Photios I ( Greek : Φώτιος , Phōtios ; c. 815 – 6 February 893), also spelled Photius ( / ˈ f oʊ ʃ ə s / ), was the ecumenical patriarch of Constantinople from 858 to 867 and from 877 to 886. He is recognized in the Eastern Orthodox Church as Saint Photios the Great .
99-516: Photios is widely regarded as the most powerful and influential church leader of Constantinople subsequent to John Chrysostom 's archbishopric around the turn of the fifth century. He is also viewed as the most important intellectual of his time – "the leading light of the ninth-century renaissance". He was a central figure in both the conversion of the Slavs to Christianity and the Photian schism , and
198-478: A Fourth Council of Constantinople (Roman Catholic) anathematizing Photios, while Eastern Orthodox regard as legitimate a subsequent Fourth Council of Constantinople (Eastern Orthodox) , reversing the former. The contested councils mark the end of unity represented by the first seven Ecumenical Councils . Photios was canonized by the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople in 1847. Most of
297-606: A prōtospatharios occurs in the Chronicle of Theophanes the Confessor , who records "Sergios, prōtospatharios and stratēgos of Sicily " in 718. In the late 9th century, the prōtospatharios is recorded as ranking below the patrikios and above the dishypatos . The award of the dignity also meant the entry of its holder in the Byzantine Senate . Its prestige was consequently very high, as illustrated by
396-454: A reader (one of the minor orders of the Church). It is sometimes said that he was bitten by a snake when he was ten years old, leading to him getting an infection from the bite. As a result of his mother's influential connections in the city, John began his education under the pagan preacher Libanius . From Libanius, John acquired the skills for a career in rhetoric , as well as a love of
495-526: A saint soon after his death. Almost immediately after, an anonymous supporter of John (known as pseudo-Martyrius) wrote a funeral oration to reclaim John as a symbol of Christian orthodoxy . But three decades later, some of his adherents in Constantinople remained in schism . Proclus , archbishop of Constantinople (434–446), hoping to bring about the reconciliation of the Johannites, preached
594-751: A collection of extracts and abridgements of 280 volumes of previous authors (usually cited as Codices), the originals of which are now to a great extent lost. The work is especially rich in extracts from historical writers. To Photios, we are indebted for almost all we possess of Ctesias , Memnon of Heraclea , Conon , the lost books of Diodorus Siculus , and the lost writings of Arrian . Theology and ecclesiastical history are also very fully represented, but poetry and ancient philosophy are almost entirely ignored. It seems that he did not think it necessary to deal with those authors with whom every well-educated man would naturally be familiar. The literary criticisms, generally distinguished by keen and independent judgment, and
693-446: A council which was approved by Pope John VIII, his ecclesiastical career was viewed in utter disgrace by Catholic authorities and many of his theological opinions were condemned posthumously. Yet it appears that he did not remain reviled for the remainder of his life. Photios continued his career as a writer throughout his exile, and Leo probably rehabilitated his reputation within the next few years; in his Epitaphios on his brothers,
792-539: A great figure of Byzantine history [...] Leo [...] certainly did not allow him back into the sphere of politics, and it is surely his absence from this arena that accounts for his quiet passing." After his death, Photius began to be venerated as saint in environs of Constantinople. His name features in a manuscript of the Typicon of the Great Church of Constantinople dated to the middle of the tenth century, where he
891-452: A homily praising his predecessor in the Church of Hagia Sophia . He said, "O John, your life was filled with sorrow, but your death was glorious. Your grave is blessed and reward is great, by the grace and mercy of our Lord Jesus Christ O graced one, having conquered the bounds of time and place! Love has conquered space, unforgetting memory has annihilated the limits, and place does not hinder
990-567: A monk, but chose to be a scholar and statesman instead. In 858, Emperor Michael III (r. 842–867) decided to confine Patriarch Ignatius in order to force him into resignation, and Photios, still a layman, was appointed to replace him. Amid power struggles between the pope and the Byzantine emperor, Ignatius was reinstated. Photios resumed the position when Ignatius died (877), by order of the Byzantine emperor. The new pope, John VIII , approved Photios's reinstatement. Catholics regard as legitimate
1089-592: A result of this, he was further exiled from Cucusus (where he stayed from 404 to 407) to Pitiunt (Pityus) (in modern Georgia ). He never reached this destination alive, as he died at Comana Pontica (modern-day Gümenek, Tokat , Turkey) on 14 September 407 during the journey. He died in the Presbyterium or community of the clergy belonging to the church of Saint Basiliscus of Comana . His last words are said to have been " Δόξα τῷ Θεῷ πάντων ἕνεκεν " ('Glory be to God for all things'). John came to be venerated as
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#17327661128011188-460: A saint (with feast days on 16 Thout and 17 Hathor ). John was born in Antioch , Roman Syria (modern-day Antakya , Hatay , Turkey) in 347 AD. Different scholars describe his mother Anthusa as a pagan or as a Christian. His father was a high-ranking military officer. John's father died soon after his birth and he was raised by his mother. He was baptised in 368 or 373, and tonsured as
