68-665: Perth Water is a section of the Swan River on the southern edge of the central business district of Perth , Western Australia. It is between the Causeway to the east, and Narrows Bridge to the west – a large wide but shallow section of river, and the northern edge of the suburb South Perth . It is considered a landmark of the City of Perth . Historically it was much larger in size. The shorelines have been regularly changed. Considerable reclamation has taken place on both sides of
136-518: A book for the 150th anniversary of Western Australia in 1979 that included photographs showing the degradation of the space over time. In the 1950–1951 Lord Mayor's report for the City of Perth an early map of Perth from 1838 was reproduced. In 1989, the Department of Aboriginal Sites published a book with a reproduction of a 1909 cancelled plan of Perth that shows place names: This body of water
204-581: A dialect of, or closely related to, Wudjari, in which case their language would have been part of the Noongar subgroup. Njakinjaki (Nyakinyaki) was possibly a dialect of Kalaamaya – a language related to, but separate from, the original Noongar subgroup. It is not clear if the Njunga (or Nunga) dialect was significantly different from Wudjari. However, according to Norman Tindale , the Njunga people rejected
272-580: A maximum tidal amplitude of about 1 metre (3 ft 3 in), although water levels are also subject to barometric pressure fluctuations. Before the Tertiary , when the sea level was much lower than at present, the Swan River curved around to the north of Rottnest Island , and disgorged itself into the Indian Ocean slightly to the north and west of Rottnest. In doing so, it carved a gorge about
340-541: A protruding spit that extends up to 800 metres (2,600 ft) into the river, forcing river traffic to detour around it. The river narrows between Chidley Point and Blackwall Reach, curving around Point Roe and Preston Point before narrowing into the harbour. Stirling Bridge and the Fremantle Traffic Bridge cross the river north of the rivermouth. The Swan River empties into the Indian Ocean at Fremantle Harbour. Plant and animal life found in or near
408-573: A variety of the language by Clive Humphreys of Kellerberrin , and is teaching Noongar to inmates in Perth prisons. Peter Bindon and Ross Chadwick have compiled an authoritative cross referenced "A Nyoongar Wordlist: from the South West of Western Australia", by assembling material from all of the above writers in their original spelling. It is clear from this reference that the orthographies used reflected not only dialectical differences, but also how
476-425: A year after the establishment of the colony, the river rose 6 metres (20 ft) above its normal level. New settlers were still arriving in steady numbers and few permanent buildings had been constructed, with most living in tents and other temporary accommodation. These included caves along the river's edge and many found their belongings washed away and livestock drowned. Other abnormal flooding events occurred in
544-420: Is also known as Derbarl Yerrigan, a name which has since been adopted for the whole of the Swan River. In the Noongar language, Derbarl refers to the estuary water and Yerrigan is "rising up". The earlier shore line of Perth Water can be identified by the line made by Mounts Bay Road, and its extension to The Esplanade. From some earlier photographs and images made from Kings Park it is possible to ascertain
612-462: Is also true for intensified or emphatic adjectives, comparable to the English word very . The superlative is formed by the addition of - jil . Statements are negated by adding the appropriate particle to the end of the sentence. There are three negation particles: There is also an adverbial negation word, bru , roughly equivalent to the English less or without . Questions are formed by
680-551: Is an Australian Aboriginal language or dialect continuum , spoken by some members of the Noongar community and others. It is taught actively in Australia, including at schools, universities and through public broadcasting. The country of the Noongar people is the southwest corner of Western Australia . Within that region, many Noongar words have been adopted into English, particularly names of plants and animals. Noongar
748-457: Is because in the Noongar language, -up means "place of". For example, the name Ongerup means "place of the male kangaroo". The word gur , ger or ker in Noongar meant "a gathering". Daisy Bates suggests that central to Noongar culture was the karlupgur , referring to those that gather around the hearth ( karlup ). Noongar words which have been adopted into Western Australian English , or more widely in English , include
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#1732802105805816-512: Is continuing as of April 2021 , with the site growing in the Wikimedia Incubator . It is the first Misplaced Pages in an Aboriginal Australian language site, but it is intended to be bilingual , so as to be used as a teaching aid in schools. Singer-songwriter Gina Williams has promoted the use of the language through song, including lullabies for children and a translation of the song " Moon River ". An adaption and translation of
