aristotelian logic, the subject can be universal , particular , indefinite , or singular . For example, the term "all humans" is a universal subject in the proposition "all humans are mortal". A similar proposition could be formed by replacing it with the particular term "some humans", the indefinite term "a human", or the singular term "Socrates". Aristotelian logic only includes predicates for simple properties of entities. But it lacks predicates corresponding to relations between entities. The predicate can be linked to
5400-415: A means of reducing U.S. government expenditures, and Hassler and Bache had fought back periodic attempts to cut its funding. By 1850, the Coast Survey had surveyed enough of the U.S. coastline for a long enough time to learn that – with a few exceptions, such as the rocky coast of New England – coastlines were dynamic and required return visits by Coast Surveyors to keep charts up to date. In 1858, Bache for
5625-435: A more important part of its work, leading to it being renamed the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey in 1878. Long the U.S. government's only scientific agency, the Survey accumulated other scientific and technical responsibilities as well, including astronomy , cartography , metrology , meteorology , geology , geophysics , hydrography , navigation , oceanography , exploration, pilotage , tides , and topography . It also
5850-1423: A selection of previously unpublished work and a smattering of his correspondence. This long-time standard edition drawn from Peirce's work from the 1860s to 1913 remains the most comprehensive survey of his prolific output from 1893 to 1913. It is organized thematically, but texts (including lecture series) are often split up across volumes, while texts from various stages in Peirce's development are often combined, requiring frequent visits to editors' notes. Edited (1–6) by Charles Hartshorne and Paul Weiss and (7–8) by Arthur Burks , in print and online. 1975–1987: Charles Sanders Peirce: Contributions to The Nation , 4 volumes, includes Peirce's more than 300 reviews and articles published 1869–1908 in The Nation . Edited by Kenneth Laine Ketner and James Edward Cook, online. 1976: The New Elements of Mathematics by Charles S. Peirce , 4 volumes in 5, included many previously unpublished Peirce manuscripts on mathematical subjects, along with Peirce's important published mathematical articles. Edited by Carolyn Eisele, back in print. 1977: Semiotic and Significs: The Correspondence between C. S. Peirce and Victoria Lady Welby (2nd edition 2001), included Peirce's entire correspondence (1903–1912) with Victoria, Lady Welby . Peirce's other published correspondence
6075-664: A sentence like "yesterday was Sunday and the weather was good". It is only true if both of its input variables, p {\displaystyle p} ("yesterday was Sunday") and q {\displaystyle q} ("the weather was good"), are true. In all other cases, the expression as a whole is false. Other important logical connectives are ¬ {\displaystyle \lnot } ( not ), ∨ {\displaystyle \lor } ( or ), → {\displaystyle \to } ( if...then ), and ↑ {\displaystyle \uparrow } ( Sheffer stroke ). Given
6300-679: A transcontinental triangulation between the United States East and West Coasts, the Hawaiian Islands , Alaska , and "other coasts under the jurisdiction of the United States," which by then included also included the Philippines, Guam , American Samoa , and Puerto Rico. In 1903, the Organization and Law of the Department of Commerce and Labor stated that from the time the Survey began scientific activities in
6525-468: A way of giving them a pension even though the law did not provide for a pension system, paid employees whether they worked or not, and misused per diem money intended for the expenses of personnel in the field by paying per diem funds to employees who were not in the field as a way of augmenting their very low authorized wages and providing them with fair compensation. Chenoweth saw these practices as embezzlement . Chenoweth also suspected embezzlement in
6750-545: A wide range of technical positions. Coast and Geodetic Survey personnel also worked as reconnaissance surveyors for a worldwide aeronautical charting effort, and a Coast and Geodetic Survey Corps officer was the first commanding officer of the Army Air Forces Aeronautical Chart Plant at St. Louis , Missouri . Coast and Geodetic Survey civilians who remained in the United States during the war produced over 100 million maps and charts for
6975-420: Is sound when its proof system cannot derive a conclusion from a set of premises unless it is semantically entailed by them. In other words, its proof system cannot lead to false conclusions, as defined by the semantics. A system is complete when its proof system can derive every conclusion that is semantically entailed by its premises. In other words, its proof system can lead to any true conclusion, as defined by
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7200-476: Is a red planet". For most types of logic, it is accepted that premises and conclusions have to be truth-bearers . This means that they have a truth value : they are either true or false. Contemporary philosophy generally sees them either as propositions or as sentences . Propositions are the denotations of sentences and are usually seen as abstract objects . For example, the English sentence "the tree
7425-441: Is a restricted version of classical logic. It uses the same symbols but excludes some rules of inference. For example, according to the law of double negation elimination, if a sentence is not not true, then it is true. This means that A {\displaystyle A} follows from ¬ ¬ A {\displaystyle \lnot \lnot A} . This is a valid rule of inference in classical logic but it
7650-416: Is also known as symbolic logic and is widely used in mathematical logic . It uses a formal approach to study reasoning: it replaces concrete expressions with abstract symbols to examine the logical form of arguments independent of their concrete content. In this sense, it is topic-neutral since it is only concerned with the abstract structure of arguments and not with their concrete content. Formal logic
7875-453: Is an example of the existential quantifier " ∃ {\displaystyle \exists } " applied to the individual variable " x {\displaystyle x} " . In higher-order logics, quantification is also allowed over predicates. This increases its expressive power. For example, to express the idea that Mary and John share some qualities, one could use the formula " ∃ Q ( Q ( M
8100-419: Is an important recent sampler of Peirce's philosophical writings. Edited (1) by Nathan Hauser and Christian Kloesel and (2) by Peirce Edition Project editors, in print. 1997: Pragmatism as a Principle and Method of Right Thinking collects Peirce's 1903 Harvard "Lectures on Pragmatism" in a study edition, including drafts, of Peirce's lecture manuscripts, which had been previously published in abridged form;
8325-683: Is at its minimum – and to the development of telemetering radio sonobuoys and marine seismic exploration techniques. The Air Commerce Act , which went into effect on May 20, 1926, among other things directed that the airways of the United States be charted for the first time and assigned this mission to the Coast and Geodetic Survey. In 1933, the Coast and Geodetic Survey opened a ship base in Norfolk , Virginia . From 1934 to 1937, it organized surveying parties and field offices to employ over 10,000 people, including many unemployed engineers , during
8550-415: Is blurry in some cases, such as when the premises offer weak but non-negligible support. This contrasts with deductive arguments, which are either valid or invalid with nothing in-between. The terminology used to categorize ampliative arguments is inconsistent. Some authors, like James Hawthorne, use the term " induction " to cover all forms of non-deductive arguments. But in a more narrow sense, induction
8775-421: Is commonly defined in terms of arguments or inferences as the study of their correctness. An argument is a set of premises together with a conclusion. An inference is the process of reasoning from these premises to the conclusion. But these terms are often used interchangeably in logic. Arguments are correct or incorrect depending on whether their premises support their conclusion. Premises and conclusions, on
9000-407: Is controversial because it belongs to the field of psychology , not logic, and because appearances may be different for different people. Fallacies are usually divided into formal and informal fallacies. For formal fallacies, the source of the error is found in the form of the argument. For example, denying the antecedent is one type of formal fallacy, as in "if Othello is a bachelor, then he
9225-453: Is deductively valid. For deductive validity, it does not matter whether the premises or the conclusion are actually true. So the argument "(1) all frogs are mammals; (2) no cats are mammals; (3) therefore no cats are frogs" is also valid because the conclusion follows necessarily from the premises. According to an influential view by Alfred Tarski , deductive arguments have three essential features: (1) they are formal, i.e. they depend only on
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9450-464: Is established by verification using a proof. Intuitionistic logic is especially prominent in the field of constructive mathematics , which emphasizes the need to find or construct a specific example to prove its existence. United States Coast and Geodetic Survey The United States Coast and Geodetic Survey ( abbreviated USC&GS ; known as the Survey of the Coast from 1807 to 1836, and as
9675-553: Is exploited by a growing number of practitioners for marketing and design tasks. John Deely writes that Peirce was the last of the "moderns" and "first of the postmoderns". He lauds Peirce's doctrine of signs as a contribution to the dawn of the Postmodern epoch. Deely additionally comments that "Peirce stands...in a position analogous to the position occupied by Augustine as last of the Western Fathers and first of
9900-610: Is green" is different from the German sentence "der Baum ist grün" but both express the same proposition. Propositional theories of premises and conclusions are often criticized because they rely on abstract objects. For instance, philosophical naturalists usually reject the existence of abstract objects. Other arguments concern the challenges involved in specifying the identity criteria of propositions. These objections are avoided by seeing premises and conclusions not as propositions but as sentences, i.e. as concrete linguistic objects like
10125-432: Is interested in deductively valid arguments, for which the truth of their premises ensures the truth of their conclusion. This means that it is impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion to be false. For valid arguments, the logical structure of the premises and the conclusion follows a pattern called a rule of inference . For example, modus ponens is a rule of inference according to which all arguments of
10350-415: Is invalid in intuitionistic logic. Another classical principle not part of intuitionistic logic is the law of excluded middle . It states that for every sentence, either it or its negation is true. This means that every proposition of the form A ∨ ¬ A {\displaystyle A\lor \lnot A} is true. These deviations from classical logic are based on the idea that truth
10575-563: Is largely limited to the 14 letters included in volume 8 of the Collected Papers , and the 20-odd pre-1890 items included so far in the Writings . Edited by Charles S. Hardwick with James Cook, out of print. 1982–now: Writings of Charles S. Peirce, A Chronological Edition (W), Volumes 1–6 & 8, of a projected 30. The limited coverage, and defective editing and organization, of the Collected Papers led Max Fisch and others in