1287-402: A struggle between Johannite and anti-Johannite camps in Constantinople soon after John's departure and for a few years after his death". Faced with exile, John Chrysostom wrote an appeal for help to three churchmen: Pope Innocent I ; Venerius , the bishop of Mediolanum ( Milan ); and Chromatius , the bishop of Aquileia . In 1872, church historian William Stephens wrote: The Patriarch of
1386-676: A supreme arbitrator; assistance and sympathy are solicited from him as from an elder brother, and two other prelates of Italy are joint recipients with him of the appeal. Pope Innocent I protested John's banishment from Constantinople to the town of Cucusus ( Göksun ) in Cappadocia , but to no avail. Innocent sent a delegation to intercede on behalf of John in 405. It was led by Gaudentius of Brescia ; Gaudentius and his companions, two bishops, encountered many difficulties and never reached their goal of entering Constantinople. John wrote letters which still held great influence in Constantinople. As
1485-462: A text probably written in 888, the Emperor presents Photios favorably, portraying him as the legitimate archbishop, and the instrument of ultimate unity, an image that jars with his attitude to the patriarch in the previous year. Confirmation that Photios was rehabilitated comes upon his death: according to some chronicles, his body was permitted to be buried in Constantinople. In addition, according to
1584-469: A tribunal headed by senior officials, headed by Andrew the Scythian . Although the sources sympathetic to Photios give the impression that the trial ended without a conviction, the chronicle of Pseudo-Symeon clearly states that Photios was banished to the monastery of Gordon, where he later died. Latin sources confirm that while he did not die in a state of complete excommunication, having been reinstated by
1683-535: A well-known story related by Emperor Constantine Porphyrogennetos ( r. 913–959 ) in his De Administrando Imperio : during the reign of his father, Emperor Leo VI the Wise ( r. 886–912 ), an aged cleric of the Nea Ekklesia , Ktenas by name, paid 60 litras of gold (circa 19.4 kg), i.e. sixty times the annual stipend of 72 nomismata to which prōtospatharioi were entitled, to acquire
1782-758: Is also regarded as one of the four Great Greek Church Fathers The feast days of John Chrysostom in the Eastern Orthodox Church are 14 September, 13 November and 27 January. In the Roman Catholic Church he is recognized as a Doctor of the Church . Because the date of his death is occupied by the feast of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross (14 September), the General Roman Calendar celebrates him since 1970 on
1881-464: Is also the writer of two "mirrors of princes", addressed to Boris-Michael of Bulgaria (Epistula 1, ed. Terzaghi) and to Leo VI the Wise (Admonitory Chapters of Basil I). Photios' epitome of Philostorgius ' Church History is the principal source for the work, which is now lost. The first English translation, by Holy Transfiguration Monastery, of the " Mystagogy of the Holy Spirit " by Photios
1980-809: Is an extremely brief one, the Paschal Homily ( Hieratikon ), which is read at the first service of Pascha (Easter) , the midnight Orthros ( Matins ), in the Eastern Orthodox Church . Chrysostom's extant homiletical works are vast, including many hundreds of exegetical homilies on both the New Testament (especially the works of Paul the Apostle ) and the Old Testament (particularly on Genesis ). Among his exegetical works are sixty-seven homilies on Genesis, fifty-nine on
2079-479: Is characteristic: the author argues that Photios was educated after an agreement he concluded with a Jewish magician who offered him knowledge and secular recognition, in case he renounced his faith. ^ c: David Marshall Lang argues that "Photius [...] was only one of many Byzantine scholars of Armenian descent". Peter Charanis notes that " John the Grammarian , Photius, Caesar Bardas and Leo
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#17327661128012178-618: Is considered "[t]he great systematic compiler of the Eastern Church, who occupies a similar position to that of Gratian in the West ," and whose " collection in two parts...formed and still forms the classic source of ancient Church Law for the Greek Church." Photios was a well-educated man from a noble Constantinopolitan family. Photios's great uncle was a previous patriarch of Constantinople, Saint Tarasius . He intended to be
2277-723: Is dying of hunger? Start by satisfying his hunger and then with what is left you may adorn the altar as well. His straightforward understanding of the Scriptures – in contrast to the Alexandrian tendency towards allegorical interpretation – meant that the themes of his talks were practical, explaining the Bible's application to everyday life. Such straightforward preaching helped Chrysostom to garner popular support. One incident that happened during his service in Antioch illustrates
2376-454: Is his emphasis on care for the needy. Echoing themes found in the Gospel of Matthew, he calls upon the rich to lay aside materialism in favor of helping the poor, often employing all of his rhetorical skills to shame wealthy people to abandon conspicuous consumption : Do you pay such honor to your excrements as to receive them into a silver chamber-pot when another man made in the image of God
