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132-593: In prehistoric times there were paleolithic settlements in caves in Piloña such as Aviao (Espinaredo) Cave, Collaréu Cave, and La Peña Ferran (Ferran Rock) which were excavated by the Count de la Vega del Sella in the 1920s. There are several sites with paleolithic rock art and Neanderthal remains, including Sidrón Cave in Borines. Piloña lies in a narrow basin that runs parallel with the coast. Over time it formed part of

264-405: A subspecies of modern human as Homo sapiens neanderthalensis . This would necessitate the classification of modern humans as H. sapiens sapiens . A large part of the controversy stems from the vagueness of the term "species", as it is generally used to distinguish two genetically isolated populations, but admixture between modern humans and Neanderthals is known to have occurred. However,

396-780: A 60,000-year-old Neanderthal burial site, " Shanidar IV ", in northern Iraq has yielded large amounts of pollen from eight plant species, seven of which are used now as herbal remedies. Also, a mushroom was found in the personal effects of Ötzi the Iceman , whose body was frozen in the Ötztal Alps for more than 5,000 years. The mushroom was probably used against whipworm . In ancient Sumeria , hundreds of medicinal plants including myrrh and opium are listed on clay tablets from around 3000 BC. The ancient Egyptian Ebers Papyrus lists over 800 plant medicines such as aloe , cannabis , castor bean , garlic , juniper , and mandrake . In antiquity, various cultures across Europe, including

528-660: A Neanderthal from Monti Lessini , Italy, and possibly Cueva del Sidrón, Spain. However, as in modern humans, red was probably not a very common hair colour because the variant is not present in many other sequenced Neanderthals. Medicinal plants#Prehistoric times Medicinal plants , also called medicinal herbs , have been discovered and used in traditional medicine practices since prehistoric times. Plants synthesize hundreds of chemical compounds for various functions, including defense and protection against insects , fungi , diseases , and herbivorous mammals . The earliest historical records of herbs are found from

660-644: A Neanderthal in a modern business suit and hat to emphasise that they would be, more or less, indistinguishable from modern humans had they survived into the present. William Golding 's 1955 novel The Inheritors depicts Neanderthals as much more emotional and civilised. However, Boule's image continued to influence works until the 1960s. In modern-day, Neanderthal reconstructions are often very humanlike. Hybridisation between Neanderthals and early modern humans had been suggested early on, such as by English anthropologist Thomas Huxley in 1890, Danish ethnographer Hans Peder Steensby in 1907, and Coon in 1962. In

792-650: A Neanderthal/ H. heidelbergensis lineage. Eight hundred thousand years ago has H. antecessor as the LCA, but different variations of this model would push the date back to 1 million years ago. However, a 2020 analysis of H. antecessor enamel proteomes suggests that H. antecessor is related but not a direct ancestor. DNA studies have yielded various results for the Neanderthal/human divergence time, such as 538–315, 553–321, 565–503, 654–475, 690–550, 765–550, 741–317, and 800–520,000 years ago; and

924-636: A cold climate, but they may also have been adaptations for sprinting in the warmer, forested landscape that Neanderthals often inhabited. They had cold-specific adaptations, such as specialised body-fat storage and an enlarged nose to warm air (although the nose could have been caused by genetic drift ). Average Neanderthal men stood around 165 cm (5 ft 5 in) and women 153 cm (5 ft 0 in) tall, similar to pre-industrial modern Europeans. The braincases of Neanderthal men and women averaged about 1,600 cm (98 cu in) and 1,300 cm (79 cu in), respectively, which

1056-489: A combination of these factors. Neanderthals lived in a high-stress environment with high trauma rates, and about 80% died before the age of 40. The total population of Neanderthals remained low, and interbreeding with humans tended toward a loss of Neanderthal genes over time. They lacked effective long-distance networks. Despite this, there is evidence of regional cultures and regular communication between communities, possibly moving between caves seasonally. For much of

1188-543: A dental analysis concluded before 800,000 years ago. Neanderthals and Denisovans are more closely related to each other than they are to modern humans, meaning the Neanderthal/Denisovan split occurred after their split with modern humans. Assuming a mutation rate of 1 × 10 or 0.5 × 10 per base pair (bp) per year, the Neanderthal/Denisovan split occurred around either 236–190,000 or 473–381,000 years ago, respectively. Using 1.1 × 10 per generation with

1320-562: A different group of archaic humans, in Siberia. Around 1–4% of genomes of Eurasians , Indigenous Australians , Melanesians , Native Americans and North Africans is of Neanderthal ancestry, while most inhabitants of sub-Saharan Africa have around 0.3% of Neanderthal genes, save possible traces from early sapiens-to-Neanderthal gene flow and/or more recent back-migration of Eurasians to Africa. In all, about 20% of distinctly Neanderthal gene variants survive in modern humans. Although many of

1452-612: A distinct species, though some regard it as a subspecies of Homo sapiens ) who lived in Eurasia until about 40,000 years ago. The type specimen , Neanderthal 1 , was found in 1856 in the Neander Valley in present-day Germany. It is not clear when the line of Neanderthals split from that of modern humans ; studies have produced various times ranging from 315,000 to more than 800,000 years ago. The date of divergence of Neanderthals from their ancestor H. heidelbergensis

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1584-482: A healthier labour force. However, development of plants or extracts having potential medicinal uses is blunted by weak scientific evidence, poor practices in the process of drug development , and insufficient financing. All plants produce chemical compounds which give them an evolutionary advantage, such as defending against herbivores or, in the example of salicylic acid , as a hormone in plant defenses. These phytochemicals have potential for use as drugs, and

1716-442: A high-quality Neanderthal genome preserved in a toe bone from Denisova Cave, Siberia. Homo sapiens Denisovan from Denisova Cave Denisovan from Baishiya Karst Cave Neanderthal from Denisova Cave Neanderthal from Sidrón Cave Neanderthal from Vindija Cave Neanderthals are hominids in the genus Homo , humans, and generally classified as a distinct species , H. neanderthalensis , although sometimes as

1848-609: A lack of evidence of Southern Scandinavian occupation is (at least during the Eemian interglacial) due to the former explanation and a lack of research in the area. Middle Palaeolithic artefacts have been found up to 60°N on the Russian plains, but these are more likely attributed to modern humans. A 2017 study claimed the presence of Homo at the 130,000-year-old Californian Cerutti Mastodon site in North America, but this

1980-958: A larger cerebellum . Neanderthal brains also have larger occipital lobes (relating to the classic occurrence of an occipital bun in Neanderthal skull anatomy, as well as the greater width of their skulls), which implies internal differences in the proportionality of brain-internal regions, relative to Homo sapiens, consistent with external measurements obtained with fossil skulls. Their brains also have larger temporal lobe poles, wider orbitofrontal cortex, and larger olfactory bulbs, suggesting potential differences in language comprehension and associations with emotions ( temporal functions ), decision making (the orbitofrontal cortex ) and sense of smell ( olfactory bulbs ). Their brains also show different rates of brain growth and development. Such differences, while slight, would have been visible to natural selection and may underlie and explain differences in