10800-447: Is male; Othello is not a bachelor; therefore Othello is not male". But most fallacies fall into the category of informal fallacies, of which a great variety is discussed in the academic literature. The source of their error is usually found in the content or the context of the argument. Informal fallacies are sometimes categorized as fallacies of ambiguity, fallacies of presumption, or fallacies of relevance. For fallacies of ambiguity,
11025-688: Is necessary, then it is also possible. This means that ◊ A {\displaystyle \Diamond A} follows from ◻ A {\displaystyle \Box A} . Another principle states that if a proposition is necessary then its negation is impossible and vice versa. This means that ◻ A {\displaystyle \Box A} is equivalent to ¬ ◊ ¬ A {\displaystyle \lnot \Diamond \lnot A} . Other forms of modal logic introduce similar symbols but associate different meanings with them to apply modal logic to other fields. For example, deontic logic concerns
11250-518: Is necessary. For example, if the formula B ( s ) {\displaystyle B(s)} stands for the sentence "Socrates is a banker" then the formula ◊ B ( s ) {\displaystyle \Diamond B(s)} articulates the sentence "It is possible that Socrates is a banker". To include these symbols in the logical formalism, modal logic introduces new rules of inference that govern what role they play in inferences. One rule of inference states that, if something
11475-407: Is not the best or most likely explanation. Not all arguments live up to the standards of correct reasoning. When they do not, they are usually referred to as fallacies . Their central aspect is not that their conclusion is false but that there is some flaw with the reasoning leading to this conclusion. So the argument "it is sunny today; therefore spiders have eight legs" is fallacious even though
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#173277289502311700-541: Is only one type of ampliative argument alongside abductive arguments . Some philosophers, like Leo Groarke, also allow conductive arguments as another type. In this narrow sense, induction is often defined as a form of statistical generalization. In this case, the premises of an inductive argument are many individual observations that all show a certain pattern. The conclusion then is a general law that this pattern always obtains. In this sense, one may infer that "all elephants are gray" based on one's past observations of
11925-430: Is studied by formal logic. The study of natural language arguments comes with various difficulties. For example, natural language expressions are often ambiguous, vague, and context-dependent. Another approach defines informal logic in a wide sense as the normative study of the standards, criteria, and procedures of argumentation. In this sense, it includes questions about the role of rationality , critical thinking , and
12150-410: Is the set of basic symbols used in expressions . The syntactic rules determine how these symbols may be arranged to result in well-formed formulas. For instance, the syntactic rules of propositional logic determine that " P ∧ Q {\displaystyle P\land Q} " is a well-formed formula but " ∧ Q {\displaystyle \land Q} " is not since
12375-528: Is the study of correct reasoning . It includes both formal and informal logic . Formal logic is the study of deductively valid inferences or logical truths . It examines how conclusions follow from premises based on the structure of arguments alone, independent of their topic and content. Informal logic is associated with informal fallacies , critical thinking , and argumentation theory . Informal logic examines arguments expressed in natural language whereas formal logic uses formal language . When used as
12600-432: Is to study the criteria according to which an argument is correct or incorrect. A fallacy is committed if these criteria are violated. In the case of formal logic, they are known as rules of inference . They are definitory rules, which determine whether an inference is correct or which inferences are allowed. Definitory rules contrast with strategic rules. Strategic rules specify which inferential moves are necessary to reach
12825-540: Is unable to address. Both provide criteria for assessing the correctness of arguments and distinguishing them from fallacies. Many characterizations of informal logic have been suggested but there is no general agreement on its precise definition. The most literal approach sees the terms "formal" and "informal" as applying to the language used to express arguments. On this view, informal logic studies arguments that are in informal or natural language. Formal logic can only examine them indirectly by translating them first into
13050-599: Is used to represent the ideas of knowing something in contrast to merely believing it to be the case. Higher-order logics extend classical logic not by using modal operators but by introducing new forms of quantification. Quantifiers correspond to terms like "all" or "some". In classical first-order logic, quantifiers are only applied to individuals. The formula " ∃ x ( A p p l e ( x ) ∧ S w e e t ( x ) ) {\displaystyle \exists x(Apple(x)\land Sweet(x))} " ( some apples are sweet)
13275-431: Is why first-order logic is still more commonly used. Deviant logics are logical systems that reject some of the basic intuitions of classical logic. Because of this, they are usually seen not as its supplements but as its rivals. Deviant logical systems differ from each other either because they reject different classical intuitions or because they propose different alternatives to the same issue. Intuitionistic logic
13500-587: The Allied forces. Three Coast and Geodetic Survey officers and eleven members of the agency who had joined other services were killed during the war. Following World War II, the Coast and Geodetic Survey resumed its peacetime scientific and surveying efforts. In 1945 it adapted the British Royal Air Force ' s Gee radio navigation system to hydrographic surveying, ushering in a new era of marine electronic navigation. In 1948 it established
13725-527: The Coast and Geodetic Survey Corps was created as a new uniformed service of the United States to carry out both wartime and peacetime surveying and related operations. In 1970, the Coast and Geodetic Survey was abolished when it merged with other government agencies to create the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), but its elements were reorganized and incorporated into NOAA as
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#173277289502313950-644: The Gedney Channel at the entrance to New York Harbor , which significantly reduced sailing times to and from New York City. Gedney was in command of the Revenue-Marine revenue cutter USRC Washington on August 26, 1839, when she discovered and seized the Spanish schooner La Amistad off Culloden Point on Long Island , New York . A slave ship , La Amistad had been taken over by African people on board who were being transported to
14175-835: The North Sea (where they supported the laying of the North Sea Mine Barrage ), as troop transport navigators, as intelligence officers, and as officers on the staff of U.S. Army General John "Black Jack" Pershing , commander of the American Expeditionary Forces on the Western Front . During the period between the world wars, the Coast and Geodetic Survey returned to its peaceful scientific and surveying pursuits, including land surveying, sea floor charting, coastline mapping, geophysics , and oceanography . In 1923 and 1924, it began
14400-733: The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center in Honolulu Hawaii . The onset of the Cold War in the late 1940s led the Survey also to make a significant effort in support of defense requirements, such as conducting surveys for the Distant Early Warning Line and for rocket ranges, performing oceanographic work for the U.S. Navy, and monitoring nuclear tests. In 1955, the Coast and Geodetic Survey ship USC&GS Pioneer (OSS 31) conducted
14625-710: The Smithsonian Institution , at its director Samuel Langley 's instigation. Peirce also did substantial mathematical calculations for Langley's research on powered flight. Hoping to make money, Peirce tried inventing. He began but did not complete several books. In 1888, President Grover Cleveland appointed him to the Assay Commission . From 1890 on, he had a friend and admirer in Judge Francis C. Russell of Chicago, who introduced Peirce to editor Paul Carus and owner Edward C. Hegeler of
14850-631: The United States Coast Survey from 1836 until 1878) was the first scientific agency of the United States Government . It existed from 1807 to 1970, and throughout its history was responsible for mapping and charting the coast of the United States , and later the coasts of U.S. territories . In 1871, it gained the additional responsibility of surveying the interior of the United States and geodesy became
15075-707: The United States Revenue Cutter Service ) for surveying operations afloat, the U.S. Department of the Navy worked around the law by allowing Lieutenant Thomas R. Gedney to purchase the schooner Jersey for the Navy, then deeming Jersey suited only for use by the Survey. Under Gedney ' s command, Jersey began the Survey ' s first depth sounding operations in October 1834, and made its first commercially and militarily significant discovery in 1835 by discovering what became known as
15300-445: The United States government ' s first scientific agency, represented the interest of the administration of President Thomas Jefferson in science and the stimulation of international trade by using scientific surveying methods to chart the waters of the United States and make them safe for navigation. A Swiss immigrant with expertise in both surveying and the standardization of weights and measures , Ferdinand R. Hassler ,
15525-523: The copyright for the American Coast Pilot – the Blunt family publication which had appeared in 21 editions since 1796 and had come to consist almost entirely of public information produced by the Survey anyway – in 1867, and the Survey thus took responsibility for publishing it regularly for the first time, spawning a family of such publications for the various coasts of the United States and
15750-623: The four-color problem , and the nature of continuity. He worked on applied mathematics in economics, engineering, and map projections, and was especially active in probability and statistics. Peirce made a number of striking discoveries in formal logic and foundational mathematics, nearly all of which came to be appreciated only long after he died: In 1860 he suggested a cardinal arithmetic for infinite numbers, years before any work by Georg Cantor (who completed his dissertation in 1867 ) and without access to Bernard Bolzano 's 1851 (posthumous) Paradoxien des Unendlichen . Logic Logic
15975-631: The verso side of old manuscripts. An outstanding warrant for assault and unpaid debts led to his being a fugitive in New York City for a while. Several people, including his brother James Mills Peirce and his neighbors, relatives of Gifford Pinchot , settled his debts and paid his property taxes and mortgage. Peirce did some scientific and engineering consulting and wrote much for meager pay, mainly encyclopedic dictionary entries, and reviews for The Nation (with whose editor, Wendell Phillips Garrison , he became friendly). He did translations for