884-486: Is equivalent to the edge of Mounts Bay Road . The whole Perth Convention and Exhibition Centre lies on the river side of the former river bank. In 2006, the last race in the Red Bull Air Race World Series was the first held in Australia, and was held in Perth, with the competition being centred over Perth Water. It has been the annual site of Australia Day fireworks , with crowds lining
952-598: Is located on the edge of the Darling Scarp, flowing downhill across the coastal plain to its mouth at Fremantle. The Swan begins as the Avon River, rising near Yealering in the Darling Range , approximately 175 kilometres (109 mi) from its mouth at Fremantle. The Avon flows north, passing through the towns of Brookton , Beverley , York , Northam and Toodyay . It is joined by tributaries including
1020-796: The Avon River , Canning River and Helena River . The latter two have dams ( Canning Dam and Mundaring Weir ) which provide a sizeable part of the potable water requirements for Perth and the surrounding regions. The Avon River contributes the majority of the freshwater flow. The climate of the catchment is Mediterranean, with mild wet winters, hot dry summers, and the associated highly seasonal rainfall and flow regime. The Avon rises near Yealering , 221 kilometres (137 mi) southeast of Perth: it meanders north-northwest to Toodyay about 90 kilometres (56 mi) northeast of Perth, then turns southwest in Walyunga National Park – at
1088-844: The Dale River , the Mortlock River and the Brockman River. The Avon becomes the Swan as Wooroloo Brook enters the river near Walyunga National Park. More tributaries including Ellen Brook , Jane Brook , Henley Brook, Wandoo Creek, Bennett Brook , Blackadder Creek, Limestone Creek, Susannah Brook, and the Helena River enter the river between Wooroloo Brook and Guildford ; however, most of these have either dried up or become seasonally flowing due to human impacts such as land clearing and development. Between Perth and Guildford
1156-862: The Languages Other Than English (LOTE) curriculum which would be taught in schools, it was decided to change to "Noongar". By 2010, 37 schools in the South West and Perth were teaching the language. In 2014, the Noongar Boodjar Language Cultural Aboriginal Corporation (NBLCAC) was incorporated, and the Commonwealth Government provided funding for four years from 2015 under the Indigenous Languages Support program to establish
1224-775: The Shakespearean tragedy Macbeth into Noongar was performed at the 2020 Perth Festival . The play, named Hecate , is produced by Yirra Yaakin Theatre Company with Bell Shakespeare , and performed by an all-Noongar cast. The play took years to translate, and has sparked wider interest in reviving the language. On July 2022, rock band King Gizzard & the Lizard Wizard released a special edition of their album Butterfly 3000 with all its 10 songs translated into Noongar by Merinda Hansen and Lois Spehn-Jackson; all proceedings of this edition are donated to
1292-601: The 1930s and then more intensively in the 1960s Wilfrid Douglas learnt and studied Noongar, eventually producing a grammar, dictionary, and other materials. More recently, Noongar people have taken a major role in this work as researchers, for example Rose Whitehurst who compiled the Noongar Dictionary in her work for the Noongar Language and Culture Centre. In 2012 Tim McCabe finished a PhD on Noongar place names, songs and stories, having been taught
1360-473: The Bayswater – Bassendean area. Remedial sites works are still ongoing in these areas to remove the toxins left to leach into the river. During the summer months there are problems with algal blooms killing fish and caused by nutrient run-off from farming activities as well as the use of fertilisers in the catchment areas. The occasional accidental spillage of sewage and chemicals has also caused sections of
1428-538: The Langford Aboriginal Association. Several mobile apps have been created that use Noongar language, both written and spoken. These include a plant identification app, dictionary, and cultural information. The following are the sounds in the Noongar language: /r/ can be heard as either [r, ɾ] or a glide [ɹ]. Noongar grammar is fairly typical of Pama–Nyungan languages in that it is agglutinating , with words and phrases formed by
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#17328021058051496-626: The Language in Common Use Amongst the Aborigines of Western Australia by George Fletcher Moore , later republished in 1884 as part of Moore's diary . This work included a substantial wordlist of Noongar. The first modern linguistic research on Noongar was carried out by Gerhardt Laves on the variety known as "Koreng", near Albany in 1930, but this material was lost for many years and has only recently been recovered. Beginning in