2112-408: A larger diaphragm and possibly greater lung capacity . The lung capacity of Kebara 2 was estimated to have been 9.04 L (2.39 US gal), compared to the average human capacity of 6 L (1.6 US gal) for males and 4.7 L (1.2 US gal) for females. The Neanderthal chest was also more pronounced (expanded front-to-back, or antero-posteriorly). The sacrum (where

2244-548: A legitimate species. The most influential specimen was La Chapelle-aux-Saints 1 ("The Old Man") from La Chapelle-aux-Saints , France. French palaeontologist Marcellin Boule authored several publications, among the first to establish palaeontology as a science, detailing the specimen, but reconstructed him as slouching, ape-like, and only remotely related to modern humans. The 1912 'discovery' of Piltdown Man (a hoax), appearing much more similar to modern humans than Neanderthals,

2376-568: A lengthening of the head (phase 1), which then led to other changes in skull anatomy (phase 2). However, Neanderthal anatomy may not have been driven entirely by adapting to cold weather. Accretion holds that Neanderthals slowly evolved over time from the ancestral H. heidelbergensis , divided into four stages: early-pre-Neanderthals ( MIS 12 , Elster glaciation ), pre-Neanderthals (MIS 11 – 9 , Holstein interglacial ), early Neanderthals (MIS 7– 5 , Saale glaciation – Eemian ), and classic Neanderthals (MIS 4–3, Würm glaciation ). Numerous dates for

2508-542: A more forward direction, by comparison. Neanderthal eyeballs are larger than those of modern humans. One study proposed that this was due to Neanderthals having enhanced visual abilities, at the expense of neocortical and social development. However, this study was rejected by other researchers who concluded that eyeball size does not offer any evidence for the cognitive abilities of Neanderthal or modern humans. The projected Neanderthal nose and paranasal sinuses have generally been explained as having warmed air as it entered

2640-400: A more recent mitochondrial LCA (observable by studying mtDNA) and Y chromosome LCA. This likely resulted from an interbreeding event subsequent to the Neanderthal/Denisovan split. This involved either introgression coming from an unknown archaic human into Denisovans, or introgression from an earlier unidentified modern human wave from Africa into Neanderthals. The fact that the mtDNA of

2772-510: A network called the International Regulatory Cooperation for Herbal Medicines to try to improve the quality of medical products made from medicinal plants and the claims made for them. In 2015, only around 20% of countries had well-functioning regulatory agencies, while 30% had none, and around half had limited regulatory capacity. In India, where Ayurveda has been practised for centuries, herbal remedies are

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2904-544: A new generation every 29 years, the time is 744,000 years ago. Using 5 × 10 nucleotide sites per year, it is 616,000 years ago. Using the latter dates, the split had likely already occurred by the time hominins spread out across Europe, and unique Neanderthal features had begun evolving by 600–500,000 years ago. Before splitting, Neanderthal/Denisovans (or "Neandersovans") migrating out of Africa into Europe apparently interbred with an unidentified "superarchaic" human species who were already present there; these superarchaics were

3036-431: A policy on traditional medicine in 1991, and since then has published guidelines for them, with a series of monographs on widely used herbal medicines. Medicinal plants may provide three main kinds of benefit: health benefits to the people who consume them as medicines; financial benefits to people who harvest, process, and distribute them for sale; and society-wide benefits, such as job opportunities, taxation income, and

3168-504: A protrusion on the back of the skull, although it is within the range of variation for modern humans who have it. It is caused by the cranial base and temporal bones being placed higher and more towards the front of the skull, and a flatter skullcap . The Neanderthal face is characterised by subnasal as well as mid-facial prognathism , where the zygomatic arches are positioned in a rearward location relative to modern humans, while their maxillary bones and nasal bones are positioned in

3300-423: A pure chemical. Extraction can be practical when the compound in question is complex. Plant medicines are in wide use around the world. In most of the developing world, especially in rural areas, local traditional medicine , including herbalism, is the only source of health care for people, while in the developed world , alternative medicine including use of dietary supplements is marketed aggressively using

3432-603: A rather large jaw which was once cited as a response to a large bite force evidenced by heavy wearing of Neanderthal front teeth (the "anterior dental loading" hypothesis), but similar wearing trends are seen in contemporary humans. It could also have evolved to fit larger teeth in the jaw, which would better resist wear and abrasion, and the increased wear on the front teeth compared to the back teeth probably stems from repetitive use. Neanderthal dental wear patterns are most similar to those of modern Inuit. The incisors are large and shovel-shaped, and, compared to modern humans, there

3564-599: A result, phytochemicals have frequently proven unsuitable as the lead substances in drug discovery . In the United States over the period 1999 to 2012, despite several hundred applications for new drug status , only two botanical drug candidates had sufficient evidence of medicinal value to be approved by the Food and Drug Administration . The pharmaceutical industry has remained interested in mining traditional uses of medicinal plants in its drug discovery efforts. Of

3696-464: A second variation of BNC2 was also present, which in modern populations is associated with darker skin colour in the UK Biobank . DNA analysis of three Neanderthal females from southeastern Europe indicates that they had brown eyes, dark skin colour and brown hair, with one having red hair. In modern humans, skin and hair colour is regulated by the melanocyte-stimulating hormone —which increases

3828-524: A skull, shares several physical attributes with Neanderthals, although these may be the result of convergent evolution rather than Neanderthals extending their range to the Pacific Ocean. The northernmost bound is generally accepted to have been 55°N , with unambiguous sites known between 50 – 53°N , although this is difficult to assess because glacial advances destroy most human remains, and palaeoanthropologist Trine Kellberg Nielsen has argued that

3960-401: A substance first discovered in a medicinal plant began with salicylic acid in 1853. Around the end of the 19th century, the mood of pharmacy turned against medicinal plants, as enzymes often modified the active ingredients when whole plants were dried, and alkaloids and glycosides purified from plant material started to be preferred. Drug discovery from plants continued to be important through

4092-410: A succession of medicinal plants, starting with morphine from the poppy in 1806, and soon followed by ipecacuanha and strychnos in 1817, quinine from the cinchona tree, and then many others. As chemistry progressed, additional classes of potentially active substances were discovered in plants. Commercial extraction of purified alkaloids including morphine began at Merck in 1826. Synthesis of

