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34-663: The name is derived from the common affiliation to the geologic area of the Phlegraean Fields . It consists of the islands of Ischia , Procida , Vivara , and Nisida . They are part of the Campanian volcanic arc and Campanian Archipelago (Neapolitan Archipelago), off the coast of Naples in the Tyrrhenian Sea . The archipelago is within the Metropolitan City of Naples . The island of Capri

68-429: A Scientific American article the shallow magma model, magma is pushing to break through the surface, making an explosive eruption with magma flow likely. In what has been termed the hot fluids model, steam and hot gases generated deeper underground are the cause. In this case activity could stop abruptly, or lead to a phreatic eruption of hot liquids, gases and rock fragments, rather than lava. While very dangerous, it

102-490: A solfatara (from old Italian solfo , "sulfur" ). Acid-sulfate hot springs can be formed by fumaroles when some of the steam condenses at the surface. Rising acidic vapors from below, such as CO 2 and H 2 S, will then dissolve, creating steam-heated low-pH hot springs. Fumaroles are normally associated with the late stages of volcanic activity, although they may also precede volcanic activity and have been used to predict volcanic eruptions. In particular, changes in

136-562: A few are persistent, lasting for decades or longer. An area containing fumaroles is known as a fumarole field . The predominant vapor emitted by fumaroles is steam , formed by the circulation of groundwater through heated rock. This is typically accompanied by volcanic gases given off by magma cooling deep below the surface. These volcanic gases include sulfur compounds, such as various sulfur oxides and hydrogen sulfide , and sometimes hydrogen chloride , hydrogen fluoride , and other gases. A fumarole that emits significant sulfur compounds

170-485: A few hours, one of magnitude 4.4 causing fear among the population of Pozzuoli and some cracks and minor damage to buildings. Schools and a prison were evacuated. In respect of its 18th and 19th century role in the development of geoscience, not least volcanology, this locality was included by the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) in its assemblage of 100 'geological heritage sites' around

204-402: A few months. There are still numerous active fumaroles at Yellowstone National Park , US, some 70,000 years after the most recent eruption. The acidic fumes from fumaroles can break down the rock around the vents, producing brightly colored alteration haloes . At Sulfur Bank near Kilauea, mild alteration reduces the rock to gray to white opal and kaolinite with the original texture of

238-594: A fresh volcanic deposit that quickly cools. The Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes , for example, was formed during the 1912 eruption of Novarupta in Alaska . Initially, thousands of fumaroles occurred in the cooling ash from the eruption, but over time most of them have become extinct. Persistent fumaroles are found at Sulfur Bank on the northern edge of the Kilauea caldera , but most fumaroles in Hawaii last no more than

272-951: A kitchen to permit the escape of smoke ) is an opening in a planet's crust which emits steam and gases , but no liquid or solid material. The temperature of the gases leaving the vent ranges from about 100 to 1,000 °C (210 to 1,800 °F). The steam forms when groundwater is superheated by hot rock, then flashes (boils due to depressurization) as it approaches the surface. In addition to steam, gases released by fumaroles include carbon dioxide , sulfur oxides , hydrogen sulfide , hydrogen chloride , and hydrogen fluoride . These have their origin in magma cooling underground. Not all these gases are present in all fumaroles; for example, fumaroles of Kilauea in Hawaii, US, contain almost no hydrogen chloride or hydrogen fluoride. The gases may also include traces of carbonyl sulfide , carbon disulfide , hydrogen , methane , or carbon monoxide . A fumarole that emits sulfurous gases can be referred to as

306-452: A peak rate of about 3 cm (1 in) per month during December 2012. It added that from 1985 to 2011 the dynamics of ground uplift were mostly linked to the caldera's hydrothermal system, and that this relation broke down in 2012. The driving mechanism of the ground uplift changed to periodical emplacement of magma within a flat sill -shaped magmatic reservoir about 3,000 m (9,843 ft) in depth, 500 m (1,640 ft) south from

340-413: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Phlegraean Fields The Phlegraean Fields ( Italian : Campi Flegrei , Italian: [ˈkampi fleˈɡrɛːi] ; Neapolitan : Campe Flegree ) is a large caldera volcano west of Naples , Italy . It is part of the Campanian volcanic arc , which includes Mount Vesuvius , about 9 km (6 miles) east of Naples. The Phlegraean Fields

374-473: Is a vent in the surface of the Earth or another rocky planet from which hot volcanic gases and vapors are emitted, without any accompanying liquids or solids. Fumaroles are characteristic of the late stages of volcanic activity , but fumarole activity can also precede a volcanic eruption and has been used for eruption prediction . Most fumaroles die down within a few days or weeks of the end of an eruption, but

