Misplaced Pages

#261738

90-503: Persepolis ( / p ər ˈ s ɛ p ə l ɪ s / ; Old Persian : 𐎱𐎠𐎼𐎿 , romanized:  Pārsa ; New Persian : تخت جمشید , romanized :  Takht-e Jamshīd , lit.   'Throne of Jamshid ') was the ceremonial capital of the Achaemenid Empire ( c.  550–330 BC ). It is situated in the plains of Marvdasht , encircled by the southern Zagros mountains , Fars province of Iran . It

180-421: A "pre-Middle Persian," or "post-Old Persian." Old Persian subsequently evolved into Middle Persian , which is in turn the ancestor of New Persian . Professor Gilbert Lazard , a famous Iranologist and the author of the book Persian Grammar , states: The language known as New Persian, which usually is called at this period (early Islamic times) by the name of Parsi-Dari, can be classified linguistically as

270-735: A Professor of Art History at the University of Tehran and an archaeologist, criticized Godard for purchasing fake Iranian bronze artifacts for the Ancient Iran Museum using Iranian state funds. Iranian scholars suspected that Godard sold the original artifacts to the Louvre. In 1948, Godard, assisted by his wife, organized an exhibition of Iranian artifacts at the Cernuschi Museum in Paris. During World War II Godard opposed

360-617: A continuation of Middle Persian, the official religious and literary language of Sassanian Iran, itself a continuation of Old Persian, the language of the Achaemenids. Unlike the other languages and dialects, ancient and modern, of the Iranian group such as Avestan , Parthian , Soghdian , Kurdish , Pashto , etc., Old, Middle and New Persian represent one and the same language at three states of its history. It had its origin in Fars and

450-452: A desperate resistance. It was still a place of considerable importance in the first century of Islam , although its greatness was speedily eclipsed by the new metropolis of Shiraz . In the 10th century, Estakhr dwindled to insignificance. During the following centuries, Estakhr gradually declined, until it ceased to exist as a city. Odoric of Pordenone may have passed through Persepolis on his way to China in 1320, although he mentioned only

540-532: A few changes in the shape of characters during the period it was used. This can be seen as a standardization of the heights of wedges, which in the beginning (i.e. in DB ) took only half the height of a line. The following phonemes are expressed in the Old Persian script: Notes: Lycian 𐊋𐊆𐊈𐊈𐊀𐊓𐊕𐊑𐊏𐊀 Kizzaprñna ~ 𐊈𐊆𐊖𐊀𐊓𐊕𐊑𐊏𐊀 Zisaprñna for (genuine) Old Persian *Ciçafarnā (besides

630-509: A good chronology but only an approximate geographical indication of what seem to be ancient Persians. In these records of the 9th century BCE, Parsuwash (along with Matai , presumably Medians) are first mentioned in the area of Lake Urmia in the records of Shalmaneser III . The exact identity of the Parsuwash is not known for certain, but from a linguistic viewpoint the word matches Old Persian pārsa itself coming directly from

720-404: A great, ruined city called "Comerum". In 1474, Giosafat Barbaro visited the ruins of Persepolis, which he incorrectly thought were of Jewish origin. Hakluyt's Voyages included a general account of the ruins of Persepolis attributed to an English merchant who visited Iran in 1568. António de Gouveia from Portugal wrote about cuneiform inscriptions following his visit in 1602. His report on

810-530: A major French excavation site in Iran. He was outraged by the sight of a large European castle with a French flag, suggesting militaristic intentions. Reports of French looting further fueled his discontent. Upon becoming king in 1925, his court minister, Teymourtash , proposed ending the French excavation monopoly and, as a compromise, appointing a French director for a new archaeological institute in Iran. This led to

900-632: A new branch of the royal house. The country's true capitals were Susa , Babylon and Ecbatana . This may be why the Greeks were not acquainted with the city until Alexander the Great took and plundered it. Darius I's construction of Persepolis was carried out parallel to that of the Palace of Susa . According to Gene R. Garthwaite, the Susa Palace served as Darius' model for Persepolis. Darius I ordered

990-410: A reversal of Thermopylae . After several months, Alexander allowed his troops to loot Persepolis. Around that time, a fire burned "the palaces" or "the palace". It is believed that the fire which destroyed Persepolis started from Hadish Palace, which was the living quarters of Xerxes I , and spread to the rest of the city. It is not clear if the fire was an accident or a deliberate act of revenge for