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4224-573: A wide array of food, mainly hoofed mammals , but also megafauna , plants, small mammals, birds, and aquatic and marine resources. Although they were probably apex predators , they still competed with cave lions , cave hyenas and other large predators. A number of examples of symbolic thought and Palaeolithic art have been inconclusively attributed to Neanderthals, namely possible ornaments made from bird claws and feathers, shells, collections of unusual objects including crystals and fossils, engravings, music production (possibly indicated by

4356-631: A ~430,000 years old early Neanderthal-line archaic human from Sima de los Huesos in Spain is more closely related to those of Denisovans than to other Neanderthals or modern humans has been cited as evidence in favour of the latter hypothesis. It is largely thought that H. heidelbergensis was the last common ancestor of Neanderthals, Denisovans and modern humans before populations became isolated in Europe, Asia and Africa, respectively. The taxonomic distinction between H. heidelbergensis and Neanderthals

4488-490: Is also unclear. The oldest potential Neanderthal bones date to 430,000 years ago, but the classification remains uncertain. Neanderthals are known from numerous fossils, especially from after 130,000 years ago. The reasons for Neanderthal extinction are disputed. Theories for their extinction include demographic factors such as small population size and inbreeding, competitive replacement, interbreeding and assimilation with modern humans, change of climate, disease, or

4620-567: Is always Neandertaler ("inhabitant of the Neander Valley"), whereas Neandertal always refers to the valley. The valley itself was named after the late 17th century German theologian and hymn writer Joachim Neander , who often visited the area. His name in turn means 'new man', being a learned Graecisation of the German surname Neumann . Neanderthal can be pronounced using the /t/ (as in / n i ˈ æ n d ər t ɑː l / ) or

4752-433: Is an antiseptic and was once used as a vermifuge (anti-worm medicine). Medicinal plants demand intensive management. Different species each require their own distinct conditions of cultivation. The World Health Organization recommends the use of rotation to minimise problems with pests and plant diseases. Cultivation may be traditional or may make use of conservation agriculture practices to maintain organic matter in

4884-623: Is considerably larger than the modern human average (1,260 cm (77 cu in) and 1,130 cm (69 cu in), respectively). The Neanderthal skull was more elongated and the brain had smaller parietal lobes and cerebellum, but larger temporal, occipital and orbitofrontal regions. The 2010 Neanderthal genome project 's draft report presented evidence for interbreeding between Neanderthals and modern humans . It possibly occurred 316,000 to 219,000 years ago, but more likely 100,000 years ago and again 65,000 years ago. Neanderthals also appear to have interbred with Denisovans ,

5016-402: Is increasing in developed countries. This brings attendant risks of toxicity and other effects on human health, despite the safe image of herbal remedies. Herbal medicines have been in use since long before modern medicine existed; there was and often still is little or no knowledge of the pharmacological basis of their actions, if any, or of their safety. The World Health Organization formulated

5148-467: Is largely considered implausible. It is unknown how the rapidly fluctuating climate of the last glacial period ( Dansgaard–Oeschger events ) impacted Neanderthals, as warming periods would produce more favourable temperatures but encourage forest growth and deter megafauna, whereas frigid periods would produce the opposite. However, Neanderthals may have preferred a forested landscape. Stable environments with mild mean annual temperatures may have been

5280-484: Is limited by the amount of food it can obtain, which in turn is limited by its technology. Innovation increases with population, but if the population is too low, innovation will not occur very rapidly and the population will remain low. This is consistent with the apparent 150,000 year stagnation in Neanderthal lithic technology. In a sample of 206 Neanderthals, based on the abundance of young and mature adults in comparison to other age demographics, about 80% of them above

5412-442: Is most similar to that of Inuit and Siberian Yupiks among modern humans —and shorter limbs result in higher retention of body heat. Nonetheless, Neanderthals from more temperate climates—such as Iberia—still retain the "hyperarctic" physique. In 2019, English anthropologist John Stewart and colleagues suggested Neanderthals instead were adapted for sprinting, because of evidence of Neanderthals preferring warmer wooded areas over

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5544-513: Is mostly based on a fossil gap in Europe between 300 and 243,000 years ago during marine isotope stage 8. "Neanderthals", by convention, are fossils which date to after this gap. DNA from archaic humans from the 430,000-year-old Sima de los Huesos site in Spain indicate that they are more closely related to Neanderthals than to Denisovans, indicating that the split between Neanderthals and Denisovans must predate this time. The 400,000-year-old Aroeira 3 skull may also represent an early member of

5676-593: Is no reason to presume that because a product comes from nature it must be safe: the existence of powerful natural poisons like atropine and nicotine shows this to be untrue. Further, the high standards applied to conventional medicines do not always apply to plant medicines, and dose can vary widely depending on the growth conditions of plants: older plants may be much more toxic than young ones, for instance. Plant extracts may interact with conventional drugs, both because they may provide an increased dose of similar compounds, and because some phytochemicals interfere with

5808-483: The Altai Mountains in southern Siberia. Pre- and early Neanderthals, on the other hand, seem to have continuously occupied only France, Spain and Italy, although some appear to have moved out of this "core-area" to form temporary settlements eastward (although without leaving Europe). Nonetheless, southwestern France has the highest density of sites for pre-, early and classic Neanderthals. The Neanderthals were

5940-512: The Divje Babe flute ), and Spanish cave paintings contentiously dated to before 65,000 years ago. Some claims of religious beliefs have been made. Neanderthals were likely capable of speech, possibly articulate, although the complexity of their language is not known. Compared with modern humans, Neanderthals had a more robust build and proportionally shorter limbs. Researchers often explain these features as adaptations to conserve heat in

6072-589: The Sumerian civilization, where hundreds of medicinal plants including opium are listed on clay tablets, c.  3000 BC . The Ebers Papyrus from ancient Egypt , c.  1550 BC , describes over 850 plant medicines. The Greek physician Dioscorides , who worked in the Roman army, documented over 1000 recipes for medicines using over 600 medicinal plants in De materia medica , c.  60 AD ; this formed

6204-554: The apothecary shops of Europe in the 1800s, where pharmacists provided local traditional medicines to customers, which included extracts like morphine, quinine, and strychnine. Therapeutically important drugs like camptothecin (from Camptotheca acuminata , used in traditional Chinese medicine) and taxol (from the Pacific yew, Taxus brevifolia ) were derived from medicinal plants. The Vinca alkaloids vincristine and vinblastine , used as anti-cancer drugs, were discovered in

6336-402: The body mass index for Neanderthal males was calculated to be 26.9–28.2, which in modern humans correlates to being overweight . This indicates a very robust build. The Neanderthal LEPR gene concerned with storing fat and body heat production is similar to that of the woolly mammoth , and so was likely an adaptation for cold climate. The neck vertebrae of Neanderthals are thicker from