16200-574: The " American Method ," it soon was emulated worldwide. Disaster struck the Coast Survey on September 8, 1846, when the survey brig Peter G. Washington encountered a hurricane while she was conducting studies of the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of North Carolina . She was dismasted in the storm with the loss of 11 men who were swept overboard, but she managed to limp into port. The Mexican War of 1846–1848 saw
16425-456: The 1807 law. On July 10, 1832, Congress passed a law renewing the original law of 1807 and somewhat extending its scope, placing the responsibility for coastal surveying back in the Survey of the Coast, returning it to the Department of the Treasury, and permitting the hiring of civilians to carry it out. Hassler was reappointed as the Survey ' s superintendent that year. As authorized by
16650-683: The 1832 law, the administration of President Andrew Jackson expanded and extended the Survey of the Coast ' s scope and organization. The Survey of the Coast resumed field work in April 1833. In July 1833, Edmund E. Blunt, the son of hydrographer Edmund B. Blunt , accepted a position with the Survey. The elder Blunt had begun publication of the American Coast Pilot – the first book of sailing directions , nautical charts , and other information for mariners in North American waters to be published in North America – in 1796. Although
16875-415: The 1850s, the Coast Survey also conducted surveys and measurements in support of efforts to reform the Department of the Treasury ' s Lighthouse Establishment , and it briefly employed the artist James McNeill Whistler as a draughtsman in 1854–1855. Ever since it began operations, the Coast Survey had faced hostility from politicians who believed that it should complete its work and be abolished as
17100-416: The 1941 PhD thesis by Arthur W. Burks (who went on to edit volumes 7 and 8), and the studies edited by Wiener and Young (1952). The Charles S. Peirce Society was founded in 1946. Its Transactions , an academic quarterly specializing in Peirce's pragmatism and American philosophy has appeared since 1965. (See Phillips 2014, 62 for discussion of Peirce and Dewey relative to transactionalism .) By 1943 such
17325-711: The 1970s to found the Peirce Edition Project (PEP), whose mission is to prepare a more complete critical chronological edition. Only seven volumes have appeared to date, but they cover the period from 1859 to 1892, when Peirce carried out much of his best-known work. Writings of Charles S. Peirce , 8 was published in November 2010; and work continues on Writings of Charles S. Peirce , 7, 9, and 11. In print and online. 1985: Historical Perspectives on Peirce's Logic of Science: A History of Science , 2 volumes. Auspitz has said, "The extent of Peirce's immersion in
17550-719: The Boston intelligentsia to request financial aid for Peirce; the fund continued even after James died. Peirce reciprocated by designating James's eldest son as his heir should Juliette predecease him. It has been believed that this was also why Peirce used "Santiago" ("St. James" in English) as a middle name, but he appeared in print as early as 1890 as Charles Santiago Peirce. (See Charles Santiago Sanders Peirce for discussion and references). Peirce died destitute in Milford, Pennsylvania , twenty years before his widow. Juliette Peirce kept
17775-739: The Coast Survey, developed the Sigsbee sounding machine while conducting the first true bathymetric surveys in the Gulf of Mexico . With the outbreak of the Spanish–American War in April 1898, the U.S. Navy again withdrew its officers from Coast and Geodetic Survey duty. As a result of the war, which ended in August 1898, the United States took control of the Philippine Islands and Puerto Rico , and surveying their waters became part of
18000-628: The Coast and Geodetic Survey also operated in support of military and naval requirements. About half of the Survey ' s civilian work force, slightly over 1,000 people, joined the armed services. Officers and civilians of the Survey saw service in North Africa , Europe , and the Pacific and in the defense of North America and its waters, serving as artillery surveyors, hydrographers , amphibious engineers, beachmasters (i.e., directors of disembarkation), instructors at service schools, and in
18225-654: The Coast and Geodetic Survey and its successor organizations ever since. On February 5, 1889, by a joint resolution of Congress, the U.S. government accepted an invitation by the government of the German Empire to become a party to the International Geodetic Association . By law, the U.S. delegate to the association was a Coast and Geodetic Survey officer appointed by the President. By a resolution of April 12, 1892, Congress granted
18450-521: The Coast and Geodetic Survey continuing its entire program of scientific research, and recommended that the Coast and Geodetic Survey remain under civilian control rather than be subordinated to the U.S. Navy. It was a victory for Thorn and Colonna. Another victory followed in 1887, when Thorn headed off a congressional attempt to subordinate the Survey to the Navy despite the Allison Commission's findings, providing Cleveland with information on
18675-456: The Coast and Geodetic Survey introduced the wire-drag technique into hydrography, in which a wire attached to two ships or boats and set at a certain depth by a system of weights and buoys was dragged between two points. This method revolutionized hydrographic surveying, as it allowed a quicker, less laborious, and far more complete survey of an area than did the use of lead lines and sounding poles that had preceded it, and it remained in use until
18900-628: The Coast and Geodetic Survey raised by the Allison Commission and the Chenoweth investigation, Cleveland made the Chief Clerk of the Internal Revenue Bureau , Frank Manly Thorn , Acting Superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic Survey on July 23, 1885, and appointed him as the permanent superintendent on September 1. Thorn, a lawyer and journalist who was the first non-scientist to serve as superintendent, quickly concluded that
19125-506: The Coast and Geodetic Survey was transferred from the Department of the Treasury to the newly created United States Department of Commerce and Labor . By the time of its transfer, the Survey had established suboffices at San Francisco , California , and at Manila in the Philippines and had expanded the scope of its operations to include Lake Champlain , the Pacific coast of North America from San Diego , California, to Panama ,
19350-522: The Coast and Geodetic Survey's duties. The Survey opened a field office in Seattle , Washington in 1899, to support survey ships operating in the Pacific Ocean as well as survey field expeditions in the western United States ; this office eventually would become the modern National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Pacific Marine Center. The system of U.S. Navy officers and men crewing
19575-412: The Coast and Geodetic Survey, at least some scientists were not prone to following bureaucratic requirements related to the funding of their projects, and their lax financial practices led to charges of mismanagement of funds and corruption. When Grover Cleveland became president in 1885, James Q. Chenoweth became First Auditor of the Department of the Treasury, and he began to investigate improprieties at
19800-547: The Coast and Geodetic Survey, traces its ancestry to the Coast and Geodetic Survey's Office of Weights and Measures. The United States Coast and Geodetic Survey began its existence as the United States Survey of the Coast , created within the United States Department of the Treasury by an Act of Congress on February 10, 1807, to conduct a "Survey of the Coast." The Survey of the Coast,
20025-525: The Confederates while working in support of Union forces. Army officers never returned to the Coast Survey, but after the war Navy officers did, and the Coast Survey resumed its peacetime duties. The acquisition of the Department of Alaska in 1867 expanded its responsibilities, as did the progressive exploration, settlement, and enclosure of the continental United States . George W. Blunt sold
20250-406: The Department of the Treasury to resume the administration of the Survey, which was renamed the United States Coast Survey in 1836. However, the Navy retained a close connection with the hydrographic efforts of the Coast Survey under law requiring Survey ships to be commanded and crewed by U.S. Navy officers and men when the Navy could provide such support. Under this system, which persisted until
20475-692: The Department, District , and Territory of Alaska in the coming years. In 1888, the publications for the United States East and Gulf coasts took the name United States Coast Pilot for the first time, and the publications for the United States West Coast took this name 30 years later. NOAA produces the United States Coast Pilots to this day. In 1871, Congress officially expanded the Coast Survey ' s responsibilities to include geodetic surveys in
20700-618: The Earth's gravity . This employment exempted Peirce from having to take part in the American Civil War ; it would have been very awkward for him to do so, as the Boston Brahmin Peirces sympathized with the Confederacy . No members of the Peirce family volunteered or enlisted. Peirce grew up in a home where white supremacy was taken for granted, and slavery was considered natural. Peirce's father had described himself as
20925-469: The Greek word "logos", which has a variety of translations, such as reason , discourse , or language . Logic is traditionally defined as the study of the laws of thought or correct reasoning , and is usually understood in terms of inferences or arguments . Reasoning is the activity of drawing inferences. Arguments are the outward expression of inferences. An argument is a set of premises together with
21150-510: The Gulf Stream study served as a model for all subsequent integrated oceanographic cruises. Bache also instituted regular and systematic observations of the tides and investigated magnetic forces and directions, making the Survey the center of U.S. government expertise in geophysics for the following century. In the late 1840s, the Survey pioneered the use of the telegraph to provide highly accurate determinations of longitude ; known as
21375-781: The National Ocean Survey, later renamed the National Ocean Service . In addition to the National Ocean Service, NOAA's National Geodetic Survey , Office of Coast Survey , and NOAA fleet all trace their ancestry in whole or in part to the Coast and Geodetic Survey, and the NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps is the descendant of the Coast and Geodetic Survey Corps. In addition, the modern National Institute of Standards and Technology , although long separated from
21600-410: The Navy could perform hydrography, it could not provide the full range of geodetic disciplines necessary for scientifically accurate surveying and mapping work. In 1886, the Allison Commission wrapped up its investigation and published its final report. Although it determined that all topographic responsibility outside of coastal areas would henceforth reside in the U.S. Geological Survey, it approved of
21825-407: The Navy, Congress enacted legislation on March 3, 1843, providing for President John Tyler to establish a board to study the Survey and recommend a permanent organization for it. Its report recommended an organization which Tyler approved on April 29, 1843, and still was in place when the Survey left the Department of the Treasury in 1903. Professor Alexander Dallas Bache became superintendent of
22050-515: The North American philosophy department most devoted to Peirce was the University of Toronto , thanks in part to the leadership of Thomas Goudge and David Savan. In recent years, U.S. Peirce scholars have clustered at Indiana University – Purdue University Indianapolis , home of the Peirce Edition Project (PEP) –, and Pennsylvania State University . Currently, considerable interest is being taken in Peirce's ideas by researchers wholly outside