SECTION 10

#1732780496262

1080-483: A rival and criticized him as unfit for directing antiquities in Iran. Pope believed that Godard lacked the expertise needed for the restoration and excavation of Iranian artifacts, warning that Iranian art would suffer if entrusted to him. Americans felt that Godard favored French interests, blocking American-led excavations in Persepolis , Ray, and Lorestan , and assigning key sites such as Shahpour and Kazeroun to

1170-463: A sculptured figure of myself I made. Also, the analysis of certain Old Persian inscriptions are "supposed or claimed" to predate Darius the Great. Although it is true that the oldest attested Old Persian inscriptions are found on the Behistun monument from Darius, the creation of this "new type of writing" seems, according to Schmitt, "to have begun already under Cyrus the Great ". The script shows

1260-413: A similar way. Voices Active, Middle (them. pres. -aiy- , -ataiy- ), Passive ( -ya- ). Mostly the forms of first and third persons are attested. The only preserved Dual form is ajīva tam 'both lived'. Andr%C3%A9 Godard André Godard (21 January 1881 – 31 July 1965) was a French archaeologist , architect and historian of French and Middle Eastern Art. He served as

1350-412: A somewhat confusing and inconsistent look: 'horse,' for instance, is [attested in Old Persian as] both asa (OPers.) and aspa (Med.)." Old Persian texts were written from left to right in the syllabic Old Persian cuneiform script and had 36 phonetic characters and 8 logograms . The usage of logograms is not obligatory. The script was surprisingly not a result of evolution of the script used in

1440-596: A tribe called Parsuwash , who arrived in the Iranian Plateau early in the 1st millennium BCE and finally migrated down into the area of present-day Fārs province . Their language, Old Persian, became the official language of the Achaemenid kings. Assyrian records, which in fact appear to provide the earliest evidence for ancient Iranian (Persian and Median) presence on the Iranian Plateau, give

1530-400: A very short time, could scarcely have obtained so splendid a monument, and still less could the usurper Sogdianus . The two completed graves behind the compound at Persepolis would then belong to Artaxerxes II and Artaxerxes III . The unfinished tomb, a kilometer away from the city, is debated to who it belongs. There are a total of 11 existing inscriptions at Persepolis, related to Darius

1620-496: Is a direct descendant of Middle and Old Persian. Old Persian "presumably" has a Median language substrate . The Median element is readily identifiable because it did not share in the developments that were peculiar to Old Persian. Median forms "are found only in personal or geographical names [...] and some are typically from religious vocabulary and so could in principle also be influenced by Avestan ." "Sometimes, both Median and Old Persian forms are found, which gave Old Persian

1710-434: Is also unclear what permanent structures there were outside the palace complex; it may be better to think of Persepolis as only one complex rather than a "city" in the usual sense. The exploration of Persepolis from the early 17th century led to the modern rediscovery of cuneiform writing and, from detailed studies of the trilingual Achaemenid royal inscriptions found on the ruins, the initial decipherment of cuneiform in

1800-415: Is differentiated by dialectical features, still easily recognizable from the dialect prevailing in north-western and eastern Iran. Middle Persian , also sometimes called Pahlavi, is a direct continuation of Old Persian and was used as the written official language of the country. Comparison of the evolution at each stage of the language shows great simplification in grammar and syntax. However, New Persian

1890-549: Is from the Behistun Inscriptions . Old Persian is one of the oldest Indo-European languages which are attested in original texts. The oldest date of use of Old Persian as a spoken language is not precisely known. According to certain historical assumptions about the early history and origin of ancient Persians in Southwestern Iran (where Achaemenids hailed from), Old Persian was originally spoken by

SECTION 20

#1732780496262

1980-462: Is one of the key Iranian cultural heritage sites and a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1979. The earliest remains of Persepolis date back to 515 BC. The city, acting as a major center for the empire, housed a palace complex and citadel designed to serve as the focal point for governance and ceremonial activities. It exemplifies the Achaemenid style of architecture. The complex was taken by

2070-476: Is oriented southward. The Hadish Palace of Xerxes is one of palaces at Persepolis. It's located on the east of the Palace of H (Artaxerxes I). The palace occupies the highest level of terrace and stands on the living rock. The inscriptions of the palace attest that the building was built by order of Xerxes. It covers an area of 2550 square meters (40*55 meters). A double staircase on the west leads to courtyard of