1564-697: The Noongar Language Centre. The offices are located in Cannington . In 2015 Professor Len Collard from the School of Indigenous Studies at the University of Western Australia challenged the science behind the claim that it is an endangered language, citing the lack of rigour in the data. Collard began leading a project to create the " Noongarpedia ", recording the language in a wiki format, allowing for expansion over time. The project
1632-400: The Noongar subgroup: Wudjari, Minang, Bibelman (a.k.a. Pibelman; Bibbulman), Kaneang (Kaniyang), Wardandi, Balardung (a.k.a. Ballardong; which probably included Tjapanmay/Djabanmai), and Yuat (Juat). Wiilman, Whadjuk (Wajuk) and Pinjarup are also usually regarded as dialects of Noongar, although this identification is not completely secure. The Koreng (Goreng) people are thought to have spoken
1700-470: The South Perth to Perth ferry channel clear; such maintenance is an ongoing issue. 31°57′58″S 115°51′43″E / 31.966186°S 115.861869°E / -31.966186; 115.861869 ( Perth Water ) Swan River (Western Australia) The Swan River ( Nyungar : Derbarl Yerrigan ) is a major river in the southwest of Western Australia. The river runs through
1768-563: The Swan River. These are (from Fremantle, heading upstream ): The earliest club was the West Australian Rowing Club . The Swan River Rowing Club started in 1887. The Fremantle Rowing Club had started by the 1890s. There are currently fifteen yacht clubs along the Swan River, with most on Melville Water , Freshwater Bay and Matilda Bay . Royal Perth Yacht Club , on Pelican Point in Matilda Bay , staged
1836-482: The Swan-Canning Estuary include: The river was named Swarte Swaene-Revier by Dutch explorer, Willem de Vlamingh in 1697, after the famous black swans of the area. Vlamingh sailed with a small party up the river to around Heirisson Island . A French expedition under Nicholas Baudin also sailed up the river in 1801. Governor Stirling's intention was that the name "Swan River" refer only to
1904-751: The Trust have been absorbed by the subsequent Western Australian Environmental protection authorities, the most recent change being in 2017, to the Department of Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions . In the earliest days of the Swan River Settlement, the river was used as the main transport route between Perth and Fremantle. This continued until the establishment of the Government rail system between Fremantle and Guildford via Perth. There are currently 22 road and railway bridges crossing
1972-414: The addition of affixes to verb and noun stems. Word order in Noongar is free, but generally tends to follow a subject–object–verb pattern. Because there are several varieties of Noongar, aspects of grammar, syntax and orthography are highly regionally variable. Like most Australian languages, Noongar has a complex tense and aspect system. The plain verb stem functions as both the infinitive and
2040-475: The addition of suffixes. Nouns that end in vowels take the plural suffix - man , whereas nouns that end in consonants take - gar . Inanimate nouns, that is, nouns that do not denote human beings, can also be pluralized by the simple addition of a numeral. Noongar pronouns are declined exactly as nouns, taking the same endings. Thus, possessive pronouns are formed by the addition of the regular genitive suffix - ang . Conversely, object pronouns are formed by
2108-589: The addition of the - any suffix. Notably, there does not appear to be a great deal of pronominal variation across dialectal lines. Noongar features a set of dual number pronouns which identify interpersonal relationships based on kinship or marriage. The "fraternal" dual pronouns are used by and for people who are siblings or close friends, "paternal" dual pronouns are used by and for people who are paternal relatives (parent-child, uncle-niece and so forth), and "marital" pronouns are used by and for people who are married to each other or are in-laws. Typically, if
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2176-596: The addition of the interrogative interjection kannah alongside the infinitive root of the verb. Many words vary in a regular way from dialect to dialect, depending on the area. For example: the words for bandicoot include quernt (south) and quenda (west); the word for water may be käip (south) or kapi (west), or the word for fire may vary from kaall to karl . A large number of modern place names in Western Australia end in -up , such as Joondalup , Nannup and Manjimup . This
2244-481: The broader parts of the Swan River ... Parts of the river required dredging with the material dumped onto the mud flats to raise the adjoining land. An exceptionally wet winter in 1862 saw major flooding throughout the area – the effect of which was exacerbated by the extent of the reclaimed lands. The first bucket dredge in Western Australia was the Black Swan , used between 1872 and 1911 for dredging channels in
2312-647: The city and South Perth, is separated from the main estuary by the Narrows, over which the Narrows Bridge was built in 1959. The river then opens up into the large expanse of the river known as Melville Water. The Canning River enters the river at Canning Bridge in Applecross from its source 50 kilometres (31 mi) south-east of Armadale . The river is at its widest here, measuring more than 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) from north to south. Point Walter has