6468-462: The pelvis connects to the spine ) was more vertically inclined, and was placed lower in relation to the pelvis, causing the spine to be less curved (exhibit less lordosis ) and to fold in on itself somewhat (to be invaginated). In modern populations, this condition affects just a proportion of the population, and is known as a lumbarised sacrum. Such modifications to the spine would have enhanced side-to-side (mediolateral) flexion , better supporting

6600-536: The "Circa Instans," which served as practical guides for herbal remedies. In the Iberian Peninsula, the regions of the North remained independent during the period of Islamic occupation, and retained their traditional and indigenous medical practices. Galicia and Asturias, possessed a rich herbal heritage shaped by its Celtic and Roman influences. The Galician people were known for their strong connection to

6732-579: The 1073 small-molecule drugs approved in the period 1981 to 2010, over half were either directly derived from or inspired by natural substances. Among cancer treatments, of 185 small-molecule drugs approved in the period from 1981 to 2019, 65% were derived from or inspired by natural substances. Plant medicines can cause adverse effects and even death, whether by side-effects of their active substances, by adulteration or contamination, by overdose, or by inappropriate prescription. Many such effects are known, while others remain to be explored scientifically. There

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6864-533: The 140- to 120,000-year-old Israeli Nesher Ramla remains, which feature a mix of Neanderthal and more ancient H. erectus traits, represent one such source population which recolonised Europe following a glacial period. Like modern humans, Neanderthals probably descended from a very small population with an effective population —the number of individuals who can bear or father children—of 3,000 to 12,000 approximately. However, Neanderthals maintained this very low population, proliferating weakly harmful genes due to

6996-478: The 1911 The Quest for Fire by J.-H. Rosny aîné and the 1927 The Grisly Folk by H. G. Wells in which they are depicted as monsters. In 1911, Scottish anthropologist Arthur Keith reconstructed La Chapelle-aux-Saints 1 as an immediate precursor to modern humans, sitting next to a fire, producing tools, wearing a necklace, and having a more humanlike posture, but this failed to garner much scientific rapport, and Keith later abandoned his thesis in 1915. By

7128-513: The 1950s from the Madagascar periwinkle, Catharanthus roseus . Hundreds of compounds have been identified using ethnobotany , investigating plants used by indigenous peoples for possible medical applications. Some important phytochemicals, including curcumin , epigallocatechin gallate , genistein and resveratrol are pan-assay interference compounds , meaning that in vitro studies of their activity often provide unreliable data. As

7260-404: The 20th century and into the 21st, with important anti-cancer drugs from yew and Madagascar periwinkle . Medicinal plants are used with the intention of maintaining health, to be administered for a specific condition, or both, whether in modern medicine or in traditional medicine . The Food and Agriculture Organization estimated in 2002 that over 50,000 medicinal plants are used across

7392-537: The Brazilian Amazon, assisted by researchers, have described 101 plant species used for traditional medicines. Drugs derived from plants including opiates, cocaine and cannabis have both medical and recreational uses . Different countries have at various times made use of illegal drugs , partly on the basis of the risks involved in taking psychoactive drugs . Plant medicines have often not been tested systematically, but have come into use informally over

7524-512: The COVID-19 pandemic, which led to the United States taking action to stop the deceptive marketing of herbal products to combat the virus. Where medicinal plants are harvested from the wild rather than cultivated, they are subject to both general and specific threats. General threats include climate change and habitat loss to development and agriculture. A specific threat is over-collection to meet rising demand for medicines. A case in point

7656-611: The Catalonia region of northeastern Spain, was a hub of cultural exchange during the Middle Ages, fostering the preservation and dissemination of medical knowledge. Catalan herbalists, known as "herbolarios," compiled manuscripts detailing the properties and uses of medicinal plants found in the region. The University of Barcelona, founded in 1450, played a pivotal role in advancing herbal medicine through its botanical gardens and academic pursuits. In Scotland and England, herbalism

7788-559: The Elder's "Naturalis Historia" contains valuable insights into Roman medical plant practices Among the Celtic peoples of ancient Europe, herbalism played a vital role in both medicine and spirituality. Druids, the religious leaders of the Celts, were reputed to possess deep knowledge of plants and their medicinal properties. Although written records are scarce, archaeological evidence, such as

7920-693: The Islamic world, particularly in Baghdad and in Al-Andalus . Among many works on medicinal plants, Abulcasis (936–1013) of Cordoba wrote The Book of Simples , and Ibn al-Baitar (1197–1248) recorded hundreds of medicinal herbs such as Aconitum , nux vomica , and tamarind in his Corpus of Simples . Avicenna included many plants in his 1025 The Canon of Medicine . Abu-Rayhan Biruni , Ibn Zuhr , Peter of Spain , and John of St Amand wrote further pharmacopoeias . The Early Modern period saw

8052-689: The Italian Visogliano and Fontana Ranuccio sites indicate that Neanderthal dental features had evolved by around 450–430,000 years ago during the Middle Pleistocene . There are two main hypotheses regarding the evolution of Neanderthals following the Neanderthal/human split: two-phase and accretion. Two-phase argues that a single major environmental event—such as the Saale glaciation —caused European H. heidelbergensis to increase rapidly in body size and robustness, as well as undergoing

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8184-456: The Neanderthal braincase to that of a chimpanzee and argued that they were "incapable of moral and [ theistic ] conceptions". The first Neanderthal remains— Engis 2 (a skull)—were discovered in 1829 by Dutch/Belgian prehistorian Philippe-Charles Schmerling in the Grottes d'Engis , Belgium. He concluded that these "poorly developed" human remains must have been buried at the same time and by

8316-525: The Neanderthal line. It is possible that gene flow between Western Europe and Africa during the Middle Pleistocene, may have obscured Neanderthal characteristics in some Middle Pleistocene European hominin specimens, such those from Ceprano , Italy, and Sićevo Gorge , Serbia. The fossil record is much more complete from 130,000 years ago onwards, and specimens from this period make up the bulk of known Neanderthal skeletons. Dental remains from

8448-484: The Neanderthal/human split have been suggested. The date of around 250,000 years ago cites " H. helmei " as being the last common ancestor (LCA), and the split is associated with the Levallois technique of making stone tools. The date of about 400,000 years ago uses H. heidelbergensis as the LCA. Estimates of 600,000 years ago assume that " H. rhodesiensis " was the LCA, which split off into modern human lineage and

8580-644: The Old World and the Americas in the 15th and 16th centuries. Medicinal herbs arriving in the Americas included garlic, ginger, and turmeric; coffee, tobacco and coca travelled in the other direction. In Mexico, the sixteenth century Badianus Manuscript described medicinal plants available in Central America. The place of plants in medicine was radically altered in the 19th century by the application of chemical analysis . Alkaloids were isolated from