2160-617: Is rendered in Elamite as Mirkānu- , rendering transcriptions such as V(a)rakāna , Varkāna or even Vurkāna questionable and making Vrkāna or Virkāna much more realistic (and equally for vrka- "wolf", Brdiya and other Old Persian words and names with syllabic /r/ ). While v usually became /v/ in Middle Persian, it became /b/ word-initially in New Persian, except before [u] (including

2250-480: Is still not entirely clear where the king's private quarters actually were. Until recently, most archaeologists held that it was primarily used for celebrating Nowruz , the Persian New Year, held at the spring equinox , which is still an important annual festivity in Iran. The Iranian nobility and the tributary parts of the empire came to present gifts to the king, as represented in the stairway reliefs. It

2340-590: The Median form *Ciθrafarnah ) = Tissaphernes suggests /t͡s/ as the pronunciation of ç (compare [1] and Kloekhorst 2008, p. 125 in [2] for this example, who, however, mistakenly writes Çiçafarnā , which contradicts the etymology [ PIIr. *Čitra-swarnas- ] and the Middle Persian form Čehrfar [ ç gives Middle Persian s ]). The phoneme /l/ does not occur in native Iranian vocabulary, only in borrowings from Akkadian (a new /l/ develops in Middle Persian from Old Persian /rd/ and

2430-583: The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago . They conducted excavations for eight seasons, beginning in 1930, and included other nearby sites. Herzfeld believed that the reasons behind the construction of Persepolis were the need for a majestic atmosphere, a symbol for the empire, and to celebrate special events, especially the Nowruz . For historical reasons, Persepolis was built where

2520-469: The 4th century BC, following his invasion of Iran in 330 BC, Alexander the Great allowed his troops to loot Persepolis. This palace was one of the few structures that escaped destruction in the burning of the complex by Alexander's army, and because of that, Tachara is the most intact building of Persepolis today. It is also the oldest structure at Persepolis. Tachara stands back to back to the Apadana , and

2610-412: The 72 original columns were still standing, due to either vandalism or natural processes. The Dutch traveler Cornelis de Bruijn visited Persepolis in 1704. The fruitful region was covered with villages until its frightful devastation in the 18th century; and even now it is, comparatively speaking, well cultivated. The Castle of Estakhr played a conspicuous part as a strong fortress, several times, during

2700-495: The Achaemenid dynasty was founded, although it was not the center of the empire at that time. Excavations of plaque fragments hint at a scene with a contest between Herakles and Apollo , dubbed A Greek painting at Persepolis . Persepolitan architecture is noted for its use of the Persian column , which was probably based on earlier wooden columns. The buildings at Persepolis include three general groupings: military quarters,

2790-708: The French. In 1930, Iran passed its first antiquities law, drafted by Godard, Herzfeld , and Pope, with amendments from Minister of Education Yahya Khan Gharagouzelou. Godard played a significant role in identifying buildings to be preserved as cultural heritage. During his tenure, Godard was responsible for the restoration of major historic monuments of Iran, such as the Friday Mosque , the Shah Mosque , and Mosque of Sheikh Lutfallah of Isfahan among others. Using his directorships, he organized large excavations of bronzes of Luristan , Persepolis and Isfahan . He

Persepolis - Misplaced Pages Continue

2880-617: The Great sent the main force of his army to Persepolis by the Royal Road . Diodorus Siculus writes that on his way to the city, Alexander and his army were met by 800 Greek artisans who had been captured by the Persians. Most were elderly and suffered some form of mutilation, such as a missing hand or foot. They explained to Alexander the Persians wanted to take advantage of their skills in the city but handicapped them so they could not easily escape. Alexander and his staff were disturbed by

2970-572: The Great , Xerxes , Artaxerxes II and Artaxerxes III . The relevant passages from ancient scholars on the subject are set out below: Persepolis was the capital of the Persian kingdom. Alexander described it to the Macedonians as the most hateful of the cities of Asia, and gave it over to his soldiers to plunder, all but the palaces. (2) It was the richest city under the sun, and the private houses had been furnished with every sort of wealth over

3060-406: The Great's army, inflicting heavy casualties. After being held off for 30 days, Alexander the Great outflanked and destroyed the defenders. Ariobarzanes himself was killed either during the battle or during the retreat to Persepolis. Some sources indicate that the Persians were betrayed by a captured tribal chief who showed the Macedonians an alternate path that allowed them to outflank Ariobarzanes in