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408-463: Is less so than a magma eruption. An answer to this question would help to estimate how likely this volcano, and other large volcanoes and supervolcanoes , are to erupt, and what warning signs to look out for. A February 2020 status report indicated that earth uplift around Pozzuoli continued at steady rates, with a maximum average of 0.7 cm per month since July 2017. Gas emissions and fumarole temperatures did not change significantly. In May 2024

442-605: Is monitored by the Vesuvius Observatory . It was declared a regional park in 2003. The area of the caldera consists of 24 craters and volcanic edifices. Most of them lie under the Gulf of Naples . There are effusive gaseous manifestations in the Solfatara crater, which was believed in ancient Rome to be the home of Vulcan , the god of fire. The area features bradyseismic phenomena, which are most evident at

476-532: Is not expected imminently. The best-case scenario was deemed to be the activity ending, as happened after much activity on the 1980s. The worst would be an eruption like the one of 1538. A study by Italy's National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology (INGV) and University College London (UCL) in June 2023 concluded that the volcano was edging towards "breaking point" and in an "extremely dangerous state". Nello Musumeci , Italian minister for civil protection,

510-416: Is sometimes called a solfatara . Fumarole activity can break down rock around the vent, while simultaneously depositing sulfur and other minerals. Valuable hydrothermal mineral deposits can form beneath fumaroles. However, active fumaroles can be a hazard due to their emission of hot, poisonous gases. A fumarole (or fumerole ; from French fumerolle , a domed structure with lateral openings, built over

544-628: Is sometimes done for low pay, by hand, without respirators or other protective equipment. In April 2006 fumarole emissions killed three ski-patrol workers east of Chair 3 at Mammoth Mountain Ski Area in California. The workers were overpowered by an accumulation of toxic fumes (a mazuku ) in a crevasse they had fallen into. Fumaroles are found around the world in areas of volcanic activity. A few notable examples include: The formation known as Home Plate at Gusev Crater on Mars , which

578-579: Is usually excluded, as it does not belong to the same geologic formations. In the classical epoch, some Phlegraean Islands were called Pithecussae, the Greek Pithekousai ( Πιθηκοῦσαι , ‘islands of monkeys’). A Greek myth tells of two brigands , the Cercopes of Ephesus , who played pranks on Zeus, who then punished them by turning them into monkeys and exiling them to the islands of Aenaria (Ischia) and Prochyta (Procida). Legend had

612-575: The Macellum of Pozzuoli , misidentified as a temple of Serapis : bands of boreholes left by marine molluscs on marble columns show that the level of the site in relation to sea level has varied. Hydrothermal activity can still be observed at Lucrino , Agnano and the town of Pozzuoli . At present, the Phlegraean Fields area comprises the Naples districts of Agnano and Fuorigrotta ,

646-516: The Phlegraean Fields produces lavas of varying composition but generally rich in potassium . Trachyte is the most common eruptive product, unusually alkali-rich in some cases. Peralkaline phonolitic trachyte and latite have also been produced, and there is rare trachybasalt . Three geological phases or periods are recognised and distinguished. Volcanic deposits indicative of eruption have been dated by argon at  315,000, 205,000, 157,000 and 18,000  years ago. In 1538, an eight-day eruption in

680-455: The area deposited enough material to create a new hill, Monte Nuovo . It has risen about 2 m (7 ft) from ground level since 1970. The volcanic island of Ischia suffered three destructive earthquakes in 1828, 1881, and the most destructive one in 1883 , with a magnitude of 4.2–5.2 and causing catastrophic shaking assigned XI ( Extreme ) on the MCS scale . Extreme damage was reported on

714-471: The area of Pozzuoli, Bacoli , Monte di Procida , Quarto , the Phlegraean Islands , Ischia , Procida and Vivara . The Solfatara crater was accessible on foot until 2017 and contains many steam-emitting fumaroles and over 150 pools, at the last count, of boiling mud. Several subsidiary cones and tuff craters, one filled by Lake Avernus , lie within the caldera. The magma underlying

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748-498: The composition and temperature of fumarole gases may point to an imminent eruption. An increase in sulfur oxide emissions is a particularly robust indication that new magma is rising from the depths, and may be detectable months to years before the eruption. Continued sulfur oxide emissions after an eruption is an indication that magma is continuing to rise towards the surface. Fumaroles may occur along tiny cracks, along long fissures, or in chaotic clusters or fields. They also occur on

782-555: The crust and making the volcano more susceptible to eruption. On 21 August 2017 there was a magnitude 4 earthquake on the western edge of the Campi Flegrei area. Two people were killed and many more people injured in Casamicciola on the northern coast of the island of Ischia, which is south of the epicentre. The reason for the seismicity and bulging ground is not known as of 2023 . According to one model, called in