22275-636: The Survey ' s operations from nine U.S. states to seventeen, and by 1849 it also operated along the United States West Coast , giving it a presence along all coasts of the United States. In 1845, he instituted the world ' s first systematic oceanographic project for studying a specific phenomenon when he directed the Coast Survey to begin systematic studies of the Gulf Stream and its environs, including physical oceanography, geological oceanography, biological oceanography, and chemical oceanography. Bache ' s initial orders for
22500-452: The Survey ' s ships that had prevailed for most of the 19th century came to an end when the appropriation law approved on June 6, 1900, provided for "all necessary employees to man and equip the vessels" instead of Navy personnel. The law went into effect on July 1, 1900; at that point, all Navy personnel assigned to the Survey ' s ships remained aboard until the first call at each ship ' s home port , where they transferred off, with
22725-428: The Survey during its early years. Hassler believed that expertise in coastal surveys would be of importance in future wars and welcomed the participation of Army and Navy personnel, and his vision in this regard laid the foundation for the commissioned corps of officers that would be created in the Survey in 1917 as the ancestor of today ' s National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Commissioned Corps . During
22950-552: The Survey had Union sympathies, all but seven of them stayed on with the Survey rather than resigning to serve the Confederate States of America , and their work shifted in emphasis to support of the Union Navy and Union Army . Civilian Coast Surveyors were called upon to serve in the field and provide mapping, hydrographic, and engineering expertise for Union forces. One of the individuals who excelled at this work
23175-522: The Survey in its disputes with its critics. Eventually, the relationship between the Survey and the Blunts would lead to the establishment of the Survey ' s United States Coast Pilot publications in the latter part of the 19th century. The Survey had barely resumed its work when President Jackson transferred it from the Department of the Treasury to the Department of the Navy on March 11, 1834. Survey results under Navy Department authority again were unsatisfactory, and on March 26, 1836, Jackson ordered
23400-401: The Survey of the Coast from the Department of the Treasury, prohibited the U.S. government from employing civilians to conduct coastal surveys, and gave the U.S. Army and U.S. Navy responsibility for such surveys under the auspices of the United States Department of War and United States Department of the Navy , respectively. Although the 1818 law did not abolish the Survey of the Coast, it had
23625-531: The Survey reimbursing the Navy for their pay accrued after July 1, 1900. Thereafter, the Coast and Geodetic Survey operated as an entirely civilian organization until May 1917. In 1901, the Office of Weights and Measures was split off from the Coast and Geodetic Survey to become the separate National Bureau of Standards. It became the National Institute of Standards and Technology in 1988. In 1903,
23850-409: The Survey relied on articles it published in local newspapers to provide information to mariners in the next decades, Blunt ' s employment with the Survey began a relationship between the American Coast Pilot and the Survey in which the Survey ' s findings were incorporated into the American Coast Pilot and the Survey ' s charts were sold by the Blunt family, which became staunch allies of
24075-479: The Survey was granted the authority to crew its ships in 1900, nearly half the Survey's ships were crewed and officered by U.S. Navy personnel over the 50-year period between 1848 and 1898; U.S. Navy officers and Coast Survey civilians served alongside one another aboard ship, and many of the most famous names in hydrography for both the Survey and Navy of the period are linked. In addition, the United States Department of War provided U.S. Army officers for service with
24300-406: The Survey's financial and budgetary procedures and improving its operations so as to demonstrate the value of its scientific program in performing accurate mapping while setting and meeting production deadlines for maps and charts. To the Survey's critics, Thorn and Colonna championed the importance of the Coast and Geodetic Survey's inland geodetic work and how it supported, rather than duplicated,
24525-446: The Survey's practice of providing its employees with money in advance for large and expensive purchases when operating in remote areas because of the Survey's inability to verify that the expenses were legitimate. Moreover, the Superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, Julius Hilgard , was exposed as a drunkard and forced to resign in disgrace along with four of his senior staff members at Survey headquarters. To address issues at
24750-634: The U.S. Coast Survey after Hassler ' s death in 1843. During his years as superintendent, he reorganized the Coast Survey in accordance with the plan President Tyler approved and expanded the Survey's work southward along the United States East Coast into the Florida Keys . In 1846 the Survey began to operate a ship, Phoenix , on the United States Gulf Coast for the first time. By 1847, Bache had expanded
24975-513: The U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey or the U.S. Geological Survey; whether the Coast and Geodetic Survey should be removed from the Department of the Treasury and placed under the control of the Department of the Navy, as it had been previously from 1834 to 1836; and whether weather services should reside in a military organization or in the civilian part of the government, raising the broader issue of whether U.S. government scientific agencies of all kinds should be under military or civilian control. At
25200-683: The U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, U.S. Geological Survey, and United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries, more commonly referred to as the United States Fish Commission . He had little impact on the Geological Survey or the Fish Commission, but at the Coast and Geodetic Survey he found many improprieties. Chenoweth found that the Coast and Geodetic Survey had failed to account for government equipment it had purchased, continued to pay retired personnel as
25425-491: The U.S. Navy, the Survey operated as a completely civilian organization from 1900 until after the United States entered World War I in April 1917. To avoid the dangerous situation Coast Survey personnel had faced during the American Civil War, when they could have been executed as spies if captured by the enemy, a new Coast and Geodetic Survey Corps was created on May 22, 1917, as one of the uniformed services of
25650-681: The U.S. government, namely the Coast and Geodetic Survey, the United States Geological Survey , the United States Army Signal Corps (responsible for studying and predicting weather at the time), and the United States Navy 's United States Hydrographic Office . The commission looked into three main issues: the role of geodesy in the U.S. government's scientific efforts and whether responsibility for inland geodetics should reside in
25875-572: The United States , giving the Survey ' s officers a commissioned status that protected them from treatment as spies if captured, as well as providing the United States armed forces with a ready source of officers skilled in surveying that could be rapidly assimilated for wartime support of the armed forces. Over half of all Coast and Geodetic Survey Corps officers served in the U.S. Army, U.S. Navy, and U.S. Marine Corps during World War I, and Coast and Geodetic Survey personnel were active as artillery orienteering officers, as minelaying officers in
26100-489: The United States to be sold as slaves , and Gedney's seizure of La Amistad led to the freedom suit United States v. Schooner Amistad , argued before the United States Supreme Court in 1841. In 1838, U.S. Navy Lieutenant George M. Bache , while attached to the Survey, suggested standardizing the markings of buoys and navigational markers ashore by painting those on the right when entering
26325-501: The United States until August 16, 1815. The Survey finally began surveying operations in 1816, when Hassler started work in the vicinity of New York City . The first baseline was measured and verified in 1817. With surveying work barely underway, Hassler was taken by surprise when the United States Congress – frustrated by the slow and limited progress the Survey had made in its first decade, unwilling to endure
26550-556: The academic establishment of the day and that this played a large role in his inability to obtain a tenured position. Peirce's personal life undoubtedly worked against his professional success. After his first wife, Harriet Melusina Fay ("Zina"), left him in 1875, Peirce, while still legally married, became involved with Juliette , whose last name, given variously as Froissy and Pourtalai, and nationality (she spoke French) remains uncertain. When his divorce from Zina became final in 1883, he married Juliette. That year, Newcomb pointed out to
26775-418: The ambiguity and vagueness of natural language are responsible for their flaw, as in "feathers are light; what is light cannot be dark; therefore feathers cannot be dark". Fallacies of presumption have a wrong or unjustified premise but may be valid otherwise. In the case of fallacies of relevance, the premises do not support the conclusion because they are not relevant to it. The main focus of most logicians
27000-400: The arena of academic philosophy. The interest comes from industry, business, technology, intelligence organizations, and the military; and it has resulted in the existence of a substantial number of agencies, institutes, businesses, and laboratories in which ongoing research into and development of Peircean concepts are being vigorously undertaken. In recent years, Peirce's trichotomy of signs
27225-399: The assessment of arguments. Premises and conclusions are the basic parts of inferences or arguments and therefore play a central role in logic. In the case of a valid inference or a correct argument, the conclusion follows from the premises, or in other words, the premises support the conclusion. For instance, the premises "Mars is red" and "Mars is a planet" support the conclusion "Mars
27450-495: The basic principles of classical logic. They introduce additional symbols and principles to apply it to fields like metaphysics , ethics , and epistemology . Modal logic is an extension of classical logic. In its original form, sometimes called "alethic modal logic", it introduces two new symbols: ◊ {\displaystyle \Diamond } expresses that something is possible while ◻ {\displaystyle \Box } expresses that something
27675-487: The best explanation, for example, when a doctor concludes that a patient has a certain disease which explains the symptoms they suffer. Arguments that fall short of the standards of correct reasoning often embody fallacies . Systems of logic are theoretical frameworks for assessing the correctness of arguments. Logic has been studied since antiquity . Early approaches include Aristotelian logic , Stoic logic , Nyaya , and Mohism . Aristotelian logic focuses on reasoning in