2475-512: Is perishing in the cold? Along these lines, he wrote often about the need for almsgiving and its importance alongside fasting and prayer, e.g. "Prayer without almsgiving is unfruitful." Cyril of Alexandria attributed the destruction of the Ephesian Temple of Artemis to John Chrysostom, referring to him as "the destroyer of the demons and overthrower of the temple of Diana". A later Archbishop of Constantinople, Proclus repeated
2574-418: Is referred to a saint with a day of commemoration of February 6. According to Francis Dvornik , Photius must have been venerated as a saint in the second half of the tenth century at the very latest. The contemporary Eastern Orthodox Church venerates Photius as a saint, with his feast day being February 6. Photios is one of the most famous figures not only of 9th-century Byzantium but of the entire history of
2673-822: Is the Amphilochia , a collection of some 300 questions and answers on difficult points in Scripture, addressed to Amphilochius, archbishop of Cyzicus. Other similar works are his treatise in four books against the Manichaeans and Paulicians , and his controversy with the Latins on the Procession of the Holy Spirit . Photios also addressed a long letter of theological advice to the newly converted Boris I of Bulgaria. Numerous other Epistles also survive. Photios
2772-574: The Antiochian school (i.e., more literal in interpreting biblical events), but he also uses a good deal of the allegorical interpretation more associated with the Alexandrian school . John's social and religious world was formed by the continuing and pervasive presence of paganism in the life of the city. One of his regular topics was the paganism in the culture of Constantinople, and in his homilies he thunders against popular pagan amusements:
2871-548: The Arsacid dynasty of Armenia . True or not, this story does reveal Basil's dependence on Photios for literary and ideological matters. Following Photios's recall, Ignatios and the ex-patriarch met, and publicly expressed their reconciliation. When Ignatios died on October 23, 877, it was a matter of course that his old opponent replaced him on the patriarchal throne three days later. Shaun Tougher asserts that from this point on Basil no longer simply depended on Photios, but in fact he
2970-707: The Lexicon were the Codex Galeanus , which passed into the library of Trinity College, Cambridge and Berolinensis graec. oct. 22, both of which were incomplete. But in 1959, Linos Politis of the University of Thessaloniki discovered a complete manuscript, codex Zavordensis 95, in the Zavorda Monastery (Greek: Ζάβορδα) in Grevena , Greece, where it still resides. His most important theological work
3069-621: The Psalms , ninety on the Gospel of Matthew , eighty-eight on the Gospel of John , and fifty-five on the Acts of the Apostles . The homilies were written down by stenographers and subsequently circulated, revealing a style that tended to be direct and greatly personal, but formed by the rhetorical conventions of his time and place. In general, his homiletical theology displays much characteristic of
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3168-572: The megas archōn . According to the Klētorologion of Philotheos , the holders of the dignity were distinguished between eunuchs ( ektomiai ) and non-eunuchs ( barbatoi , "bearded ones"). In addition to the insigne of their rank, a gold necklet ( maniakion ) adorned with pearls, the former had a special dress, a white, gold-adorned tunic and a red doublet with gold facings. The non-eunuchs were distinguished only by their golden collar ( kloios ), decorated with precious stones. Pictorial evidence of
3267-718: The miracles of the saint." These homilies helped to mobilize public opinion, and the patriarch received permission from the emperor to return Chrysostom's relics to Constantinople, where they were enshrined in the Church of the Holy Apostles on 28 January 438. The Eastern Orthodox Church commemorates him as a "Great Ecumenical Teacher", with Basil the Great and Gregory the Theologian . These three saints, in addition to having their own individual commemorations throughout
3366-411: The patronal feast of Constantinople's cathedral, Hagia Sophia, Photios's was consecrated a bishop and installed as patriarch. The confinement and removal of Ignatios and the speedy promotion of Photios at first caused only internal controversy within the Church of Constantinople, and in 859 a local council was held, examining the issue and confirming the removal of Ignatios and election of Photios. In
3465-455: The shabbat , submitted to circumcision and made pilgrimage to Jewish holy places. There had been a revival of Jewish faith and tolerance in Antioch in 361, so Chrysostom's followers and the greater Christian community were in contact with Jews frequently, and Chrysostom was concerned that this interaction would draw Christians away from their faith identity. John claimed that synagogues were full of Christians, especially Christian women, on
3564-417: The theatre , horseraces , and the revelry surrounding holidays. In particular, he criticizes Christians for taking part in such activities: If you ask [Christians] who is Amos or Obadiah , how many apostles there were or prophets, they stand mute; but if you ask them about the horses or drivers, they answer with more solemnity than sophists or rhetors. One of the recurring features of John's homilies
3663-539: The Abbasids were interested in works of Greek science and philosophy. However, specialists of this period of Byzantine history, such as Paul Lemerle , have shown that Photios could not have compiled his Bibliotheca in Baghdad because he clearly states in both his introduction and his postscript that when he learned of his appointment to the embassy, he sent his brother a summary of books that he read previously , "since