8712-549: The Romans, Celts, and Nordic peoples, also practiced herbal medicine as a significant component of their healing traditions. The Romans had a rich tradition of herbal medicine, drawing upon knowledge inherited from the Greeks and expanding upon it. Notable works include those of Pedanius Dioscorides, whose "De Materia Medica" served as a comprehensive guide to medicinal plants and remained influential for centuries. Additionally, Pliny

8844-547: The abilities to create fire , build cave hearths (to cook food, keep warm, defend themselves from animals, placing it at the centre of their homes), make adhesive birch bark tar , craft at least simple clothes similar to blankets and ponchos, weave, go seafaring through the Mediterranean, make use of medicinal plants , treat severe injuries, store food, and use various cooking techniques such as roasting , boiling , and smoking . Neanderthals consumed

8976-429: The absence of Neanderthal-derived patrilineal Y-chromosome and matrilineal mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) in modern humans, along with the underrepresentation of Neanderthal X chromosome DNA, could imply reduced fertility or frequent sterility of some hybrid crosses, representing a partial biological reproductive barrier between the groups, and therefore species distinction. In 2014 geneticist Svante Pääbo summarised

9108-401: The actual function would be unclear, so they may not be a good indicator of evolutionary pressures to evolve such a nose. Further, a computer reconstruction of the Neanderthal nose and predicted soft tissue patterns shows some similarities to those of modern Arctic peoples, potentially meaning the noses of both populations convergently evolved for breathing cold, dry air. Neanderthals featured

9240-597: The age of 20 died before reaching 40. This high mortality rate was probably due to their high-stress environment. However, it has also been estimated that the age pyramids for Neanderthals and contemporary modern humans were the same. Infant mortality was estimated to have been very high for Neanderthals, about 43% in northern Eurasia. Neanderthals had more robust and stockier builds than typical modern humans, wider and barrel-shaped rib cages; wider pelvises; and proportionally shorter forearms and forelegs. Based on 45 Neanderthal long bones from 14 men and 7 women,

9372-524: The astringent rind of the pomegranate , containing polyphenols called punicalagins , is used as a medicine, with no scientific proof of efficacy. Terpenes and terpenoids of many kinds are found in a variety of medicinal plants, and in resinous plants such as the conifers . They are strongly aromatic and serve to repel herbivores. Their scent makes them useful in essential oils , whether for perfumes such as rose and lavender , or for aromatherapy . Some have medicinal uses: for example, thymol

9504-422: The average height was 164 to 168 cm (5 ft 5 in to 5 ft 6 in) for males and 152 to 156 cm (5 ft 0 in to 5 ft 1 in) for females. For comparison, the average height of 20 males and 10 females Upper Palaeolithic humans is, respectively, 176.2 cm (5 ft 9.4 in) and 162.9 cm (5 ft 4.1 in), although this decreases by 10 cm (4 in) nearer

9636-489: The average was about 1,478 cm (90.2 cu in) disregarding sex, and modern human brain size is suggested to have decreased since the Upper Palaeolithic. The largest Neanderthal brain, Amud 1 , was calculated to be 1,736 cm (105.9 cu in), one of the largest ever recorded in hominids. Both Neanderthal and human infants measure about 400 cm (24 cu in). When viewed from

9768-716: The basis of pharmacopoeias for some 1500 years. Drug research sometimes makes use of ethnobotany to search for pharmacologically active substances, and this approach has yielded hundreds of useful compounds. These include the common drugs aspirin , digoxin , quinine , and opium . The compounds found in plants are diverse, with most in four biochemical classes: alkaloids , glycosides , polyphenols , and terpenes . Few of these are scientifically confirmed as medicines or used in conventional medicine. Medicinal plants are widely used as folk medicine in non-industrialized societies, mainly because they are readily available and cheaper than modern medicines. The annual global export value of

9900-737: The body's systems that metabolise drugs in the liver including the cytochrome P450 system, making the drugs last longer in the body and have a cumulative effect. Plant medicines can be dangerous during pregnancy. Since plants may contain many different substances, plant extracts may have complex effects on the human body. Herbal medicine and dietary supplement products have been criticized as not having sufficient standards or scientific evidence to confirm their contents, safety, and presumed efficacy. Companies often make false claims about their herbal products promising health benefits that aren't backed by evidence to generate more sales. The market for dietary supplements and nutraceuticals grew by 5% during

10032-410: The centuries. By 2007, clinical trials had demonstrated potentially useful activity in nearly 16% of herbal extracts; there was limited in vitro or in vivo evidence for roughly half the extracts; there was only phytochemical evidence for around 20%; 0.5% were allergenic or toxic; and some 12% had basically never been studied scientifically. Cancer Research UK caution that there is no reliable evidence for

10164-614: The claims of traditional medicine. As of 2015, most products made from medicinal plants had not been tested for their safety and efficacy, and products that were marketed in developed economies and provided in the undeveloped world by traditional healers were of uneven quality, sometimes containing dangerous contaminants. Traditional Chinese medicine makes use of a wide variety of plants, among other materials and techniques. Researchers from Kew Gardens found 104 species used for diabetes in Central America, of which seven had been identified in at least three separate studies. The Yanomami of

10296-637: The colder mammoth steppe , and DNA analysis indicating a higher proportion of fast-twitch muscle fibres in Neanderthals than in modern humans. He explained their body proportions and greater muscle mass as adaptations to sprinting as opposed to the endurance-oriented modern human physique , as persistence hunting may only be effective in hot climates where the hunter can run prey to the point of heat exhaustion ( hyperthermia ). They had longer heel bones , reducing their ability for endurance running, and their shorter limbs would have reduced moment arm at

10428-415: The content and known pharmacological activity of these substances in medicinal plants is the scientific basis for their use in modern medicine, if scientifically confirmed. For instance, daffodils ( Narcissus ) contain nine groups of alkaloids including galantamine , licensed for use against Alzheimer's disease . The alkaloids are bitter-tasting and toxic, and concentrated in the parts of the plant such as

10560-429: The controversy, describing such " taxonomic wars" as unresolvable, "since there is no definition of species perfectly describing the case". Neanderthals are thought to have been more closely related to Denisovans than to modern humans. Likewise, Neanderthals and Denisovans share a more recent last common ancestor (LCA) than to modern humans, based on nuclear DNA (nDNA). However, Neanderthals and modern humans share

10692-581: The cranium, thigh bones, right arm, left humerus and ulna , left ilium (hip bone), part of the right shoulder blade , and pieces of the ribs . Following Charles Darwin 's On the Origin of Species , Fuhlrott and Schaaffhausen argued the bones represented an ancient modern human form; Schaaffhausen, a social Darwinist , believed that humans linearly progressed from savage to civilised, and so concluded that Neanderthals were barbarous cave-dwellers. Fuhlrott and Schaaffhausen met opposition namely from