27900-405: The charges against Coast and Geodetic Survey personnel largely were overblown, and he set his mind to the issues of rebuilding the Survey's integrity and reputation and ensuring that it demonstrated its value to its critics. Ignorant of the Survey's operations and the scientific methods that lay behind them, he left such matters to his assistant, Benjamin J. Colonna , and focused instead on reforming
28125-645: The claim "either it is raining, or it is not". These two definitions of formal logic are not identical, but they are closely related. For example, if the inference from p to q is deductively valid then the claim "if p then q " is a logical truth. Formal logic uses formal languages to express and analyze arguments. They normally have a very limited vocabulary and exact syntactic rules . These rules specify how their symbols can be combined to construct sentences, so-called well-formed formulas . This simplicity and exactness of formal logic make it capable of formulating precise rules of inference. They determine whether
28350-644: The club included Chauncey Wright , John Fiske , Francis Ellingwood Abbot , Nicholas St. John Green , and Joseph Bangs Warner . The discussions eventually birthed Peirce's notion of pragmatism. On April 20, 1877, he was elected a member of the National Academy of Sciences . Also in 1877, he proposed measuring the meter as so many wavelengths of light of a certain frequency , the kind of definition employed from 1960 to 1983 . In 1879 Peirce developed Peirce quincuncial projection , having been inspired by H. A. Schwarz 's 1869 conformal transformation of
28575-495: The color of elephants. A closely related form of inductive inference has as its conclusion not a general law but one more specific instance, as when it is inferred that an elephant one has not seen yet is also gray. Some theorists, like Igor Douven, stipulate that inductive inferences rest only on statistical considerations. This way, they can be distinguished from abductive inference. Abductive inference may or may not take statistical observations into consideration. In either case,
28800-502: The conclusion "I don't have to work". Premises and conclusions express propositions or claims that can be true or false. An important feature of propositions is their internal structure. For example, complex propositions are made up of simpler propositions linked by logical vocabulary like ∧ {\displaystyle \land } ( and ) or → {\displaystyle \to } ( if...then ). Simple propositions also have parts, like "Sunday" or "work" in
29025-511: The conclusion "all ravens are black". A further approach is to define informal logic as the study of informal fallacies . Informal fallacies are incorrect arguments in which errors are present in the content and the context of the argument. A false dilemma , for example, involves an error of content by excluding viable options. This is the case in the fallacy "you are either with us or against us; you are not with us; therefore, you are against us". Some theorists state that formal logic studies
29250-458: The conclusion is true. Some theorists, like John Stuart Mill , give a more restrictive definition of fallacies by additionally requiring that they appear to be correct. This way, genuine fallacies can be distinguished from mere mistakes of reasoning due to carelessness. This explains why people tend to commit fallacies: because they have an alluring element that seduces people into committing and accepting them. However, this reference to appearances
29475-591: The conditional proposition p → q {\displaystyle p\to q} , one can form truth tables of its converse q → p {\displaystyle q\to p} , its inverse ( ¬ p → ¬ q {\displaystyle \lnot p\to \lnot q} ) , and its contrapositive ( ¬ q → ¬ p {\displaystyle \lnot q\to \lnot p} ) . Truth tables can also be defined for more complex expressions that use several propositional connectives. Logic
29700-438: The contrast between necessity and possibility and the problem of ethical obligation and permission. Similarly, it does not address the relations between past, present, and future. Such issues are addressed by extended logics. They build on the basic intuitions of classical logic and expand it by introducing new logical vocabulary. This way, the exact logical approach is applied to fields like ethics or epistemology that lie beyond
29925-451: The depth level. But they can be highly informative on the surface level by making implicit information explicit. This happens, for example, in mathematical proofs. Ampliative arguments are arguments whose conclusions contain additional information not found in their premises. In this regard, they are more interesting since they contain information on the depth level and the thinker may learn something genuinely new. But this feature comes with
30150-401: The design of experiments and on a criterion for the statistical treatment of outliers . Ferdinand Hassler became the first Superintendent of Weights and Measures beginning in November 1830, and the Office of Weights and Measures, the ancestor of today ' s National Institute of Standards and Technology , was placed under the control of the Coast Survey in 1836; until 1901, the Survey thus
30375-468: The development of early current measurement technology, particularly the Pillsbury current meter invented by John E. Pillsbury , USN , while on duty with the Survey. It was in connection with intensive studies of the Gulf Stream that the Coast and Geodetic Survey ship USC&GS George S. Blake became such a pioneer in oceanography that she is one of only two U.S. ships with her name inscribed in
30600-426: The early 19th century it had produced "a stimulus to all educational and scientific work. The methods used by the Survey have been the standard for similar undertakings in the United States, and many commendations of their excellence have been received from abroad. The influence of the Survey in the various operations resulting from the advancing scientific activity of the country can hardly be overestimated." In 1904,
30825-575: The effect of removing Hassler from the superintendency and suspending the Survey's operations. During the 14 years from 1818 to 1832, the Survey existed without a superintendent or civilian workforce and without conducting any surveys. During these years, the Army conducted no surveys, those the Navy carried out achieved unsatisfactory results, and the United States Secretary of the Navy and others repeatedly called on Congress to revive
31050-774: The encyclopedic Century Dictionary . In 1885, an investigation by the Allison Commission exonerated Peirce, but led to the dismissal of Superintendent Julius Hilgard and several other Coast Survey employees for misuse of public funds. In 1891, Peirce resigned from the Coast Survey at Superintendent Thomas Corwin Mendenhall 's request. In 1879, Peirce was appointed lecturer in logic at Johns Hopkins University , which had strong departments in areas that interested him, such as philosophy ( Royce and Dewey completed their PhDs at Hopkins), psychology (taught by G. Stanley Hall and studied by Joseph Jastrow , who coauthored
31275-409: The example. The truth of a proposition usually depends on the meanings of all of its parts. However, this is not the case for logically true propositions. They are true only because of their logical structure independent of the specific meanings of the individual parts. Arguments can be either correct or incorrect. An argument is correct if its premises support its conclusion. Deductive arguments have
31500-633: The façade of the Oceanographic Museum (Musée Océanographique) in Monaco due to her being "the most innovative oceanographic vessel of the Nineteenth Century" with development of deep ocean exploration through introduction of steel cable for sounding, dredging and deep anchoring and data collection for the "first truly modern bathymetric map of a deep sea area." By the mid-1880s, the Coast and Geodetic Survey had been caught up in
31725-434: The field of ethics and introduces symbols to express the ideas of obligation and permission , i.e. to describe whether an agent has to perform a certain action or is allowed to perform it. The modal operators in temporal modal logic articulate temporal relations. They can be used to express, for example, that something happened at one time or that something is happening all the time. In epistemology, epistemic modal logic
31950-465: The first six volumes of Collected Papers (1931–1935) was the most important event to date in Peirce studies and one that Cohen made possible by raising the needed funds; however it did not prompt an outpouring of secondary studies. The editors of those volumes, Charles Hartshorne and Paul Weiss , did not become Peirce specialists. Early landmarks of the secondary literature include the monographs by Buchler (1939), Feibleman (1946), and Goudge (1950),
32175-531: The first time publicly stated that the Coast Survey was not a temporary organization charged with charting the coasts once, but rather a permanent one that would continually survey coastal areas as they changed over time. Another significant moment in the Survey ' s history that occurred in 1858 was the first publication of what would later become the United States Coast Pilot , when Survey employee George Davidson adapted an article from
32400-485: The form "(1) p , (2) if p then q , (3) therefore q " are valid, independent of what the terms p and q stand for. In this sense, formal logic can be defined as the science of valid inferences. An alternative definition sees logic as the study of logical truths . A proposition is logically true if its truth depends only on the logical vocabulary used in it. This means that it is true in all possible worlds and under all interpretations of its non-logical terms, like
32625-513: The form of syllogisms . It was considered the main system of logic in the Western world until it was replaced by modern formal logic, which has its roots in the work of late 19th-century mathematicians such as Gottlob Frege . Today, the most commonly used system is classical logic . It consists of propositional logic and first-order logic . Propositional logic only considers logical relations between full propositions. First-order logic also takes
32850-523: The form of the premises and the conclusion: how they have to be structured for the inference to be valid. Arguments that do not follow any rule of inference are deductively invalid. The modus ponens is a prominent rule of inference. It has the form " p ; if p , then q ; therefore q ". Knowing that it has just rained ( p {\displaystyle p} ) and that after rain the streets are wet ( p → q {\displaystyle p\to q} ), one can use modus ponens to deduce that
33075-419: The form of the premises and the conclusion; (2) they are a priori, i.e. no sense experience is needed to determine whether they obtain; (3) they are modal, i.e. that they hold by logical necessity for the given propositions, independent of any other circumstances. Because of the first feature, the focus on formality, deductive inference is usually identified with rules of inference. Rules of inference specify
33300-459: The front lines carrying out mapping duties, and Coast Survey officers produced many of the coastal charts and interior maps used by Union forces throughout the war. Coast Surveyors supporting the Union Army were given assimilated military rank while attached to a specific command, but those supporting the U.S. Navy operated as civilians and ran the risk of being executed as spies if captured by
33525-478: The fundamental standards of length and mass of the United States from the customary English system to the metric system . The metric standards defined under the order remained the U.S. standard until July 1, 1959, by which time increasing precision in measurement required their revision. During the 1890s, while attached to the Coast and Geodetic Survey as commanding officer of George S. Blake , Lieutenant Commander Charles Dwight Sigsbee , USN , Assistant in