3762-504: The Byzantine Empire. One of the most learned men of his age, and revered – even by some of his opponents and detractors – as the most prolific theologian of his time, he has earned his fame due to his part in ecclesiastical conflicts, and also for his intellect and literary works. Analyzing his intellectual work, Tatakes regards Photios as "mind turned more to practice than to theory". He believes that, thanks to Photios, humanism
3861-513: The Christians had not taken him from us". John lived in extreme asceticism and became a hermit in about 375; he spent the next two years continually standing, scarcely sleeping, and committing the Bible to memory. As a consequence of these practices, his stomach and kidneys were permanently damaged and poor health forced him to return to Antioch. John was first appointed as a reader in
3960-688: The Eastern Rome appeals to the great bishops of the West, as the champions of an ecclesiastical discipline which he confesses himself unable to enforce, or to see any prospect of establishing. No jealousy is entertained of the Patriarch of the Old Rome by the patriarch of the New Rome. The interference of Innocent is courted, a certain primacy is accorded him, but at the same time he is not addressed as
4059-510: The Greek language and literature . Eventually, he became a lawyer. As he grew older, however, John became more deeply committed to Christianity and went on to study theology under Diodore of Tarsus , founder of the re-constituted School of Antioch . According to the Christian historian Sozomen , Libanius was supposed to have said on his deathbed that John would have been his successor "if
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4158-824: The Mathematician as Photios's teacher, but Paul Lemerle notes that Leo was not one of the persons with whom Photios had a correspondence. Recent years have seen the first translations into English of a number of primary sources about Photios and his times. John Chrysostom Autocephaly recognized by some autocephalous Churches de jure : Autocephaly and canonicity recognized by Constantinople and 3 other autocephalous Churches: Spiritual independence recognized by Georgian Orthodox Church: Semi-Autonomous: John Chrysostom ( / ˈ k r ɪ s ə s t ə m , k r ɪ ˈ s ɒ s t ə m / ; Greek : Ἰωάννης ὁ Χρυσόστομος, Latin : Ioannes Chrysostomus ; c. 347 – 14 September 407 AD)
4257-580: The Philosopher seem to have been the prime movers. All four were, at least in part, of Armenian descent [...] as for Photius, the fact is that his mother Irene, was the sister of Arshavir , the Arshavir who had married Calomaria the sister of Bardas and the empress Theodora." Nicholas Adontz stresses that "Arshavir, Photius' uncle, must not be confused with Arshavir, the brother of John the Grammarian". ^ d: G. N. Wilson regards Leo
4356-491: The Skepi monastery, it appears that the ex-patriarch brought pressure to bear on the Byzantine emperor to restore him. Ignatios's biographer argues that Photios forged a document relating to the genealogy and rule of Basil's family, and had it placed in the imperial library where a friend of his was a librarian. According to this document, the Byzantine emperor's ancestors were not mere peasants as everyone believed but descendants of
4455-622: The Sodomites became paramount. However, other scholars – such as Kruger and Nortjé-Meyer – dispute this, arguing that the author of the Epistle of Jude already interpreted the sin of Sodom as homosexuality in the New Testament . Protospatharios Prōtospatharios ( Greek : πρωτοσπαθάριος ) was one of the highest court dignities of the middle Byzantine period (8th to 12th centuries), awarded to senior generals and provincial governors, as well as to foreign princes. The meaning of
4554-469: The allegation, saying "In Ephesus, he despoiled the art of Midas". Both claims are considered spurious. During his first two years as a presbyter in Antioch (386–387), John denounced Jews and Christians in a series of eight homilies delivered to Christians in his congregation who were taking part in Jewish festivals and other Jewish observances. It is disputed whether the main targets were specifically
4653-534: The anti-Photian biographer of Ignatius, partisans of the ex-patriarch after his death endeavored to claim for him the "honor of sainthood". Furthermore, a leading member of Leo's court, Leo Choirosphaktes , wrote poems commemorating the memory of several prominent contemporary figures, such as Leo the Mathematician and the Patriarch Stephen, and he also wrote one on Photios. Shaun Tougher notes, however, that "yet Photios's passing does seem rather muted for
4752-405: The body in diseases. ... [The men] have done an insult to nature itself. And a yet more disgraceful thing than these is it, when even the women seek after these intercourses, who ought to have more sense of shame than men. He says the active male victimizes the passive male in a way that leaves him more enduringly dishonored than even a victim of murder since the victim of this act must "live under"
4851-495: The body of Christ? Do not ignore him when he is naked. Do not pay him homage in the temple clad in silk, only then to neglect him outside where he is cold and ill-clad. He who said: "This is my body" is the same who said: "You saw me hungry and you gave me no food", and "Whatever you did to the least of my brothers you did also to me"... What good is it if the Eucharistic table is overloaded with golden chalices when your brother