2380-479: The confluence of the Wooroloo Brook, it becomes the Swan River. The Canning River rises from North Bannister , 100 kilometres (62 mi) southeast of Perth and joins the Swan at Applecross , opening into Melville Water . The river then narrows into Blackwall Reach , a narrow and deep stretch leading the river through Fremantle Harbour to the sea . The estuary is subject to a microtidal regime, with
2448-476: The earlier river-edges, or banks, from tree lines. The photo here is of the part of the river that was filled in to accommodate the Narrows Bridge works. The main route for deep draught boats to navigate Perth Water is from the Narrows Bridge to Barrack Street Jetty , then following a channel close to the north shore parallel to Riverside Drive. The channel was dredged from as early as 1908 to keep
2516-412: The event of the verb took place. There are no articles in Noongar. Nouns (as well as adjectives) take a variety of suffixes which indicate grammatical case , specifically relating to motion or direction, among other distinctions. The direct object of a sentence (what might be called the dative) can also be expressed with the locative suffix - ak . Grammatical number is likewise expressed by
2584-414: The language. Educators Glenys Collard and Rose Whitehurst started recording elders speaking using Noongar language in 1990. In 1997 at a meeting of around 200 Noongar people at Marribank , a standard orthography was agreed on for teaching the language in schools. A unanimous vote decided that the language would be spelt "Nyoongar", but later, as teaching and learning resources were being developed for
2652-485: The languages of the Noongar people and came to the conclusion that there was much in common between them. Just prior to publication, he received from Mr Bussel of the Busselton district a list of 320 words from that region which was near identical to those he had collected in the Swan River region. Much to Grey's disappointment, his work was published in an unfinished list as he was leaving the colony, but he believed that
2720-568: The lawns and open space along the foreshores. A good view for these activities has been from Kings Park due to its elevation and position looking across the Perth Water area. Post-cards, calendar images, posters and photographs from most decades of the twentieth century exist, that show the view from the Park looking across Perth Water to the city. Since the establishment of Perth, there have been either jetties or landing and mooring facilities at
2788-582: The location of Barrack Square at the jetty . The long running Transperth ferry service travels between Perth and the Mends Street Jetty in South Perth . Commercial companies also use the jetties for trips to Rottnest via Fremantle , and Swan River wine and leisure cruises. Ferry companies at the terminal have improved re-fuelling techniques to reduce the amount of oil pollution in Perth Water. The West Australian newspaper produced
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2856-406: The map shown here may correspond to the Noongar subgroup. The subdivisions shown correspond to individual varieties . In modern Noongar, these varieties have merged. There is controversy in some cases as to whether all of these varieties were part of the original Noongar subgroup. Some may have been distinct languages and some may have belonged to neighbouring subgroups. Many linguists believe that
2924-506: The metropolitan area of Perth , Western Australia's capital and largest city. The Swan River estuary flows through the city of Perth . Its lower reaches are relatively wide and deep, with few constrictions, while the upper reaches are usually quite narrow and shallow. The Swan River drains the Avon and coastal plain catchments , which have a total area of about 121,000 square kilometres (47,000 sq mi). It has three major tributaries,
2992-564: The modern Noongar language following colonisation. A 1990 conference organised by the Nyoongar Language Project Advisory Panel recognised that the Noongar subgroup included at least three distinct languages. This was highlighted by the 2011 Noongar Dictionary , edited by Bernard Rooney, which was based on the Yuat (Juat) variety, from the northwest part of the Noongar subgroup area. The highlighted area of
3060-554: The name Wudjari and had adopted some of the customs of their non-Noongar-speaking eastern neighbours, the Ngadjunmaya . The Noongar names for birds were included in Serventy and Whittell 's Birds of Western Australia (1948), noting their regional variations. A later review and synthesis of recorded names and consultation with Noongars produced a list of recommended orthography and pronunciation for birds (2009) occurring in