3150-552: The Middle East in 1910 with Henri Violle. Together, they began to excavate the ancient ruins of Samarra , located in modern-day Iraq. The ruins were fully excavated a few years later by German-born archaeologist Ernst Herzfeld . Godard returned to his architectural studies in 1912, focusing on Islamic architecture of Egypt . After World War I, Godard married Yeda Reuilly. The Delegation of French Archaeology in Afghanistan

3240-673: The Muslim period. It was the middlemost and the highest of the three steep crags which rise from the valley of the Kur , at some distance to the west or northwest of the necropolis of Naqsh-e Rustam . The French voyagers Eugène Flandin and Pascal Coste are among the first to provide not only a literary review of the structure of Persepolis, but also to create some of the best and earliest visual depictions of its structure. In their publications in Paris, in 1881 and 1882, titled Voyages en Perse de MM. Eugene Flanin peintre et Pascal Coste architecte ,

3330-638: The Oriental Institute at the University of Chicago unearthed Old Persian tablets, which suggest Old Persian was a written language in use for practical recording and not only for royal display. As a written language , Old Persian is attested in royal Achaemenid inscriptions. It is an Iranian language and as such a member of the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family . The oldest known text written in Old Persian

3420-433: The Persian monarchy that might have become a focus for Persian resistance. Several much later Greek and Roman accounts (including Arrian , Diodorus Siculus and Quintus Curtius Rufus ) describe that the burning was the idea of Thaïs , mistress of Alexander's general Ptolemy I Soter , and possibly of Alexander himself. She is said to have suggested it during a very drunken celebration, according to some accounts to revenge

3510-635: The Tachara chateau and another staircase on the northeast connects to courtyard of the Council Hall. The Council Hall, the Tryplion Hall, the Palaces of D, G, H, storerooms, stables and quarters, the unfinished gateway and a few miscellaneous structures at Persepolis are located near the south-east corner of the terrace, at the foot of the mountain. It is commonly accepted that Cyrus the Great

3600-406: The abolition of the French monopoly in 1927, with Andre Godard appointed as director. The Iranian Parliament voted on April 29, 1928, and approved Godard's five-year contract starting November 18, 1928. Every five years, Parliament extended his contract, mandating monthly educational meetings with Iranian archaeologists and the publication of new archaeological discoveries. The IAS was intended to mark

3690-699: The annual magazine "The Journal of the Archaeological Service (Athare Iran)" in 1936. This publication featured French essays on Iran's art and architecture, later translated and released in Iran in 1989. In one essay, Godard praised Iranians for their innovative architectural techniques, expressing regret that Iran's structures weren't more enduring, as it could have been a global architectural museum. Another essay poignantly describes Godard's admiration for his simple house in Jamal Abad, highlighting its traditional Iranian architecture. Godard disputed

Persepolis - Misplaced Pages Continue

3780-474: The army of Alexander the Great in 330 BC, and soon after, its wooden parts were completely destroyed by fire, likely deliberately. The function of Persepolis remains unclear. It was not one of the largest cities in ancient Iran, let alone the rest of the empire, but appears to have been a grand ceremonial complex that was only occupied seasonally; the complex was raised high on a walled platform, with five "palaces" or halls of varying size, and grand entrances. It

3870-541: The authors provided some 350 ground breaking illustrations of Persepolis. French influence and interest in Persia's archaeological findings continued after the accession of Reza Shah , when André Godard became the first director of the archeological service of Iran. In the 1800s, a variety of amateur digging occurred at the site, in some cases on a large scale. The first scientific excavations at Persepolis were carried out by Ernst Herzfeld and Erich Schmidt representing

3960-471: The buildings were never finished. Behind the compound at Persepolis, there are three sepulchers hewn out of the rock in the hillside. The Gate of All Nations , referring to subjects of the empire, consisted of a grand hall that was a square of approximately 25 m (82 ft) in length, with four columns and its entrance on the Western Wall. Darius I built the greatest palace at Persepolis on

4050-459: The burning of the Acropolis of Athens during the second Persian invasion of Greece . Many historians argue that, while Alexander's army celebrated with a symposium , they decided to take revenge against the Persians. If that is so, then the destruction of Persepolis could be both an accident and a case of revenge. The fire may also have had the political purpose of destroying an iconic symbol of