4950-729: The cathedral built by Constantius II was burnt down, necessitating the construction of the second cathedral on the site, the Theodosian Hagia Sophia . Around 405, John began to lend moral and financial support to Christian monks who were enforcing the emperors' anti-pagan laws, by destroying temples and shrines in Phoenicia and nearby regions. The causes of John's exile are not clear, though Jennifer Barry suggests that they have to do with his connections to Arianism . Other historians, including Wendy Mayer and Geoffrey Dunn, have argued that "the surplus of evidence reveals
5049-429: The church of Antioch by Zeno of Verona upon the latter's return from Jerusalem. Later, he was ordained as a deacon in 381 by the bishop Meletius of Antioch who was not then in communion with Alexandria and Rome. After the death of Meletius, John separated himself from the followers of Meletius, without joining Paulinus , the rival of Meletius for the bishopric of Antioch . But after the death of Paulinus (388) he
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#17327661128015148-801: The common people, but unpopular with wealthy citizens and the clergy. His reforms of the clergy were also unpopular. He told visiting regional preachers to return to the churches they were meant to be serving – without any pay-out. He also founded a number of hospitals in Constantinople. His time in Constantinople was more tumultuous than his time in Antioch. Theophilus , the patriarch of Alexandria , wanted to bring Constantinople under his sway and opposed John's appointment to Constantinople. Theophilus had disciplined four Egyptian monks (known as "the Tall Brothers ") over their support of Origen 's teachings. They fled to John and were welcomed by him. Theophilus therefore accused John of being too partial to
5247-456: The consent of Boris I of Bulgaria (r. 852–889), the papacy was unable to enforce its claims. Pope Adrian III chose a policy of appeasement and sent between 884 and 885 bishop Theodosius of Oria to transmit notice of his election and a synodal letter to Photios about faith and the filioque . Photios also promoted a policy of religious reconciliation with the Armenian kingdom to the east of
5346-629: The dedication ceremonies as pagan and spoke against the empress in harsh terms: "Again Herodias raves, again she dances, and again desires to receive John's head on a charger", an allusion to the events surrounding the death of John the Baptist . Once again he was banished, this time to the Caucasus in Abkhazia . His banishment sparked riots among his supporters in the capital, and in the fighting
5445-674: The demand of an apology to the Pope, the ecclesiastical jurisdiction over Bulgaria , and the addition of the filioque to the Nicene creed by the Western church. Eventually, Photios refused to apologize or accept the filioque , and the papal legates made do with his return of Bulgaria to Rome. This concession, however, was purely nominal, as Bulgaria's return to the Byzantine rite in 870 had already secured for it an autocephalous church. Without
5544-531: The dress of prōtospatharioi in illuminated manuscripts , however, varies considerably over time. In the Book of Offices of pseudo-Kodinos, the garb of this rank is defined as a gold wire-embroidered skaranikon (a tubular headdress), with the image of the reigning emperor enthroned in front and riding a horse behind, a gold kabbadion ( caftan ) and a skiadion (brimmed hat) of the klapōton type, while bearing no distinctive dikanikion (staff of office). In
5643-498: The eloquence of his public speaking at the Golden Church, Antioch's cathedral , especially his insightful expositions of Bible passages and moral teaching. The most valuable of his works from this period are his homilies on various books of the Bible. He emphasised charitable giving and was concerned with the spiritual and temporal needs of the poor. He spoke against abuse of wealth and personal property: Do you wish to honour
5742-468: The empire. He sought to bridge the confessional differences between the Greek Orthodox and Armenian churches on two separate occasions, once in 862 and again in 877, but his efforts ultimately proved unsuccessful. During the altercations between Emperor Basil I and his heir Leo VI , Photios took the side of the Byzantine emperor. In 883, Basil accused Leo of conspiracy and confined the prince to
5841-411: The evil was only in desire. For the greater part of it came of their luxuriousness, which also kindled into flame their lust". According to scholar Michael Carden, Chrysostom was particularly influential in shaping early Christian thought that same-sex desire was an evil, claiming that he altered a traditional interpretation of Sodom as a place of inhospitality to one where the sexual transgressions of
5940-407: The excerpts vary considerably in length. The numerous biographical notes are probably taken from the work of Hesychius of Miletus . Some older scholarship speculated that the Bibliotheca was compiled in Baghdad at the time of Photius's embassy to the Abbasid court, since many of the mentioned works were rarely cited during the so-called Byzantine Dark Ages c. 630 – c. 800, and it was known that
6039-547: The general population of the city: many pagans converted to Christianity as a result of the homilies. The city was ultimately spared from severe consequences. In the autumn of 397, John was appointed archbishop of Constantinople , after having been nominated without his knowledge by the eunuch Eutropius . He had to leave Antioch in secret due to fears that the departure of such a popular figure would cause civil unrest. During his time as archbishop he adamantly refused to host lavish social gatherings, which made him popular with