3128-528: The northernmost language shown, Amangu, was not part of the Noongar subgroup, was instead a part of the Kartu subgroup , and may have been a dialect of the Kartu language Nhanda . (As such, Amangu may have been synonymous with a dialect known as Nhanhagardi, which has also been classified, at different times, as a part of Nhanda, Noongar, or Widi .) There is a general consensus that the following varieties belong to
3196-404: The present tense. Verb phrases are formed by adding suffixes or adverbs to the verb stem. The following adverbs are used to indicate grammatical tense or aspect . Some tense/aspect distinctions are indicated by use of a verb suffix. In Noongar, the past or preterite tense is the same as the past participle. A few adverbs are used with the past tense to indicate the amount of time since
3264-411: The publication would assist in communication between settlers and Noongar people. Also noted by Grey was that the Noongar language had no soft ⟨c⟩ sound, there was no use of ⟨f⟩ and that ⟨h⟩ was very rarely used and never at the start of a word. Serious documentation of the Noongar language began in 1842 with the publication of A Descriptive Vocabulary of
3332-589: The region. The author, Ian Abbott, also published these recommendations for plants (1983) and mammals (2001), and proposed that these replace other vernacular in common use. A number of small wordlists were recorded in the early days of the Swan River Colony , for example Robert Menli Lyon 's 1833 publication A Glance at the Manners and Language of Aboriginal Inhabitants of Western Australia . Lyon acquired much of his information from Yagan while Yagan
3400-425: The river or south of the river distinctions in the Perth metropolitan region over time, especially in the time up to the completion of the Causeway and Narrows bridges, due to the time and distances to cross the river. The river was the site of the City of Perth Skyworks , a fireworks show held each year on Australia Day from 1985 until 2022, with spectators crowding the foreshore, Kings Park , and on boats on
3468-562: The river goes through several loops. Originally, areas including the Maylands Peninsula, Ascot and Burswood , through Claise Brook and north of the city to Herdsman Lake were swampy wetlands. Most of the wetlands have since been reclaimed for land development. Heirisson Island , upon which The Causeway passes over, was once a collection of small islets known as the Heirisson Islands. Perth Water , between
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#17328021058053536-515: The river to be closed to human access. The river has survived all this and is in relatively good condition considering on-going threats to its ecology. In 2010 the Western Australian government imposed restrictions on phosphorus levels in fertilisers due to concerns about the health of the Swan and Canning river system. Data collection of flood events in the estuary has been performed since European arrival in 1829. In July 1830, barely
3604-476: The river to watch the event. The Noongar people believe that the Darling Scarp represents the body of a Wagyl (also spelt Waugal) – a snakelike being from Dreamtime that meandered over the land creating rivers, waterways and lakes. It is thought that the Wagyl/Waugal created the Swan River. Nyungar language Noongar ( / ˈ n ʊ ŋ ɑːr / ; also Nyungar / ˈ n j ʊ ŋ ɡ ɑːr / )
3672-536: The river, as well as reclamation. A number of features of the river, particularly around the city, have reshaped its profile since European settlement in 1829: The river has been used for the disposal all kinds of waste. Even well into the 1970s, various local councils had rubbish tips on the mud flats along the edge of the river. Heavy industry also contributed its share of waste into the river from wool scouring plants in Fremantle to fertiliser and foundries sited in
3740-546: The river. For example, in 1879, landfill of Perth Water was used to create The Esplanade . For the construction of the Narrows Bridge and its approaches, considerable amounts of the north west section of Perth Water were reclaimed. In the early days of the settlement of Perth the north west section between Mount Eliza and the city had been named Mounts Bay, and the road along the shore became known as Mounts Bay Road. The subsequent reclamation effectively removed what has been known as Mounts Bay. The former river bank in that area
3808-589: The size of the Grand Canyon . Now known as Perth Canyon , this feature still exists as a submarine canyon near the edge of the continental shelf . The Swan River drains the Swan Coastal Plain, a total catchment area of over 100,000 square kilometres (39,000 sq mi) in area. The river is located in a Mediterranean climate, with hot dry summers and cool wet winters, although this balance appears to be changing due to climate change. The Swan
3876-687: The south west of Western Australia . As of 2022 it is one of the 24 Aboriginal languages being taught at 68 schools in Western Australia to around 10,000 students. Curtin University offers an open online Noongar language and culture course. The Noongar Language and Culture Centre was set up at the Bunbury Aboriginal Progress Association in 1986, and grew to include offices in Northam and Perth. Authors such as Charmaine Bennell have released several books in