4140-486: The change of /rθ/ to /hl/ ). The phoneme /r/ can also form a syllable peak; both the way Persian names with syllabic /r/ (such as Brdiya ) are rendered in Elamite and its further development in Middle Persian suggest that before the syllabic /r/ , an epenthetic vowel [i] had developed already in the Old Persian period, which later became [u] after labials. For example, Old Persian Vᵃ-rᵃ-kᵃ-a-nᵃ /wr̩kaːna/

4230-506: The consensus difficult are, among others, the difficult passage DB (IV lines 88–92) from Darius the Great who speaks of a new "form of writing" being made by himself which is said to be "in Aryan ": King Darius says: By the grace of Ahuramazda this is the inscription which I have made. Besides, it was in Aryan (" ariyâ ") script, and it was composed on clay tablets and on parchment. Besides,

4320-556: The construction of the Apadana and the Council Hall ( Tripylon or the "Triple Gate"), as well as the main imperial Treasury and its surroundings. These were completed during the reign of his son, Xerxes I . Further construction of the buildings on the terrace continued until the downfall of the Achaemenid Empire . According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, the Greek historian Ctesias mentioned that Darius I's grave

4410-487: The course of time. The lower city at the foot of the imperial city might have survived for a longer time; but the ruins of the Achaemenids remained as a witness to its ancient glory. The nearby Estakhr gained prominence as a separate city very shortly after the decline of Persepolis. It appears that much of Persepolis' rubble was used for the building of Istakhr. At the time of the Muslim invasion of Persia , Estakhr offered

4500-495: The design work, including the dissection hall, to Siroux. In 1935, the Ebne Sina Medical School became the first building to open, adorned with Nezami 's poems celebrating knowledge. Conservative clerics vehemently opposed the establishment of the medical school, particularly the construction of the dissection hall, but advocates like Hekmat ensured its realization. The sixth building at the University of Tehran

4590-521: The destruction of Greek sanctuaries (she was from Athens), and either she or Alexander himself set the fire going. The Book of Arda Wiraz , a Zoroastrian work composed in the 3rd or 4th century, describes Persepolis' archives as containing "all the Avesta and Zend , written upon prepared cow-skins, and with gold ink", which were destroyed. Indeed, in his Chronology of the Ancient Nations ,

SECTION 50

#1732780496262

4680-567: The director of the Iranian Archeological Service for many years. Godard was a graduate of the École des Beaux-Arts of Paris , he studied Middle Eastern archaeology, particularly that of Iran, and later became known for designing the National Museum of Iran , where he was appointed inaugural director in 1936. He was also instrumental in the design of the University of Tehran campus. He made his first trip to

4770-452: The drinking was far advanced, as they began to be drunken, a madness took possession of the minds of the intoxicated guests. (2) At this point, one of the women present, Thais by name and Attic by origin, said that for Alexander it would be the finest of all his feats in Asia if he joined them in a triumphal procession, set fire to the palaces, and permitted women's hands in a minute to extinguish

4860-408: The earliest remains of Persepolis date back to 515 BC. André Godard , the French archaeologist who excavated Persepolis in the early 1930s, believed that it was Cyrus the Great who chose the site of Persepolis, but that it was Darius I who built the terrace and the palaces. Inscriptions on these buildings support the belief that they were constructed by Darius. With Darius I, the sceptre passed to

4950-494: The early 19th century. Persepolis is derived from the Greek Περσέπολις , Persepolis , a compound of Pérsēs ( Πέρσης ) and pólis ( πόλις , together meaning "the Persian city" or "the city of the Persians"). To the ancient Persians, the city was known as Pārsa ( Old Persian : 𐎱𐎠𐎼𐎿 ), which is also the word for the region of Persia . An inscription left in 311 AD by Sasanian Prince Shapur Sakanshah ,

5040-500: The end of the French monopoly over excavation in Iran. Godard held the title of Director from 1928 to 1953, then again from 1956 to 1960. Reza Shah also appointed him director of the National Museum of Iran (Muze-ye Irân-e Bāstān). Ali Asghar Hekmat commissioned Godard to design the University of Tehran, which was to be situated in Jalaliyah Garden, spanning over 200,000 square meters. Initially, Godard delegated most of

5130-408: The epenthetic vowel mentioned above), where it became /ɡ/ . This suggests that it was really pronounced as [w] . Old Persian has 3 types of grammatical number: singular, dual and plural. Old Persian has three grammatical genders : masculine, feminine and neuter. In contrast, Modern Persian (as well as Middle Persian ) is a genderless language . Old Persian stems: Adjectives are declined in