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#17327661128016138-581: The guard ( prōtospatharios ) and subsequently chief imperial secretary ( protasēkrētis ). At an uncertain date, Photios participated in an embassy to the Abbasids of Baghdad . Photios achieved a dazzling reputation as a scholar. In a feud with Patriarch Ignatios, Photios invented a fanciful theory that people have two souls, for the sole purpose of tricking Ignatios into embarrassing himself by being seen to take it seriously, whereupon Photius withdrew his proposal and admitted he had not been serious. The historian John Julius Norwich described this as "perhaps
6237-478: The homilies are called Kata Ioudaiōn ( Κατὰ Ἰουδαίων ), which is translated as Adversus Judaeos in Latin and 'Against the Jews' in English. The original Benedictine editor of the homilies, Bernard de Montfaucon , gives the following footnote to the title: "A discourse against the Jews; but it was delivered against those who were Judaizing and keeping the fasts with them [the Jews]." According to Patristics scholars, opposition to any particular view during
6336-586: The icons in 842. Certain scholars assert that Photios was, at least in part, of Armenian descent while other scholars merely refer to him as a " Greek Byzantine ". Byzantine writers also report that Emperor Michael III (r. 842–867) once angrily called Photios " Khazar -faced", but whether this was a generic insult or a reference to his ethnicity is unclear. Although Photios had an excellent education, we have no information about how he received this education. The famous library he possessed attests to his enormous erudition (theology, history, grammar, philosophy, law,
6435-417: The influence of his homilies. When Chrysostom arrived in Antioch, Flavian, the bishop of the city, had to intervene with emperor Theodosius I on behalf of citizens who had gone on a rampage mutilating statues of the emperor and his family. During the weeks of Lent in 387, John preached more than twenty homilies in which he entreated the people to see the error of their ways. These made a lasting impression on
6534-414: The late 4th century was conventionally expressed in a manner, using the rhetorical form known as the psogos, whose literary conventions were to vilify opponents in an uncompromising manner; thus, it has been argued that to call Chrysostom an "anti-Semite" is to employ anachronistic terminology in a way incongruous with historical context and record. This does not preclude assertions that Chrysostom's theology
6633-411: The legitimacy of the succession. His legates were dispatched to Constantinople with instructions to investigate, but finding Photios well ensconced, they acquiesced in the confirmation of his election at a synod in 861. On their return to Rome, they discovered that this was not at all what Nicholas had intended, and in 863 at a synod in Rome the Supreme Pontiff deposed Photios, and reappointed Ignatius as
6732-411: The majority of the works cannot have been read while Photios was in the Abbasid empire. The Lexicon (Λέξεων Συναγωγή), published later than the Bibliotheca , was probably in the main the work of some of his pupils. It was intended as a book of reference to facilitate the reading of old classical and sacred authors, whose language and vocabulary were out of date. For a long time, the only manuscripts of
6831-399: The most wonderful men of all the middle ages", and stresses that "had [he] not given his name to the great schism, he would always be remembered as the greatest scholar of his time". Yet, Fortescue is equally adamant of his condemnation of Photios' involvement in the Schism: "And yet the other side of his character is no less evident. His insatiable ambition, his determination to obtain and keep
6930-421: The murder of Photios's patron Bardas in 866 and of Emperor Michael III in 867, by his colleague Basil the Macedonian , who now usurped the throne. Photios was deposed as patriarch, not so much because he was a protégé of Bardas and Michael, but because Basil I was seeking an alliance with the Pope and the western emperor. Photios was removed from his office and banished about the end of September 867, and Ignatios
7029-413: The natural sciences, and medicine). Most scholars believe that he never taught at Magnaura or at any other university; Vasileios N. Tatakes asserts that, even while he was patriarch, Photios taught "young students passionately eager for knowledge" at his home, which "was a center of learning". He was a friend of the renowned Byzantine scholar and teacher Leo the Mathematician . Photios says that, when he
7128-574: The official story. Warren T. Treadgold believes that this time the evidence points to a plot on behalf of Leo VI, who became emperor, and deposed Photios, although the latter had been his tutor. Photios was replaced by the Byzantine emperor's brother Stephen , and sent into exile to the monastery of Bordi in Armenia . It is confirmed from letters to and from Pope Stephen that Leo extracted a resignation from Photios. In 887, Photios and his protégé, Theodore Santabarenos , were put on trial for treason before
7227-446: The only really satisfactory practical joke in the whole history of theology." Photios's ecclesiastical career took off spectacularly after Caesar Bardas and his nephew, the youthful Emperor Michael, put an end to the administration of the regent Theodora and the logothete of the drome Theoktistos in 856. In 858, Bardas found himself opposed by the then Patriarch Ignatios , who refused to admit him into Hagia Sophia , since it