33750-421: The general form of arguments while informal logic studies particular instances of arguments. Another approach is to hold that formal logic only considers the role of logical constants for correct inferences while informal logic also takes the meaning of substantive concepts into account. Further approaches focus on the discussion of logical topics with or without formal devices and on the role of epistemology for
33975-469: The greatest loss of life in a single incident in the history of NOAA and its ancestor agencies occurred when a commercial schooner collided with the Coast Survey paddle steamer Robert J. Walker in the Atlantic Ocean off New Jersey . Robert J. Walker sank with the loss of 20 men. A Coast Survey ship took part in an international scientific project for the first time when Bibb observed
34200-570: The growing role of geodesy in its operations, the U.S. Coast Survey was renamed the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey ( USC&GS ) by a statute passed on June 20, 1878. The American Coast Pilot had long been lacking in current information when the Coast Survey took control of it in 1867, and the Survey had recognized that deficit but had been hindered by a lack of funding and the risks associated with mooring vessels in deep waters or along dangerous coasts in order to collect
34425-536: The height of the Great Depression . When the United States entered World War II in December 1941, all of this work was suspended as the Survey dedicated its activities entirely to support of the war effort. Over half of the Coast and Geodetic Corps commissioned officers were transferred to either the U.S. Army, U.S. Navy, U.S. Marine Corps, or United States Army Air Forces , while those who remained in
34650-554: The increased scrutiny of U.S. government agencies by politicians seeking to reform governmental affairs by curbing the spoils system and patronage common among office holders of the time. One outgrowth of this movement was the Allison Commission – a joint commission of the United States Senate and United States House of Representatives – which convened in 1884 to investigate the scientific agencies of
34875-451: The information necessary for updates. The U.S. Congress specifically appropriated funding for such work in the 1875–1876 budget under which the 76-foot (23-meter) schooner Drift was constructed and sent out under U.S. Navy Acting Master and Coast Survey Assistant Robert Platt to the Gulf of Maine to anchor in depths of up to 140 fathoms (840 feet; 256 meters) to measure currents. The Survey's requirement to update sailing directions led to
35100-474: The interior of the country, and one of its first major projects in the interior was to survey the 39th Parallel across the entire country. Between 1874 and 1877, the Coast Survey employed the naturalist and author John Muir as a guide and artist during the survey of the 39th Parallel in the Great Basin of Nevada and Utah . To reflect its acquisition of the mission of surveying the U.S. interior and
35325-406: The internal parts of propositions into account, like predicates and quantifiers . Extended logics accept the basic intuitions behind classical logic and apply it to other fields, such as metaphysics , ethics , and epistemology . Deviant logics, on the other hand, reject certain classical intuitions and provide alternative explanations of the basic laws of logic. The word "logic" originates from
35550-407: The internal structure of propositions. This happens through devices such as singular terms, which refer to particular objects, predicates , which refer to properties and relations, and quantifiers, which treat notions like "some" and "all". For example, to express the proposition "this raven is black", one may use the predicate B {\displaystyle B} for the property "black" and
35775-401: The late 1980s. The Department of Commerce and Labor was abolished in 1913 and divided into the United States Department of Commerce and the United States Department of Labor . With this change, the Coast and Geodetic Survey came under the jurisdiction of the Department of Commerce. Although some personnel aboard Coast and Geodetic Survey ships wore uniforms virtually identical to those of
36000-567: The lectures now also appear in The Essential Peirce , 2. Edited by Patricia Ann Turisi, in print. 2010: Philosophy of Mathematics: Selected Writings collects important writings by Peirce on the subject, many not previously in print. Edited by Matthew E. Moore, in print. Peirce's most important work in pure mathematics was in logical and foundational areas. He also worked on linear algebra , matrices , various geometries, topology and Listing numbers , Bell numbers , graphs ,
36225-522: The logical conjunction ∧ {\displaystyle \land } requires terms on both sides. A proof system is a collection of rules to construct formal proofs. It is a tool to arrive at conclusions from a set of axioms. Rules in a proof system are defined in terms of the syntactic form of formulas independent of their specific content. For instance, the classical rule of conjunction introduction states that P ∧ Q {\displaystyle P\land Q} follows from
36450-854: The medievals". Peirce's reputation rests largely on academic papers published in American scientific and scholarly journals such as Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences , the Journal of Speculative Philosophy , The Monist , Popular Science Monthly , the American Journal of Mathematics , Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences , The Nation , and others. See Articles by Peirce, published in his lifetime for an extensive list with links to them online. The only full-length book (neither extract nor pamphlet) that Peirce authored and saw published in his lifetime
36675-429: The most original minds of the later nineteenth century and certainly the greatest American thinker ever". Educated as a chemist and employed as a scientist for thirty years, Peirce meanwhile made major contributions to logic, such as theories of relations and quantification . C. I. Lewis wrote, "The contributions of C. S. Peirce to symbolic logic are more numerous and varied than those of any other writer—at least in
36900-524: The need for the Survey to focus on the broad range of geodetic disciplines Colonna identified as necessary for accurate chart- and mapmaking: triangulation , astronomical observations , levelling , tidal observations , physical geodesy , topography , hydrography , and magnetic observations. To those who advocated transfer of the Coast and Geodetic Survey's work to the Navy Hydrographic Office, Thorn and Colonna replied that although
37125-459: The newly acquired coasts of Texas and California . The famous naturalist Louis Agassiz studied marine life off New England from the Coast Survey steamer Bibb in 1847 and also conducted the first scientific study of the Florida reef system in 1851 under a Coast Survey commission; his son, Alexander Agassiz , later also served aboard Coast Survey ships for technical operations. In
37350-455: The nineteenth century, the remit of the Survey was rather loosely drawn and it had no competitors in federally funded scientific research. Various superintendents developed its work in fields as diverse as astronomy , cartography , meteorology , geodesy , geology , geophysics , hydrography , navigation , oceanography , exploration , pilotage , tides , and topography . The Survey published important articles by Charles Sanders Peirce on
37575-417: The nineteenth century." For Peirce, logic also encompassed much of what is now called epistemology and the philosophy of science . He saw logic as the formal branch of semiotics or study of signs , of which he is a founder, which foreshadowed the debate among logical positivists and proponents of philosophy of language that dominated 20th-century Western philosophy. Peirce's study of signs also included
37800-409: The other hand, are true or false depending on whether they are in accord with reality. In formal logic, a sound argument is an argument that is both correct and has only true premises. Sometimes a distinction is made between simple and complex arguments. A complex argument is made up of a chain of simple arguments. This means that the conclusion of one argument acts as a premise of later arguments. For
38025-444: The other hand, do not have propositional parts. But they can also be conceived as having an internal structure: they are made up of subpropositional parts, like singular terms and predicates . For example, the simple proposition "Mars is red" can be formed by applying the predicate "red" to the singular term "Mars". In contrast, the complex proposition "Mars is red and Venus is white" is made up of two simple propositions connected by
38250-468: The papers found in his study, but did not microfilm them until 1964. Only after Richard Robin (1967) catalogued this Nachlass did it become clear that Peirce had left approximately 1,650 unpublished manuscripts, totaling over 100,000 pages, mostly still unpublished except on microfilm . On the vicissitudes of Peirce's papers, see Houser (1989). Reportedly the papers remain in unsatisfactory condition. The first published anthology of Peirce's articles
38475-897: The philosopher and historian of ideas Max Fisch (1900–1995) emerged as an authority on Peirce (Fisch, 1986). He includes many of his relevant articles in a survey (Fisch 1986: 422–448) of the impact of Peirce's thought through 1983. Peirce has gained an international following, marked by university research centers devoted to Peirce studies and pragmatism in Brazil ( CeneP/CIEP and Centro de Estudos de Pragmatismo ), Finland ( HPRC and Commens ), Germany ( Wirth's group , Hoffman's and Otte's group , and Deuser's and Härle's group), France ( L'I.R.S.C.E. ), Spain ( GEP ), and Italy ( CSP ). His writings have been translated into several languages, including German, French, Finnish, Spanish, and Swedish. Since 1950, there have been French, Italian, Spanish, British, and Brazilian Peirce scholars of note. For many years,
38700-473: The pioneering American philosophy journal The Monist , which eventually published at least 14 articles by Peirce. He wrote many texts in James Mark Baldwin 's Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology (1901–1905); half of those credited to him appear to have been written actually by Christine Ladd-Franklin under his supervision. He applied in 1902 to the newly formed Carnegie Institution for
38925-485: The premises P {\displaystyle P} and Q {\displaystyle Q} . Such rules can be applied sequentially, giving a mechanical procedure for generating conclusions from premises. There are different types of proof systems including natural deduction and sequent calculi . A semantics is a system for mapping expressions of a formal language to their denotations. In many systems of logic, denotations are truth values. For instance,
39150-413: The premises offer support for the conclusion because the conclusion is the best explanation of why the premises are true. In this sense, abduction is also called the inference to the best explanation . For example, given the premise that there is a plate with breadcrumbs in the kitchen in the early morning, one may infer the conclusion that one's house-mate had a midnight snack and was too tired to clean
39375-470: The premises. But this point is not always accepted since it would mean, for example, that most of mathematics is uninformative. A different characterization distinguishes between surface and depth information. The surface information of a sentence is the information it presents explicitly. Depth information is the totality of the information contained in the sentence, both explicitly and implicitly. According to this view, deductive inferences are uninformative on