5220-415: The eventual collapse of the upper part of the northern fortification wall, preserving the tablets until their recovery by the Oriental Institute 's archaeologists. In 316 BC, Persepolis was still the capital of Persia as a province of the great Macedonian Empire (see Diodorus Siculus xix, 21 seq., 46; probably after Hieronymus of Cardia , who was living about 326). The city must have gradually declined in

5310-442: The famed accomplishments of the Persians. (3) This was said to men who were still young and giddy with wine, and so, as would be expected, someone shouted out to form up and to light torches, and urged all to take vengeance for the destruction of the Greek temples . (4) Others took up the cry and said that this was a deed worthy of Alexander alone. When the king had caught fire at their words, all leaped up from their couches and passed

5400-826: The foundation of the Apadana Palace. Next to the Apadana, second largest building of the Terrace and the final edifices, is the Throne Hall or the Imperial Army's Hall of Honor (also called the Hundred-Columns Palace ). This 70 m × 70 m (750 sq ft × 750 sq ft) hall was started by Xerxes I and completed by his son Artaxerxes I by the end of the fifth century BC. Its eight stone doorways are decorated on

5490-540: The great king, king of kings, king of countries, son of Hystaspes, an Achaemenid. King Darius says: This is the kingdom which I hold, from the Sacae who are beyond Sogdia , to Kush , and from Sind ( Old Persian : 𐏃𐎡𐎭𐎢𐎺 , romanized:  Hidauv , locative of Hiduš , i.e. " Indus valley ") to Lydia ( Old Persian : Spardâ ) – [this is] what Ahuramazda, the greatest of gods, bestowed upon me. May Ahuramazda protect me and my royal house! The reliefs on

SECTION 60

#1732780496262

5580-444: The idea that Gothic architecture originated from Iranian architecture, a theory proposed by scholars like Marcel-Auguste Dieulafoy . He criticized Dieulafoy as a "romantic archaeologist" for attributing various elements, including Gothic architecture, to Iran. In another essay, Godard claimed that Iranians in the 14th century imitated groined vaults from Western architecture. However, Karim Pirnia countered this argument, asserting that

5670-507: The inscriptions, clay tablets and seals of the Achaemenid era ( c.  600 BCE to 300 BCE). Examples of Old Persian have been found in what is now Iran , Romania ( Gherla ), Armenia , Bahrain , Iraq , Turkey and Egypt , with the most important attestation by far being the contents of the Behistun Inscription (dated to 525 BCE). In 2007, research into the vast Persepolis Fortification Archive at

5760-407: The large family of Indo-European languages . The common ancestors of Indo-Iranians came from Central Asia sometime in the first half of the 2nd millennium BCE . The extinct and unattested Median language is another Old Iranian language related to Old Persian; both are classified as Western Iranian languages , and many Median names appear in Old Persian texts. The group of Old Iranian languages

5850-596: The native Iranian writer Biruni indicates unavailability of certain native Iranian historiographical sources in the post-Achaemenid era, especially during the Parthian Empire . He adds: "[Alexander] burned the whole of Persepolis as revenge to the Persians, because it seems the Persian King Xerxes had burnt the Greek City of Athens around 150 years ago. People say that, even at the present time,

5940-492: The nearby civilisation of Mesopotamia . Despite the fact that Old Persian was written in cuneiform script, the script was not a direct continuation of Mesopotamian tradition and in fact, according to Schmitt, was a "deliberate creation of the sixth century BCE". The origin of the Old Persian cuneiform script and the identification of the date and process of introduction are a matter of debate among Iranian scholars with no general agreement having been reached. The factors making

6030-565: The older word *pārćwa . Also, as Old Persian contains many words from another extinct Iranian language, Median , according to P. O. Skjærvø it is probable that Old Persian had already been spoken before the formation of the Achaemenid Empire and was spoken during most of the first half of the first millennium BCE. Old Persian belongs to the Iranian language family , a branch of the Indo-Iranian language family, itself within

6120-636: The origins of pointed arches in Iran can be traced back to ancient buildings like the Elamid and Medes temples. Pirnia argued that the Iranian architectural system predated Gothic architecture. David Williamson, the American Charge d'affaires in Iran, described Godard as possessing exceptional talent and tact, making a favorable impression on both Iranian and foreign societies in Tehran. However, Arthur Pope , an American archaeologist, viewed Godard as