7326-601: The palace; he would have even had Leo blinded had he not been dissuaded by Photios and Stylianos Zaoutzes , the father of Zoe Zaoutzaina , Leo's mistress. In 886, Basil discovered and punished a conspiracy by the domestic of the Hikanatoi John Kourkouas the Elder and many other officials. In this conspiracy, Leo was not implicated, but Photios was possibly one of the conspirators against Basil's authority. Basil died in 886 injured while hunting, according to
7425-433: The patriarchal see, led him to the extreme of dishonesty. His claim was worthless. That Ignatius was the rightful patriarch as long as he lived, and Photius an intruder, cannot be denied by any one who does not conceive the Church as merely the slave of a civil government. And to keep this place Photius descended to the lowest depth of deceit." The most important of the works of Photios is his Bibliotheca or Myriobiblon ,
7524-540: The people became "tumultuous" over his departure, even threatening to burn the imperial palace. There was an earthquake the night of his arrest, which Eudoxia took for a sign of God's anger, prompting her to ask Arcadius for John's reinstatement. Peace was short-lived. A silver statue of Eudoxia was erected in the Augustaion , near his cathedral, the Constantinian Hagia Sophia . John denounced
7623-462: The popular sources treating Photios's life are written by persons hostile to him. The chief contemporary authority for the life of Photios is his bitter enemy, Nicetas the Paphlagonian, the biographer of his rival Ignatios. Modern scholars are thus cautious when assessing the accuracy of the information these sources provide. Little is known of Photios's origin and early years. It is known that he
7722-522: The previous day, 13 September; from the 13th century to 1969 it did so on 27 January, the anniversary of the translation of his body to Constantinople. Of other Western churches, including Anglican provinces and Lutheran churches, some commemorate him on 13 September, others on 27 January. John Chrysostom is honored on the calendars of the Church of England and the Episcopal Church on 13 September. The Coptic Church also recognizes him as
7821-524: The rightful patriarch, triggering a schism . Four years later, Photios was to respond on his own part by calling a Council and attempting to excommunicate the Holy Father on grounds of heresy – over the question of the double procession of the Holy Spirit . The situation was additionally complicated by the question of papal authority over the entire Church and by disputed jurisdiction over newly converted Bulgaria . This state of affairs changed with
7920-545: The same time, partisans of Ignatios decided to appeal to the Holy Roman and Catholic Church, thus initiating ecclesiastical controversy on an ecumenical scale as the Pope and the rest of the western bishops took up the cause of Ignatios. The latter's confinement and removal without a formal ecclesiastical trial meant that Photios's election was uncanonical, and eventually Pope Nicholas I sought to involve himself in determining
8019-465: The shabbats and Jewish festivals, because they loved the solemnity of the Jewish liturgy and enjoyed listening to the shofar on Rosh Hashanah , and applauded famous preachers in accordance with the contemporary custom. Due to Chrysostom's stature in the Christian church, both locally and within the greater church hierarchy, his sermons were fairly successful in spreading anti-Jewish sentiment. In Greek
8118-551: The shame of the "insolency". The victim of a murder, by contrast, carries no dishonor. He asserts that punishment will be found in Hell for such transgressors and that women can be guilty of the sin as much as men. Chrysostom argues that the male passive partner has effectively renounced his manhood and become a woman – such an individual deserves to be "driven out and stoned". He attributes the cause to "luxury". "Do not, he means (Paul), because you have heard that they burned, suppose that
8217-517: The so called "Judaizers" or Jews in general. His homilies were expressed in the conventional manner, using the uncompromising rhetorical form known as the psogos (Greek: blame, censure). One of the purposes of these homilies was to prevent Christians from participating in Jewish customs, and thus prevent the perceived erosion of Chrysostom's flock. In his homilies, John criticized those "Judaizing Christians", who were participating in Jewish festivals and taking part in other Jewish observances, such as
8316-611: The teaching of Origen. He made another enemy in Aelia Eudoxia , wife of emperor Arcadius , who assumed that John's denunciations of extravagance in feminine dress were aimed at her. Eudoxia, Theophilus and other of his enemies held a synod in 403 (the Synod of the Oak ) to charge John, in which his connection to Origen was used against him. It resulted in his deposition and banishment. He was called back by Arcadius almost immediately, as
8415-626: The time I learned how to understand and evaluate literature" i.e. since his youth. Moreover, the Abbasids were interested only in Greek science, philosophy and medicine; they did not have Greek history, rhetoric, or other literary works translated; nor did they have Christian patristic writers translated. Yet the majority of works in Bibliotheca are by Christian patristic authors, and most of the secular texts in Bibliotheca are histories, grammars or literary works, usually rhetoric, rather than science, medicine or philosophy. This further indicates that
8514-499: The title, "first spatharios ", indicates its original role as leader of the order ( taxis ) of the spatharioi , the imperial bodyguards, was already attested in the 6th century. Probably under the Heraclians , the rank became an honorary dignity (Greek: δια βραβείου ἀξία, dia brabeiou axia ), and was henceforth bestowed to high-ranking theme commanders, senior court officials, and allied rulers. The first concrete reference to