3944-506: The subject of a sentence is not qualified by a numeral or adjective, a subject-marker pronoun is used. Thus: yongka baal boyak yaakiny (lit. "kangaroo it on-rock standing"), "the kangaroo is standing on the rock." Adjectives precede nouns. Some adjectives form the comparative by addition of the suffix - jin but more generally the comparative is formed by reduplication , a common feature in Pama-Nyungan languages. The same
4012-653: The unsuccessful 1987 America's Cup defence, the first time in 132 years it had been held outside of the United States. Royal Perth Yacht Club and the Royal Freshwater Bay Yacht Club are the only two clubs to be granted a royal charter . There are also many anchorages and marinas along the lower reaches near Fremantle . The river is a significant part of Perth culture, with many water sports such as rowing, sailing, and swimming all occurring in its waters. There have been some north of
4080-544: The various authors "heard" and transcribed spoken Noongar. An English dialect with Noongar admixture , known as Neo-Nyungar , is the community dialect of the Nyungar people. On the 2016 census , 443 people identified themselves as speaking Noongar at home. Since the late 20th century, there has been increased interest in reviving the Noongar/Nyungar language, including teaching it at many schools throughout
4148-560: The washing away of the Upper Swan Bridge and a section of the Fremantle Railway Bridge. The Fremantle bridge partially collapsed on 22 July 1926, five minutes after a train containing schoolchildren had passed over. No one was injured in the collapse; however, it created major disruption to commerce for several months. Repairs were completed and the bridge reopened on 12 October 1926. The Swan River Trust
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#17328021058054216-467: The water owing to the force of the incoming seas at the mouth of the river presented a scene of a great lake, all the jetties were submerged, the high roads to Fremantle covered, and passage traffic rendered impossible quantities of sandalwood lying along the banks of river were washed away, and the inhabitants of the suburban villas on the slopes of Mount Eliza obliged to scramble up the hill sides to get into Perth. The flood of July 1926 (ARI=30) resulted in
4284-465: The watercourse upstream of the Heirisson Islands. All of the rest, including Perth Water, he considered estuarine and which he referred to as "Melville Water". The Government notice dated 27 July 1829 stated "... the first stone will be laid of a new town to be called 'Perth', near the entrance to the estuary of the Swan River." Almost immediately after the Town of Perth was established, a systematic effort
4352-704: The winters of 1847 and 1860, while the most recent flooding occurred in 2017. Later events have since been assessed for probability of recurrence: The largest recorded flood event was in July 1872 which had a calculated ARI of 100. This approximately equates to a 100-year flood event. At the Helena River, the 1872 flood level was 690 millimetres (2 ft 3 in) higher than the 1862 event (ARI=60). An account in The Perth Gazette and Western Australian Journal on 26 July 1872 reported In and about Perth,
4420-621: Was a state government body, within the ambit of the Department of Environment and Conservation (Western Australia) – that was constituted in 1989 after legislation passed the previous year, that reports to the Minister for the Environment. It brings together eight representatives from the community, State and local government authorities with an interest in the Swan and Canning rivers to form a single body responsible for planning, protecting and managing Perth's river system. The functions of
4488-405: Was first recorded in 1801 by Matthew Flinders , who made a number of word lists. It is generally agreed that there was no single, standard Noongar (or Nyungar) language before European settlement: it was a subgroup (or possibly a dialect continuum ) of closely related languages, whose speakers were differentiated geographically and, in some cases, by cultural practices. The dialects merged into
4556-428: Was incarcerated on Carnac Island . Despite the significance of Lyon's work in being the first of its kind, George Fletcher Moore described Lyon's work as "containing many inaccuracies and much that was fanciful". During August and October 1839 the Perth Gazette published Vocabulary of the Aboriginal people of Western Australia , written by Lieutenant Grey of HM 83rd Regiment. Grey spent twelve months studying
4624-410: Was underway to reshape the river. This was done for many reasons: Perth streets were often sandy bogs which caused Governor James Stirling in 1837 to report to the Secretary of State for Colonies: At the present time it can scarcely be said that any roads exist, although certain lines of communication have been improved by clearing them of timber and by bridging streams and by establishing ferries in
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