6210-405: The others all did the same, immediately the entire palace area was consumed, so great was the conflagration. It was most remarkable that the impious act of Xerxes, king of the Persians, against the acropolis at Athens should have been repaid in kind after many years by one woman, a citizen of the land which had suffered it, and in sport. Old Persian language Old Persian appears primarily in

6300-472: The ruins of Persepolis was published as part of his Relaçam in 1611. In 1618, García de Silva Figueroa , King Philip III of Spain 's ambassador to the court of Abbas I , the Safavid monarch, was the first Western traveler to link the site known in Iran as "Chehel Minar" as the site known from Classical authors as Persepolis. Pietro Della Valle visited Persepolis in 1621, and noticed that only 25 of

6390-401: The son of Hormizd II , refers to the site as Sad-stūn , meaning "Hundred Pillars". Because medieval Persians attributed the site to Jamshid , a king from Iranian mythology , it has been referred to as Takht-e-Jamshid ( Persian : تخت جمشید , Taxt e Jamšīd ; [ˌtæxtedʒæmˈʃiːd] ), literally meaning "Throne of Jamshid". Another name given to the site in the medieval period

6480-591: The south and north with reliefs of throne scenes and on the east and west with scenes depicting the king in combat with monsters. Two colossal stone bulls flank the northern portico. The head of one of the bulls now resides in the Oriental Institute in Chicago and a column base from one of the columns in the British Museum . At the beginning of the reign of Xerxes I, the Throne Hall was used mainly for receptions for military commanders and representatives of all

6570-540: The staircases allow one to observe the people from across the empire in their traditional dress, and even the king himself, "down to the smallest detail". The Apadana hoard is a hoard of coins that were discovered under the stone boxes containing the foundation tablets of the Apadana Palace in Persepolis. The coins were discovered in excavations in 1933 by Erich Schmidt , in two deposits, each deposit under

6660-497: The story and provided the artisans with clothing and provisions before continuing on to Persepolis. Diodorus does not cite this as a reason for the destruction of Persepolis, but it is possible Alexander started to see the city in a negative light after this encounter. Upon reaching the city, Alexander stormed the Persian Gates , a pass through Zagros Mountains . There Ariobarzanes of Persis successfully ambushed Alexander

6750-423: The subject nations of the empire. Later, the Throne Hall served as an imperial museum. Tachara , was the exclusive palace of Darius the Great at Persepolis. Only a small portion of the palace was finished under his rule, it was completed after the death of Darius in 486 BC, by his son and successor, Xerxes , who called it a Taçara, which means "winter palace" in Old Persian. It was then used by Artaxerxes I . In

6840-483: The tomb, showcasing the site's evolution over time while introducing innovative elements. Drawing inspiration from historic monumental tombs in gardens and Zand architecture in Shiraz, Godard consciously adopted the circular plan and domed columned space characteristic of Iranian tomb towers, which he extensively discussed in his writings and lectures. Construction of the tomb, overseen by Ali Sami , commenced in 1938 and

6930-604: The traces of fire are visible in some places." On the upside, the fire that destroyed those texts may have preserved the Persepolis Administrative Archives by preventing them from being lost over time to natural and man-made events. According to archaeological evidence, the partial burning of Persepolis did not damage what are now referred to as the Persepolis Fortification Archive tablets, but rather may have caused

7020-1141: The treasury, and the reception halls and occasional houses for the King. Noted structures include the Great Stairway, the Gate of All Nations , the Apadana , the Hall of a Hundred Columns, the Tripylon Hall and the Tachara , the Hadish Palace, the Palace of Artaxerxes III , the Imperial Treasury, the Royal Stables, and the Chariot House. Ruins of a number of colossal buildings exist on the terrace. All are constructed of dark-grey marble. Fifteen of their pillars stand intact. Three more pillars have been re-erected since 1970. Several of

7110-543: The two deposition boxes that were found. The deposition of this hoard is dated to c.  515 BC . The coins consisted in eight gold lightweight Croeseids , a tetradrachm of Abdera , a stater of Aegina and three double- sigloi from Cyprus . The Croeseids were found in very fresh condition, confirming that they had been recently minted under Achaemenid rule. The deposit did not have any Darics and Sigloi , which also suggests strongly that these coins typical of Achaemenid coinage only started to be minted later, after