8613-404: The title. He did not live long to enjoy his new status, however, dying two years later. Like other titles of the middle Byzantine period, its importance declined sharply in the 11th century. The last attested occurrence is in 1115, although the title is still recorded by pseudo-Kodinos in the mid-14th century in the 34th place of the court hierarchy, between the primmikerios of the court and
8712-551: The year, are commemorated together on 30 January, a feast known as the Synaxis of the Three Hierarchs . In the Eastern Orthodox Church there are several feast days dedicated to him: In 1908 Pope Pius X named him the patron saint of preachers. Some 700 sermons and 246 letters by John Chrysostom survive, plus biblical commentaries, moral discourses, and theological treatises. The best known of his many homilies
8811-445: Was a form of anti-Jewish supersessionism . His sermons against Jews gave further momentum to the idea that Jews are collectively responsible for the death of Jesus . John Chrysostom’s most notable discourse in this regard is his fourth homily on Romans 1:26 , where he argues as follows: All these affections then were vile, but chiefly the mad lust after males; for the soul is more the sufferer in sins, and more dishonored, than
8910-467: Was added to Orthodoxy as a basic element of the national consciousness of the medieval Byzantines, returning it to the place it had had in the early Byzantine period. Tatakes also argues that, having understood this national consciousness, Photios emerged as a defender of the Greek nation and its spiritual independence in his debates with the Western Church. Adrian Fortescue regards him as "one of
9009-663: Was among the most prolific authors in the early Christian Church. He is honored as a saint in the Eastern Orthodox , Oriental Orthodox , Catholic , Anglican , and Lutheran churches, as well as in some others. The Eastern Orthodox, together with the Byzantine Catholics , hold him in special regard as one of the Three Holy Hierarchs (alongside Basil the Great and Gregory of Nazianzus ). Along with them and Athanasius of Alexandria he
9108-462: Was an important Early Church Father who served as Archbishop of Constantinople . He is known for his preaching and public speaking , his denunciation of abuse of authority by both ecclesiastical and political leaders, his Divine Liturgy of Saint John Chrysostom , and his ascetic sensibilities. The epithet Χρυσόστομος ( Chrysostomos , anglicized as Chrysostom) means "golden-mouthed" in Greek and denotes his celebrated eloquence. Chrysostom
9207-460: Was believed that he was having an affair with his widowed daughter-in-law. In response, Bardas and Michael engineered Ignatios's confinement and removal on the charge of treason, thus leaving the patriarchal throne empty. The throne was soon filled with a kinsman of Bardas, Photios himself, who was tonsured a monk on December 20, 858, and on the four following days was successively ordained lector, sub-deacon, deacon and priest, and then on Christmas Day,
9306-411: Was born into a notable family and that his uncle Saint Tarasius had been the patriarch of Constantinople from 784–806 under both Empress Irene (r. 797–802) and Emperor Nikephoros I (r. 802–811). During the second Iconoclasm , which began in 814, his family suffered persecution since his father, Sergios, was a prominent iconophile . Sergios's family returned to favor only after the restoration of
9405-523: Was dominated by him. Photios now obtained the formal recognition of the Christian world in a council convened at Constantinople in November 879. The legates of Pope John VIII attended, prepared to acknowledge Photios as legitimate patriarch, a concession for which the pope was much censured by Latin opinion. The patriarch stood firm on the main points contested between the Eastern and Western Churches:
9504-477: Was ordained a presbyter (priest) by Evagrius of Antioch , the successor of Paulinus by the Eustathian faction in the city. He was destined later to bring about reconciliation between Flavian I of Antioch , Alexandria, and Rome, thus bringing those three sees into communion for the first time in nearly seventy years. In Antioch, over the course of twelve years (386–397), John gained popularity because of
9603-424: Was published in 1983. Another translation was published in 1987 with a preface by Archimandrite (now Archbishop ) Chrysostomos of Etna . ^ a: The exact dates of Photios's birth and death are not known. Most sources list circa 810 and others circa 820 as his year of birth. He died some time between 890 and 895 (probably 891 or 893). ^ b: The case of pseudo-Simeon's Chronicle
9702-476: Was reinstated on November 23. Photios was condemned by the Council of 869–870 , thus putting an end to the schism. During his second patriarchate, however, Ignatios followed a policy not very different from that of Photios. Not long after his condemnation, Photios had reingratiated himself with Basil, and became tutor to the Byzantine emperor's children. From surviving letters of Photios written during his exile at
9801-408: Was young, he had an inclination for the monastic life, but instead he started a secular career. The way to public life was probably opened for him by (according to one account) the marriage of his brother Sergios to Irene, a sister of Empress Theodora , who upon the death of her husband Emperor Theophilos (r. 829–842) in 842, had assumed the regency of the Byzantine Empire. Photios became a captain of
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