10824-470: The descendants of a very early migration out of Africa around 1.9 mya. Pre- and early Neanderthals, living before the Eemian interglacial (130,000 years ago), are poorly known and come mostly from Western European sites. From 130,000 years ago onwards, the quality of the fossil record increases dramatically with classic Neanderthals, who are recorded from Western, Central, Eastern and Mediterranean Europe, as well as Southwest , Central and Northern Asia up to

10956-528: The discovery of medicinal plants at Celtic sites, provides insight into their herbal practices In the Nordic regions, including Scandinavia and parts of Germany, herbal medicine was also prevalent in ancient times. The Norse sagas and Eddic poetry often mention the use of herbs for healing purposes. Additionally, archaeological findings, such as the remains of medicinal plants in Viking-age graves, attest to

11088-558: The early 2000s, supposed hybrid specimens were discovered: Lagar Velho 1 and Muierii 1 . However, similar anatomy could also have been caused by adapting to a similar environment rather than interbreeding. Neanderthal admixture was found to be present in modern populations in 2010 with the mapping of the first Neanderthal genome sequence. This was based on three specimens in Vindija Cave , Croatia, which contained almost 4% archaic DNA (allowing for near complete sequencing of

11220-475: The early 20th century, European researchers depicted Neanderthals as primitive, unintelligent and brutish. Although knowledge and perception of them has markedly changed since then in the scientific community, the image of the unevolved caveman archetype remains prevalent in popular culture. In truth, Neanderthal technology was quite sophisticated. It includes the Mousterian stone-tool industry as well as

11352-562: The effectiveness of herbal remedies for cancer. A 2012 phylogenetic study built a family tree down to genus level using 20,000 species to compare the medicinal plants of three regions, Nepal, New Zealand and the Cape of South Africa. It discovered that the species used traditionally to treat the same types of condition belonged to the same groups of plants in all three regions, giving a "strong phylogenetic signal". Since many plants that yield pharmaceutical drugs belong to just these groups, and

11484-659: The end of the period based on 21 males and 15 females; and the average in the year 1900 was 163 cm (5 ft 4 in) and 152.7 cm (5 ft 0 in), respectively. The fossil record shows that adult Neanderthals varied from about 147.5 to 177 cm (4 ft 10 in to 5 ft 10 in) in height, although some may have grown much taller (73.8 to 184.8 cm based on footprint length and from 65.8 to 189.3 cm based on footprint width). For Neanderthal weight, samples of 26 specimens found an average of 77.6 kg (171 lb) for males and 66.4 kg (146 lb) for females. Using 76 kg (168 lb),

11616-494: The first human species to permanently occupy Europe as the continent was only sporadically occupied by earlier humans. The southernmost find was recorded at Shuqba Cave , Levant; reports of Neanderthals from the North African Jebel Irhoud and Haua Fteah have been reidentified as H. sapiens . Their easternmost presence is recorded at Denisova Cave , Siberia 85°E ; the southeast Chinese Maba Man ,

11748-475: The flourishing of illustrated herbals across Europe, starting with the 1526 Grete Herball . John Gerard wrote his famous The Herball or General History of Plants in 1597, based on Rembert Dodoens , and Nicholas Culpeper published his The English Physician Enlarged . Many new plant medicines arrived in Europe as products of Early Modern exploration and the resulting Columbian Exchange , in which livestock, crops and technologies were transferred between

11880-399: The front to the rear and transversely than those of (most) modern humans, leading to stability, possibly to accommodate a different head shape and size. Although the Neanderthal thorax (where the ribcage is) was similar in size to modern humans, the longer and straighter ribs would have equated to a widened mid-lower thorax and stronger breathing in the lower thorax, which are indicative of

12012-403: The gene variants inherited from Neanderthals may have been detrimental and selected out, Neanderthal introgression appears to have affected the modern human immune system , and is also implicated in several other biological functions and structures, but a large portion appears to be non-coding DNA . Neanderthals are named after the Neander Valley in which the first identified specimen

12144-400: The genome). However, there was approximately 1 error for every 200 letters ( base pairs ) based on the implausibly high mutation rate, probably due to the preservation of the sample. In 2012, British-American geneticist Graham Coop hypothesised that they instead found evidence of a different archaic human species interbreeding with modern humans, which was disproven in 2013 by the sequencing of

12276-452: The groups were independently used in three different world regions, the results were taken to mean 1) that these plant groups do have potential for medicinal efficacy, 2) that undefined pharmacological activity is associated with use in traditional medicine, and 3) that the use of a phylogenetic groups for possible plant medicines in one region may predict their use in the other regions. The World Health Organization (WHO) has been coordinating

12408-676: The importance of herbal remedies in Nordic culture From ancient times to the present, Ayurvedic medicine as documented in the Atharva Veda , the Rig Veda and the Sushruta Samhita has used hundreds of herbs and spices, such as turmeric , which contains curcumin . The Chinese pharmacopoeia , the Shennong Ben Cao Jing records plant medicines such as chaulmoogra for leprosy, ephedra , and hemp . This

12540-526: The individual reconstructed on the basis of the skull was occasionally called "the Neanderthal man". The binomial name Homo neanderthalensis —extending the name "Neanderthal man" from the individual specimen to the entire species, and formally recognising it as distinct from humans—was first proposed by Irish geologist William King in a paper read to the 33rd British Science Association in 1863. However, in 1864, he recommended that Neanderthals and modern humans be classified in different genera as he compared

12672-437: The land and nature and preserved botanical knowledge, with healers, known as "curandeiros" or "meigas," who relied on local plants for healing purposes The Asturian landscape, characterized by lush forests and mountainous terrain, provided a rich source of medicinal herbs used in traditional healing practices, with "yerbatos," who possessed extensive knowledge of local plants and their medicinal properties Barcelona, located in

12804-522: The limbs, allowing for greater net rotational force at the wrists and ankles, causing faster acceleration. In 1981, American palaeoanthropologist Erik Trinkaus made note of this alternate explanation, but considered it less likely. Neanderthals had less developed chins, sloping foreheads, and longer, broader, more projecting noses. The Neanderthal skull is typically more elongated, but also wider, and less globular than that of most modern humans, and features much more of an occipital bun , or "chignon",

12936-419: The lungs and retained moisture ("nasal radiator" hypothesis); if their noses were wider, it would differ to the generally narrowed shape in cold-adapted creatures, and that it would have been caused instead by genetic drift . Also, the sinuses reconstructed wide are not grossly large, being comparable in size to those of modern humans. However, if sinus size is not an important factor for breathing cold air, then

13068-463: The majority of what are often informal attempted treatments, not tested scientifically. The World Health Organization estimates, without reliable data, that some 80 percent of the world's population depends mainly on traditional medicine (including but not limited to plants); perhaps some two billion people are largely reliant on medicinal plants. The use of plant-based materials including herbal or natural health products with supposed health benefits,