7200-573: The western side of platform. This palace was called the Apadana . The King of Kings used it for official audiences. Foundation tablets of gold and silver were found in two deposition boxes in the foundations of the Palace. They contained an inscription by Darius in Old Persian cuneiform , which describes the extent of his Empire in broad geographical terms, and is known as the DPh inscription: Darius

7290-401: The word along to form a victory procession [epinikion komon] in honor of Dionysius. (5) Promptly, many torches were gathered. Female musicians were present at the banquet, so the king led them all out for the komos to the sound of voices and flutes and pipes, Thais the courtesan leading the whole performance. (6) She was the first, after the king, to hurl her blazing torch into the palace. As

7380-411: The years. The Macedonians raced into it, slaughtering all the men whom they met and plundering the residences; many of the houses belonged to the common people and were abundantly supplied with furniture and wearing apparel of every kind... 72 (1) Alexander held games in honor of his victories. He performed costly sacrifices to the gods and entertained his friends bountifully. While they were feasting and

7470-590: Was Čehel Menâr ( Persian : چهل منار , "Forty Minarets "), transcribed as Chilminara in De Silva Figueroa and as Chilminar in early English sources. Persepolis is near the small river Pulvar, which flows into the Kur River . The site includes a 125,000 m (1,350,000 sq ft) terrace, partly artificially constructed and partly cut out of a mountain, with its east side leaning on Rahmat Mountain . Archaeological evidence shows that

7560-592: Was also instrumental, together with fellow architect Maxime Siroux , in the design of the National Library of Iran , Tomb of Hafez , and Central Pardis , the main campus of the University of Tehran. Godard's architectural creation, the Tomb of Hafez (known as Hafeziyeh) in Shiraz , was nestled in an ancient cemetery within a building complex. He took great care to preserve the historical structures surrounding

7650-539: Was buried in the Tomb of Cyrus in Pasargadae , which is mentioned by Ctesias as his own city. If it is true that the body of Cambyses II was brought home "to the Persians," his burying place must be somewhere beside that of his father. Ctesias assumes that it was the custom for a king to prepare his own tomb during his lifetime. Hence, the kings buried at Naghsh-e Rostam are probably Darius I , Xerxes I , Artaxerxes I and Darius II . Xerxes II , who reigned for

7740-516: Was finalized in 1940. There are accusations against Andre Godard regarding the smuggling of art objects out of Iran. While he was known as an enthusiastic collector of Iranian art and artifacts, the sources of these objects and whether he had the right to sell them remain uncertain. Records indicate that Godard sold Iranian artifacts to the Louvre Museum in 1931, including 160 ancient Iranian bronze objects for 92,800 Francs. Mohsen Moghaddam,

7830-661: Was for the Faculty of Fine Arts, designed by Godard. Godard served as the Honorary Dean of the faculty, overseeing key decisions and faculty appointments, although he did not engage in active teaching. Andre Godard's sole publication, "The Art of Iran," categorizes Iranian artworks and architecture by dynasties, spanning from ancient to Islamic periods. Additionally, as the head of Iran's archaeological service, he, along with colleagues including his wife Yedda Godard, Maxime Siroux , and numerous Iranian scholars, began publishing

7920-423: Was in a cliff face that could be reached with an apparatus of ropes. Around 519 BC, construction of a broad stairway was begun. Grey limestone was the main building material used at Persepolis. The uneven plan of the terrace, including the foundation, acted like a castle, whose angled walls enabled its defenders to target any section of the external front. After invading Achaemenid Persia in 330 BC, Alexander

8010-439: Was presumably large; however, knowledge of it is restricted mainly to Old Persian, Avestan , and Median. The first two are the only languages in that group to have left written original texts, while Median is known mostly from loanwords in Old Persian. By the 4th century BCE, the late Achaemenid period , the inscriptions of Artaxerxes II and Artaxerxes III differ enough from the language of Darius' inscriptions to be called

8100-594: Was subsequently founded in 1922, so Godard and his new wife accompanied the organization to not-yet-excavated regions. They consequently studied Bâmiyân, which was later permitted to be exhibited at the central Buddhist shrine of the Guimet Museum , in 1925. In 1895, the Qajar government permitted France to excavate in Iran. Five years later, they granted France exclusive rights for all archaeological excavations in Iran indefinitely. In 1923, Reza Khan visited Susa ,

#261738