39600-459: The previous lack of success of such an arrangement. When Thorn left the superintendency in 1889, the Coast and Geodetic Survey's position in the U.S. government had become secure. Before Thorn left the superintendency, the United States Congress passed a bill requiring that henceforth the president would select the superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic Survey with the consent of the U.S. Senate. This practice has continued for senior positions in
39825-448: The property " Arisbe ". There they lived with few interruptions for the rest of their lives, Charles writing prolifically, with much of his work remaining unpublished to this day (see Works ). Living beyond their means soon led to grave financial and legal difficulties. Charles spent much of his last two decades unable to afford heat in winter and subsisting on old bread donated by the local baker. Unable to afford new stationery, he wrote on
40050-485: The propositional connective "and". Whether a proposition is true depends, at least in part, on its constituents. For complex propositions formed using truth-functional propositional connectives, their truth only depends on the truth values of their parts. But this relation is more complicated in the case of simple propositions and their subpropositional parts. These subpropositional parts have meanings of their own, like referring to objects or classes of objects. Whether
40275-406: The propositions are formed. For example, the syllogism "all men are mortal; Socrates is a man; therefore Socrates is mortal" is valid. The syllogism "all cats are mortal; Socrates is mortal; therefore Socrates is a cat", on the other hand, is invalid. Classical logic is distinct from traditional or Aristotelian logic. It encompasses propositional logic and first-order logic. It is "classical" in
40500-417: The psychology of argumentation. Another characterization identifies informal logic with the study of non-deductive arguments. In this way, it contrasts with deductive reasoning examined by formal logic. Non-deductive arguments make their conclusion probable but do not ensure that it is true. An example is the inductive argument from the empirical observation that "all ravens I have seen so far are black" to
40725-436: The rules of inference they accept as valid and the formal languages used to express them. Starting in the late 19th century, many new formal systems have been proposed. There are disagreements about what makes a formal system a logic. For example, it has been suggested that only logically complete systems, like first-order logic , qualify as logics. For such reasons, some theorists deny that higher-order logics are logics in
40950-581: The science of his day is evident in his reviews in the Nation [...] and in his papers, grant applications, and publishers' prospectuses in the history and practice of science", referring latterly to Historical Perspectives . Edited by Carolyn Eisele, back in print. 1992: Reasoning and the Logic of Things collects in one place Peirce's 1898 series of lectures invited by William James. Edited by Kenneth Laine Ketner, with commentary by Hilary Putnam , in print. 1992–1998: The Essential Peirce (EP), 2 volumes,
41175-492: The scope of mathematics. Propositional logic comprises formal systems in which formulae are built from atomic propositions using logical connectives . For instance, propositional logic represents the conjunction of two atomic propositions P {\displaystyle P} and Q {\displaystyle Q} as the complex formula P ∧ Q {\displaystyle P\land Q} . Unlike predicate logic where terms and predicates are
41400-418: The semantics for classical propositional logic assigns the formula P ∧ Q {\displaystyle P\land Q} the denotation "true" whenever P {\displaystyle P} and Q {\displaystyle Q} are true. From the semantic point of view, a premise entails a conclusion if the conclusion is true whenever the premise is true. A system of logic
41625-604: The semantics. Thus, soundness and completeness together describe a system whose notions of validity and entailment line up perfectly. Systems of logic are theoretical frameworks for assessing the correctness of reasoning and arguments. For over two thousand years, Aristotelian logic was treated as the canon of logic in the Western world, but modern developments in this field have led to a vast proliferation of logical systems. One prominent categorization divides modern formal logical systems into classical logic , extended logics, and deviant logics . Aristotelian logic encompasses
41850-518: The sense that it is based on basic logical intuitions shared by most logicians. These intuitions include the law of excluded middle , the double negation elimination , the principle of explosion , and the bivalence of truth. It was originally developed to analyze mathematical arguments and was only later applied to other fields as well. Because of this focus on mathematics, it does not include logical vocabulary relevant to many other topics of philosophical importance. Examples of concepts it overlooks are
42075-404: The simple proposition "Mars is red", are true or false. In such cases, the truth is called a logical truth: a proposition is logically true if its truth depends only on the logical vocabulary used in it. This means that it is true under all interpretations of its non-logical terms. In some modal logics , this means that the proposition is true in all possible worlds. Some theorists define logic as
42300-415: The simple proposition they form is true depends on their relation to reality, i.e. what the objects they refer to are like. This topic is studied by theories of reference . Some complex propositions are true independently of the substantive meanings of their parts. In classical logic, for example, the complex proposition "either Mars is red or Mars is not red" is true independent of whether its parts, like
42525-870: The singular term r {\displaystyle r} referring to the raven to form the expression B ( r ) {\displaystyle B(r)} . To express that some objects are black, the existential quantifier ∃ {\displaystyle \exists } is combined with the variable x {\displaystyle x} to form the proposition ∃ x B ( x ) {\displaystyle \exists xB(x)} . First-order logic contains various rules of inference that determine how expressions articulated this way can form valid arguments, for example, that one may infer ∃ x B ( x ) {\displaystyle \exists xB(x)} from B ( r ) {\displaystyle B(r)} . Extended logics are logical systems that accept
42750-474: The smallest units, propositional logic takes full propositions with truth values as its most basic component. Thus, propositional logics can only represent logical relationships that arise from the way complex propositions are built from simpler ones. But it cannot represent inferences that result from the inner structure of a proposition. First-order logic includes the same propositional connectives as propositional logic but differs from it because it articulates
42975-418: The streets are wet ( q {\displaystyle q} ). The third feature can be expressed by stating that deductively valid inferences are truth-preserving: it is impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion to be false. Because of this feature, it is often asserted that deductive inferences are uninformative since the conclusion cannot arrive at new information not already present in
43200-437: The strict sense. When understood in a wide sense, logic encompasses both formal and informal logic. Informal logic uses non-formal criteria and standards to analyze and assess the correctness of arguments. Its main focus is on everyday discourse. Its development was prompted by difficulties in applying the insights of formal logic to natural language arguments. In this regard, it considers problems that formal logic on its own
43425-550: The strongest form of support: if their premises are true then their conclusion must also be true. This is not the case for ampliative arguments, which arrive at genuinely new information not found in the premises. Many arguments in everyday discourse and the sciences are ampliative arguments. They are divided into inductive and abductive arguments. Inductive arguments are statistical generalizations, such as inferring that all ravens are black based on many individual observations of black ravens. Abductive arguments are inferences to
43650-438: The study of logical truths. Truth tables can be used to show how logical connectives work or how the truth values of complex propositions depends on their parts. They have a column for each input variable. Each row corresponds to one possible combination of the truth values these variables can take; for truth tables presented in the English literature, the symbols "T" and "F" or "1" and "0" are commonly used as abbreviations for
43875-700: The subject in two ways: either by affirming it or by denying it. For example, the proposition "Socrates is not a cat" involves the denial of the predicate "cat" to the subject "Socrates". Using combinations of subjects and predicates, a great variety of propositions and syllogisms can be formed. Syllogisms are characterized by the fact that the premises are linked to each other and to the conclusion by sharing one predicate in each case. Thus, these three propositions contain three predicates, referred to as major term , minor term , and middle term . The central aspect of Aristotelian logic involves classifying all possible syllogisms into valid and invalid arguments according to how
44100-417: The subject to the predicate. For example, the proposition "Socrates is wise" is made up of the subject "Socrates", the predicate "wise", and the copula "is". The subject and the predicate are the terms of the proposition. Aristotelian logic does not contain complex propositions made up of simple propositions. It differs in this aspect from propositional logic, in which any two propositions can be linked using
44325-423: The symbols displayed on a page of a book. But this approach comes with new problems of its own: sentences are often context-dependent and ambiguous, meaning an argument's validity would not only depend on its parts but also on its context and on how it is interpreted. Another approach is to understand premises and conclusions in psychological terms as thoughts or judgments. This position is known as psychologism . It
44550-409: The table. This conclusion is justified because it is the best explanation of the current state of the kitchen. For abduction, it is not sufficient that the conclusion explains the premises. For example, the conclusion that a burglar broke into the house last night, got hungry on the job, and had a midnight snack, would also explain the state of the kitchen. But this conclusion is not justified because it
44775-399: The term ampliative or inductive reasoning is used. Deductive arguments are associated with formal logic in contrast to the relation between ampliative arguments and informal logic. A deductively valid argument is one whose premises guarantee the truth of its conclusion. For instance, the argument "(1) all frogs are amphibians; (2) no cats are amphibians; (3) therefore no cats are frogs"
45000-501: The throes of its pain "he was, at first, almost stupefied, and then aloof, cold, depressed, extremely suspicious, impatient of the slightest crossing, and subject to violent outbursts of temper". Its consequences may have led to the social isolation of his later life. Peirce went on to earn a Bachelor of Arts degree and a Master of Arts degree (1862) from Harvard. In 1863 the Lawrence Scientific School awarded him