816-492: The ground was reported to be rising by 2 cm per month, with the rate increasing. On April 26, 2020, a moderate earthquake swarm hit Campi Flegrei caldera, with about 34 earthquakes ranging between magnitude 0 and magnitude 3.1 centred around the port city of Pozzuoli. The strongest quake in the sequence was of magnitude 3.1, the strongest at the time since the last major period of unrest and rapid uplift in 1982-1984. However, no new fumaroles were reported. Volcanic activity

850-671: The island, and over 2,000 residents perished. A 2009 journal article stated that deformation of the caldera centre near Pozzuoli might presage an eruptive event within decades. In 2012 the International Continental Scientific Drilling Program planned to drill 3.5 kilometres (11,000 feet) below the earth's surface near Pompeii, in order to monitor the massive molten rock chamber below and provide early warning of any eruption. Local scientists were worried that drilling could precipitate an eruption or earthquake; programme scientists said it

884-513: The monster Typhon buried under Ischia, and the Giant Mimas buried under Procida. Such stories might be significant as a clue to how the ancient Greeks attempted to account for the volcanism of the whole area. The resulting changes in the topography of the islands were due to the frequent intervention of deities. 40°45′N 14°1′E  /  40.750°N 14.017°E  / 40.750; 14.017 This Campanian location article

918-546: The port of Pozzuoli. In December 2016, activity became so high that an eruption was feared. In May 2017 a new study by University College London and the Vesuvius Observatory published in Nature Communications concluded that an eruption might be closer than previously thought. The study found that the geographical unrest since the 1950s has a cumulative effect, causing a build-up of energy in

952-840: The rock still discernible. Alteration begins along joints in the rock and works inwards until the entire joint block is altered. More extreme alteration (at lower pH ) reduces the material to clay minerals and iron oxides to produce red to reddish-brown clay . The same process can produce valuable hydrothermal ore deposits at depth. Fumaroles emitting sulfurous vapors form surface deposits of sulfur-rich minerals and of fumarole minerals . Sulfur crystals at Sulfur Banks near Kilauea can grow to 2 centimeters (0.8 in) in length, and considerable sulfur has been deposited at Sulfur Cone within Mauna Loa caldera. Places in which these deposits have been mined include: Sulfur mining in Indonesia

986-453: The surface of lava flows and pyroclastic flows. A fumarole field is an area of thermal springs and gas vents where shallow magma or hot igneous rocks release gases or interact with groundwater . When they occur in freezing environments, fumaroles may cause fumarolic ice towers . Fumaroles may persist for decades or centuries if located above a persistent heat source; or they may disappear within weeks to months if they occur atop

1020-557: The variety used comprises at least 90% of the blend and the wine is fermented to at least 12% alcohol for reds and 11% for whites. Red Campi Flegrei is a blend of 50–70% Piedirosso , 10–30% Aglianico and/or Sciascinoso and up to 10% of other local (both red and white) grape varieties. The whites are composed of 50–70% Falanghina , 10–30% Biancolella and/or Coda di Volpe , with up to 30% of other local white grape varieties. Campi Flegrei has had strategic and cultural importance. Fumarole A fumarole (or fumerole )

1054-664: The world in a listing published in October 2022. Italian wine , both red and white, under the Campi Flegrei DOC appellation comes from this area. Grapes destined for DOC production must be harvested up to a maximum yield of 12 tonnes / hectare for red grape varieties , and 13 t/ha for white grape varieties. The finished wines need to be fermented to a minimum alcohol level of 11.5% for reds and 10.5% for whites. While most Campi Flegrei wines are blends, varietal wines can be made from individual varieties, provided

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1088-518: Was no different from industrial drilling in the area. The drilling was halted in 2010, but later resumed. A Reuters article emphasized that the area could produce a " super volcano " that might kill millions. A study from the Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia reported that the volcanic unrest of the Campi Flegrei caldera from January 2012 to June 2013 was characterised by rapid ground uplift of about 11 cm (4 in), with

1122-463: Was reported in January 2022 to be increasing. In the year to September 2023 seismic activity had intensified, particularly in the later months. On 27 September 2023, a magnitude 4.2 earthquake—the strongest in 40 years—prompted the preparation of contingency plans to evacuate up to 360,000 people in the area. Despite a further 4.0 quake on 2 October, most volcanologists consider that a major eruption

1156-405: Was to ask Neapolitan local officials for an "acceleration in the drafting of exodus plans in the event of an emergency"; he said that evacuation would only be carried out in the event of "extreme necessity". Mass evacuation plans were to be tested at the end of May 2024. Intense seismic activity continues in 2024. On 20 May 2024, seismic activity intensified, with a swarm of 150 earthquakes in

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