13200-494: The material record in things like social behaviours, technological innovation and artistic output. The lack of sunlight most likely led to the proliferation of lighter skin in Neanderthals; however, it has been recently claimed that light skin in modern Europeans was not particularly prolific until perhaps the Bronze Age . Genetically, BNC2 was present in Neanderthals, which is associated with light skin colour; however,

13332-475: The middle of the century, based on the exposure of Piltdown Man as a hoax as well as a reexamination of La Chapelle-aux-Saints 1 (who had osteoarthritis which caused slouching in life) and new discoveries, the scientific community began to rework its understanding of Neanderthals. Ideas such as Neanderthal behaviour, intelligence and culture were being discussed, and a more humanlike image of them emerged. In 1939, American anthropologist Carleton Coon reconstructed

13464-528: The most suitable Neanderthal habitats. Populations may have peaked in cold but not extreme intervals, such as marine isotope stages 8 and 6 (respectively, 300,000 and 191,000 years ago during the Saale glaciation). It is possible their range expanded and contracted as the ice retreated and grew, respectively, to avoid permafrost areas, residing in certain refuge zones during glacial maxima. In 2021, Israeli anthropologist Israel Hershkovitz and colleagues suggested

13596-661: The natural path between Oviedo and Cangas de Onís , which connects central Asturias with the Asturian east. Piloña was the largest settlement along that path. In Roman times Beloncio was occupied, and is identified with the town Paelontium mentioned by Ptolemy as the capital of the Astur tribe known as Lugones. There is also evidence of Roman occupation at Borines. The area is poor and depopulating. There were over 20,000 inhabitants in 1930; 8,799 in 2001; and 8,440 in 2005. The three largest towns are Infiesto (with about 20% of

13728-491: The original source of most plant medicines. Human settlements are often surrounded by weeds used as herbal medicines , such as nettle , dandelion and chickweed . Humans were not alone in using herbs as medicines: some animals such as non-human primates , monarch butterflies and sheep ingest medicinal plants when they are ill. Plant samples from prehistoric burial sites are among the lines of evidence that Paleolithic peoples had knowledge of herbal medicine. For instance,

13860-487: The period of the Neanderthal/modern human transition, and Neanderthals may have been at a demographic disadvantage due to a lower fertility rate, a higher infant mortality rate, or a combination of the two. Estimates giving a total population in the higher tens of thousands are contested. A consistently low population may be explained in the context of the " Boserupian Trap ": a population's carrying capacity

13992-417: The plant material in cold wine or distilled spirit to form a tincture . Traditional poultices were made by boiling medicinal plants, wrapping them in a cloth, and applying the resulting parcel externally to the affected part of the body. When modern medicine has identified a drug in a medicinal plant, commercial quantities of the drug may either be synthesised or extracted from plant material, yielding

14124-808: The population), Villamayor and Sevares. All three are on the Piloña River , a left-hand tributary of the Sella River , and on the main highway, the N-634. The area is agricultural with cattle being raised for both milk and meat, and with some production of forest products. There are 24 parishes (administrative divisions) : Neanderthal Neanderthals ( / n i ˈ æ n d ər ˌ t ɑː l , n eɪ -, - ˌ θ ɑː l / nee- AN -də(r)- TAHL , nay-, -⁠ THAHL ; Homo neanderthalensis or H. sapiens neanderthalensis ) are an extinct group of archaic humans (generally regarded as

14256-610: The practice of medieval medicine, which combined elements of Ancient Greek and Roman traditions. Catholic monastic orders played a significant role in preserving and expanding herbal knowledge. Manuscripts like the "Tractatus de Herbis" from the 15th century depict French herbal remedies and their uses. Monasteries and convents served as centers of learning, where monks and nuns cultivated medicinal gardens. Likewise, in Italy, herbalism flourished with contribution Italian physicians like Matthaeus Platearius who compiled herbal manuscripts, such as

14388-451: The preparation of herbal medicines include decoction , powdering, and extraction with alcohol, in each case yielding a mixture of substances. Decoction involves crushing and then boiling the plant material in water to produce a liquid extract that can be taken orally or applied topically. Powdering involves drying the plant material and then crushing it to yield a powder that can be compressed into tablets . Alcohol extraction involves soaking

14520-440: The prolific pathologist Rudolf Virchow who argued against defining new species based on only a single find. In 1872, Virchow erroneously interpreted Neanderthal characteristics as evidence of senility , disease and malformation instead of archaicness, which stalled Neanderthal research until the end of the century. By the early 20th century, numerous other Neanderthal discoveries were made, establishing H. neanderthalensis as

14652-510: The proportion of eumelanin (black pigment) to phaeomelanin (red pigment)—which is encoded by the MC1R gene. There are five known variants in modern humans of the gene which cause loss-of-function and are associated with light skin and hair colour, and another unknown variant in Neanderthals (the R307G variant) which could be associated with pale skin and red hair. The R307G variant was identified in

14784-455: The rear, the Neanderthal braincase has lower, wider, rounder appearance than in anatomically modern humans. This characteristic shape is referred to as "en bombe" (bomb-like), and is unique to Neanderthals, with all other hominid species (including most modern humans) generally having narrow and relatively upright cranial vaults, when viewed from behind. The Neanderthal brain would have been characterised by relatively smaller parietal lobes and

14916-480: The reduced effectivity of natural selection . Various studies, using mtDNA analysis, yield varying effective populations, such as about 1,000 to 5,000; 5,000 to 9,000 remaining constant; or 3,000 to 25,000 steadily increasing until 52,000 years ago before declining until extinction. Archaeological evidence suggests that there was a tenfold increase in the modern human population in Western Europe during

15048-502: The responsibility of a government department, AYUSH , under the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare. WHO has set out a strategy for traditional medicines with four objectives: to integrate them as policy into national healthcare systems; to provide knowledge and guidance on their safety, efficacy, and quality; to increase their availability and affordability; and to promote their rational, therapeutically sound usage. WHO notes in

15180-702: The same causes as the co-existing remains of extinct animal species. In 1848, Gibraltar 1 from Forbes' Quarry was presented to the Gibraltar Scientific Society by their Secretary Lieutenant Edmund Henry Réné Flint, but was thought to be a modern human skull. In 1856, local schoolteacher Johann Carl Fuhlrott recognised bones from Kleine Feldhofer Grotte in Neander Valley—Neanderthal 1 (the holotype specimen )—as distinct from modern humans, and gave them to German anthropologist Hermann Schaaffhausen to study in 1857. It comprised

15312-540: The same, about 285  N (64 lbf) and 255 N (57 lbf) in modern human males and females, respectively. The Neanderthal braincase averages 1,640 cm (100 cu in) for males and 1,460 cm (89 cu in) for females, which is significantly larger than the averages for all groups of extant humans; for example, modern European males average 1,362 cm (83.1 cu in) and females 1,201 cm (73.3 cu in). For 28 modern human specimens from 190,000 to 25,000 years ago,