45225-592: The time and expense involved in scientifically precise surveying, unconvinced of the propriety of expending U.S. government funds on scientific endeavors, and uncomfortable with Hassler leading the effort because of his foreign birth – enacted legislation on April 14, 1818, which repealed most of the 1807 statute. Congress believed that United States Army and United States Navy officers could achieve surveying results adequate for safe navigation during their routine navigation and charting activities and could do so more quickly and cheaply than Hassler, so its 1818 law removed
45450-479: The truth values "true" and "false". The first columns present all the possible truth-value combinations for the input variables. Entries in the other columns present the truth values of the corresponding expressions as determined by the input values. For example, the expression " p ∧ q {\displaystyle p\land q} " uses the logical connective ∧ {\displaystyle \land } ( and ). It could be used to express
45675-524: The university. Between 1859 and 1891, Peirce was intermittently employed in various scientific capacities by the United States Coast Survey, which in 1878 was renamed the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey , where he enjoyed his highly influential father's protection until the latter's death in 1880. At the Survey, he worked mainly in geodesy and gravimetry , refining the use of pendulums to determine small local variations in
45900-558: The urn with Peirce's ashes at Arisbe. In 1934, Pennsylvania Governor Gifford Pinchot arranged for Juliette's burial in Milford Cemetery. The urn with Peirce's ashes was interred with Juliette. Bertrand Russell (1959) wrote "Beyond doubt [...] he was one of the most original minds of the later nineteenth century and certainly the greatest American thinker ever". Russell and Whitehead 's Principia Mathematica , published from 1910 to 1913, does not mention Peirce (Peirce's work
46125-414: The use of acoustic sounding systems and developed radio acoustic ranging , which was the first marine navigation system in history that did not rely on a visual means of position determination. These developments led to the Survey ' s 1924 discovery of the sound fixing and ranging (SOFAR) channel or deep sound channel (DSC) – a horizontal layer of water in the ocean at which depth the speed of sound
46350-572: The use of the facilities of the Coast and Geodetic Survey for research and study by scientific investigators and students of any institution of higher education. On April 5, 1893, Survey Superintendent Thomas Corwin Mendenhall , with the approval of United States Secretary of the Treasury John Griffin Carlisle , formally issued the Mendenhall Order , which required the Office of Weights and Measures to change
46575-406: The withdrawal of virtually all U.S. Army officers from the Coast Survey and the Coast Survey brig Washington was taken over for U.S. Navy service in the war, but overall the war effort had little impact on the Coast Survey ' s operations. Army officers returned after the war, and the expansion of U.S. territory as a result of the war led to the Coast Survey expanding its operations to include
46800-505: The work of the Geological Survey and was in any event an important component of the Coast and Geodetic Survey's hydrographic work along the coasts. Thorn also advocated civilian control of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, pointing out to Cleveland and others that earlier experiments with placing it under U.S. Navy control had fared poorly. Thorn described the Coast and Geodetic Survey's essential mission as, in its simplest form, to produce "a perfect map,". and to this end he and Colonna championed
47025-489: Was Photometric Researches (1878), a 181-page monograph on the applications of spectrographic methods to astronomy. While at Johns Hopkins, he edited Studies in Logic (1883), containing chapters by himself and his graduate students . Besides lectures during his years (1879–1884) as lecturer in Logic at Johns Hopkins, he gave at least nine series of lectures, many now published; see Lectures by Peirce . After Peirce's death, Harvard University obtained from Peirce's widow
47250-453: Was Joseph Smith Harris , who supported Rear Admiral David G. Farragut and his Western Gulf Blockading Squadron in the Battle of Forts Jackson and St. Philip in 1862; this survey work was particularly valuable to Commander David Dixon Porter and his mortar bombardment fleet. Coast Surveyors served in virtually all theaters of the war and were often in the front lines or in advance of
47475-582: Was Peirce's reputation, in the US at least, that Webster's Biographical Dictionary said that Peirce was "now regarded as the most original thinker and greatest logician of his time". In 1949, while doing unrelated archival work, the historian of mathematics Carolyn Eisele (1902–2000) chanced on an autograph letter by Peirce. So began her forty years of research on Peirce, “the mathematician and scientist,” culminating in Eisele (1976, 1979, 1985). Beginning around 1960,
47700-427: Was Royce's student Morris Raphael Cohen , the editor of an anthology of Peirce's writings entitled Chance, Love, and Logic (1923), and the author of the first bibliography of Peirce's scattered writings. John Dewey studied under Peirce at Johns Hopkins. From 1916 onward, Dewey's writings repeatedly mention Peirce with deference. His 1938 Logic: The Theory of Inquiry is much influenced by Peirce. The publication of
47925-514: Was an " objective idealist " in the tradition of German philosopher Immanuel Kant as well as a scholastic realist about universals. He also held a commitment to the ideas of continuity and chance as real features of the universe, views he labeled synechism and tychism respectively. Peirce believed an epistemic fallibilism and anti- skepticism went along with these views. Peirce was born at 3 Phillips Place in Cambridge, Massachusetts . He
48150-405: Was discussed at length around the turn of the 20th century but it is not widely accepted today. Premises and conclusions have an internal structure. As propositions or sentences, they can be either simple or complex. A complex proposition has other propositions as its constituents, which are linked to each other through propositional connectives like "and" or "if...then". Simple propositions, on
48375-404: Was elected a resident fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in January 1867. The Survey sent him to Europe five times, first in 1871 as part of a group sent to observe a solar eclipse . There, he sought out Augustus De Morgan , William Stanley Jevons , and William Kingdon Clifford , British mathematicians and logicians whose turn of mind resembled his own. From 1869 to 1872, he
48600-668: Was employed as an assistant in Harvard's astronomical observatory, doing important work on determining the brightness of stars and the shape of the Milky Way . In 1872 he founded the Metaphysical Club , a conversational philosophical club that Peirce, the future Supreme Court Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. , the philosopher and psychologist William James , amongst others, formed in January 1872 in Cambridge, Massachusetts , and dissolved in December 1872. Other members of
48825-442: Was not a genius and just enough pettiness to resent someone who was". Additionally "an intensely devout and literal-minded Christian of rigid moral standards", he was appalled by what he considered Peirce's personal shortcomings. Peirce's efforts may also have been hampered by what Brent characterizes as "his difficult personality". In contrast, Keith Devlin believes that Peirce's work was too far ahead of his time to be appreciated by
49050-424: Was not until 1811 that Jefferson ' s successor, President James Madison , sent Hassler to Europe to purchase the instruments necessary to conduct the planned survey, as well as standardized weights and measures. Hassler departed on August 29, 1811, but eight months later, while he was in England , the War of 1812 broke out, forcing him to remain in Europe until its conclusion in 1815. Hassler did not return to
49275-679: Was not widely known until later). A. N. Whitehead , while reading some of Peirce's unpublished manuscripts soon after arriving at Harvard in 1924, was struck by how Peirce had anticipated his own "process" thinking. (On Peirce and process metaphysics , see Lowe 1964.) Karl Popper viewed Peirce as "one of the greatest philosophers of all times". Yet Peirce's achievements were not immediately recognized. His imposing contemporaries William James and Josiah Royce admired him and Cassius Jackson Keyser , at Columbia and C. K. Ogden , wrote about Peirce with respect but to no immediate effect. The first scholar to give Peirce his considered professional attention
49500-448: Was responsible for the standardization of weights and measures throughout the United States from 1836 to 1901. In 1959, it was assigned the responsibility for U.S. government oceanographic studies worldwide. By the mid-19th century, the Coast and Geodetic Survey operated a fleet of survey ships that constituted a distinct seagoing service of the United States until 1970. The Survey supported U.S. military operations in wartime, and in 1917
49725-416: Was responsible for the standardization of weights and measures throughout the United States. When it resumed operations in 1833, the Survey returned to surveys of the New York City area and its maritime approaches. Although U.S. law prohibited the Survey from procuring its own ships, requiring it to use existing public ships such as those of the Navy and the United States Revenue-Marine (which in 1894 became
49950-446: Was selected to lead the Survey. Hassler submitted a plan for the survey work involving the use of triangulation to ensure scientific accuracy of surveys, but international relations prevented the new Survey of the Coast from beginning its work; the Embargo Act of 1807 brought American overseas trade virtually to a halt only a month after Hassler ' s appointment and remained in effect until Jefferson left office in March 1809. It
50175-489: Was the one-volume Chance, Love and Logic: Philosophical Essays , edited by Morris Raphael Cohen , 1923, still in print. Other one-volume anthologies were published in 1940, 1957, 1958, 1972, 1994, and 2009, most still in print. The main posthumous editions of Peirce's works in their long trek to light, often multi-volume, and some still in print, have included: 1931–1958: Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce (CP), 8 volumes, includes many published works, along with
50400-495: Was the only academic appointment he ever held. Brent documents something Peirce never suspected, namely that his efforts to obtain academic employment, grants, and scientific respectability were repeatedly frustrated by the covert opposition of a major Canadian-American scientist of the day, Simon Newcomb . Newcomb had been a favourite student of Peirce's father; although "no doubt quite bright", "like Salieri in Peter Shaffer's Amadeus he also had just enough talent to recognize he
50625-551: Was the son of Sarah Hunt Mills and Benjamin Peirce , himself a professor of mathematics and astronomy at Harvard University . At age 12, Charles read his older brother's copy of Richard Whately 's Elements of Logic , then the leading English-language text on the subject. So began his lifelong fascination with logic and reasoning. He suffered from his late teens onward from a nervous condition then known as "facial neuralgia", which would today be diagnosed as trigeminal neuralgia . His biographer, Joseph Brent, says that when in
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