15444-644: The seventeenth century. During the Middle Ages, herbalism continued to flourish across Europe, with distinct traditions emerging in various regions, often influenced by cultural, religious, indigenous, and geographical factors. In the Early Middle Ages , Benedictine monasteries preserved medical knowledge in Europe , translating and copying classical texts and maintaining herb gardens . Hildegard of Bingen wrote Causae et Curae ("Causes and Cures") on medicine. In France, herbalism thrived alongside

15576-490: The soil and to conserve water, for example with no-till farming systems. In many medicinal and aromatic plants, plant characteristics vary widely with soil type and cropping strategy, so care is required to obtain satisfactory yields. Medicinal plants are often tough and fibrous, requiring some form of preparation to make them convenient to administer. According to the Institute for Traditional Medicine, common methods for

15708-402: The specific threat of over-collection to meet market demand. Plants, including many now used as culinary herbs and spices , have been used as medicines, not necessarily effectively, from prehistoric times. Spices have been used partly to counter food spoilage bacteria, especially in hot climates, and especially in meat dishes that spoil more readily. Angiosperms ( flowering plants ) were

15840-413: The standard English pronunciation of th with the fricative / θ / (as / n i ˈ æ n d ər θ ɔː l / ). The latter pronunciation, nevertheless, has no basis in the original German word which is pronounced always with a t regardless of the historical spelling. Neanderthal 1 , the type specimen , was known as the "Neanderthal cranium" or "Neanderthal skull" in anthropological literature, and

15972-839: The stem most likely to be eaten by herbivores; they may also protect against parasites . Modern knowledge of medicinal plants is being systematised in the Medicinal Plant Transcriptomics Database, which by 2011 provided a sequence reference for the transcriptome of some thirty species. Major classes of plant phytochemicals are described below, with examples of plants that contain them. Alkaloids are bitter-tasting chemicals, very widespread in nature, and often toxic, found in many medicinal plants. There are several classes with different modes of action as drugs, both recreational and pharmaceutical. Medicines of different classes include atropine , scopolamine , and hyoscyamine (all from nightshade ),

16104-404: The strategy that countries are experiencing seven challenges to such implementation, namely in developing and enforcing policy; in integration; in safety and quality, especially in assessment of products and qualification of practitioners; in controlling advertising; in research and development; in education and training; and in the sharing of information. The pharmaceutical industry has roots in

16236-677: The thousands of types of plants with medicinal properties was estimated to be US$ 60 billion per year and growing at the rate of 6% per annum. In many countries, there is little regulation of traditional medicine, but the World Health Organization coordinates a network to encourage safe and rational use. The botanical herbal market has been criticized for being poorly regulated and containing placebo and pseudoscience products with no scientific research to support their medical claims. Medicinal plants face both general threats, such as climate change and habitat destruction , and

16368-686: The traditional medicine berberine (from plants such as Berberis and Mahonia ), caffeine ( Coffea ), cocaine ( Coca ), ephedrine ( Ephedra ), morphine ( opium poppy ), nicotine ( tobacco ), reserpine ( Rauvolfia serpentina ), quinidine and quinine ( Cinchona ), vincamine ( Vinca minor ), and vincristine ( Catharanthus roseus ). Anthraquinone glycosides are found in medicinal plants such as rhubarb , cascara , and Alexandrian senna . Plant-based laxatives made from such plants include senna , rhubarb and Aloe . The cardiac glycosides are powerful drugs from medicinal plants including foxglove and lily of

16500-796: The valley . They include digoxin and digitoxin which support the beating of the heart, and act as diuretics . Polyphenols of several classes are widespread in plants, having diverse roles in defenses against plant diseases and predators. They include hormone-mimicking phytoestrogens and astringent tannins . Plants containing phytoestrogens have been administered for centuries for gynecological disorders, such as fertility, menstrual, and menopausal problems. Among these plants are Pueraria mirifica , kudzu , angelica , fennel , and anise . Many polyphenolic extracts, such as from grape seeds , olives or maritime pine bark , are sold as dietary supplements and cosmetics without proof or legal health claims for medicinal effects. In Ayurveda ,

16632-442: The wider lower thorax. It is claimed by some that this feature would be normal for all Homo , even tropically-adapted Homo ergaster or erectus , with the condition of a narrower thorax in most modern humans being a unique characteristic. Body proportions are usually cited as being "hyperarctic" as adaptations to the cold, because they are similar to those of human populations which developed in cold climates —the Neanderthal build

16764-407: The world. The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew more conservatively estimated in 2016 that 17,810 plant species have a medicinal use, out of some 30,000 plants for which a use of any kind is documented. In modern medicine, around a quarter of the drugs prescribed to patients are derived from medicinal plants, and they are rigorously tested. In other systems of medicine, medicinal plants may constitute

16896-425: Was an unusually high frequency of taurodontism , a condition where the molars are bulkier due to an enlarged pulp (tooth core). Taurodontism was once thought to have been a distinguishing characteristic of Neanderthals which lent some mechanical advantage or stemmed from repetitive use, but was more likely simply a product of genetic drift. The bite force of Neanderthals and modern humans is now thought to be about

17028-588: Was deeply rooted in folk traditions and influenced by Celtic, Anglo-Saxon, and Norse practices. Herbal knowledge was passed down through generations, often by wise women known as "cunning folk." The "Physicians of Myddfai," a Welsh herbal manuscript from the 13th century, reflects the blending of Celtic and Christian beliefs in herbal medicine. In the Islamic Golden Age , scholars translated many classical Greek texts including Dioscorides into Arabic , adding their own commentaries. Herbalism flourished in

17160-558: Was expanded in the Tang dynasty Yaoxing Lun . In the fourth century BC, Aristotle 's pupil Theophrastus wrote the first systematic botany text, Historia plantarum . In around 60 AD, the Greek physician Pedanius Dioscorides , working for the Roman army, documented over 1000 recipes for medicines using over 600 medicinal plants in De materia medica . The book remained the authoritative reference on herbalism for over 1500 years, into

17292-465: Was found. The valley was spelled Neanderthal and the species was spelled Neanderthaler in German until the spelling reform of 1901 . The spelling Neandertal for the species is occasionally seen in English, even in scientific publications, but the scientific name, H. neanderthalensis , is always spelled with th according to the principle of priority . The vernacular name of the species in German

17424-412: Was used as evidence that multiple different and unrelated branches of primitive humans existed, and supported Boule's reconstruction of H. neanderthalensis as a far distant relative and an evolutionary dead-end . He fuelled the popular image of Neanderthals as barbarous, slouching, club-wielding primitives; this image was reproduced for several decades and popularised in science fiction works, such as

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