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100-470: While influenced by European modernist artistic movements like Cubism , Purism , and Futurism , Precisionism focused on the themes of industrialization and modernization in the American landscape, using precise, sharply defined geometrical forms . Precisionist artists embraced their American identity and some were reluctant to acknowledge European artistic influences. There is a degree of reverence for

200-530: A DVD videorecording relating to Trunk's career as a modernist painter. Letters are from Juliana Force, Arthur E. McFarlane, Henry McFee, author B.F. Morrow, and Charles J. Simpson, secretary of the American Veterans Society of Artists, Harry C. Richardson, Gertrude Herdle Moore, Holger Cahill, Audrey F. McMahon, Hugo C.M. Wendel, Kimon Nicolaides, Zoltan Hecht, and Marion M. Grant, among others. Writings include consignment forms and reports from

300-646: A Precisionist style. American artists whose work has been labeled as reflective of Precisionism include: George Ault , Ralston Crawford , Francis Criss , Stuart Davis , Charles Demuth , Georgia O'Keeffe , Preston Dickinson , Elsie Driggs , Louis Lozowick , Gerald Murphy , Charles Sheeler , Niles Spencer , Morton Schamberg , Joseph Stella , Charles Rosen , Dale Nichols , Millard Sheets , Edward Hopper , Virginia Berresford , Henry Billings , Peter Blume , Stefan Hirsch , Edmund Lewandowski , John Storrs , Miklos Suba , Sandor Bernath, Herman Trunk , Arnold Wiltz , Clarence Holbrook Carter , Edgar Corbridge and

400-784: A figures and houses, to geometric schemas, to cubes". Vauxcelles recounted how Matisse told him at the time, "Braque has just sent in [to the 1908 Salon d'Automne ] a painting made of little cubes". The critic Charles Morice relayed Matisse's words and spoke of Braque's little cubes. The motif of the viaduct at l'Estaque had inspired Braque to produce three paintings marked by the simplification of form and deconstruction of perspective. Georges Braque's 1908 Houses at L’Estaque (and related works) prompted Vauxcelles, in Gil Blas , 25 March 1909, to refer to bizarreries cubiques (cubic oddities). Gertrude Stein referred to landscapes made by Picasso in 1909, such as Reservoir at Horta de Ebro , as

500-554: A form of photorealism . (In addition to his meticulously detailed paintings like River Rouge Plant and American Landscape , Sheeler, like his friend Paul Strand , also created sharply focused photographs of factories and public buildings.) Some Precisionist works tended toward a "highly controlled approach to technique and form" as well as an application of " hard-edged style to long-familiar American scenes". Precisionist artists often focused on urban imagery: office towers, apartment houses, bridges, tunnels, subway platforms, streets,

600-581: A gauge against which such diverse tendencies as Realism or Naturalism , Dada , Surrealism and abstraction could be compared. Japan and China were among the first countries in Asia to be influenced by Cubism. Contact first occurred via European texts translated and published in Japanese art journals in the 1910s. In the 1920s, Japanese and Chinese artists who studied in Paris, for example those enrolled at

700-413: A genre or style in art with a specific common philosophy or goal. A significant modification of Cubism between 1914 and 1916 was signaled by a shift towards a strong emphasis on large overlapping geometric planes and flat surface activity. This grouping of styles of painting and sculpture, especially significant between 1917 and 1920, was practiced by several artists; particularly those under contract with

800-432: A house and its interior as well, present within a single frame three seasons at once, and yet in either case contrive to weld the whole into a decorative entity. It is much like the fragmentary, unrelated, yet overlapping, glimpses that come in dreams, or the way logically disconnected, though vividly realized bits of experience, flash on the drowsing memory when it is not focused intently on any particular thing. With all it

900-719: A much broader ideological transformation towards conservatism in both French society and French culture . The most innovative period of Cubism was before 1914. After World War I, with the support given by the dealer Léonce Rosenberg , Cubism returned as a central issue for artists, and continued as such until the mid-1920s when its avant-garde status was rendered questionable by the emergence of geometric abstraction and Surrealism in Paris . Many Cubists, including Picasso, Braque, Gris, Léger, Gleizes, Metzinger and Emilio Pettoruti while developing other styles, returned periodically to Cubism, even well after 1925. Cubism reemerged during

1000-419: A new "pure" painting in which the subject was vacated. But in spite of his use of the term Orphism these works were so different that they defy attempts to place them in a single category. Also labeled an Orphist by Apollinaire, Marcel Duchamp was responsible for another extreme development inspired by Cubism. The ready-made arose from a joint consideration that the work itself is considered an object (just as

1100-501: A new addition to the Salon scene, exhibited his Portrait of Picasso (Art Institute of Chicago), while Metzinger's two showings included La Femme au Cheval ( Woman with a horse , 1911–1912, National Gallery of Denmark ). Delaunay's monumental La Ville de Paris (Musée d'art moderne de la Ville de Paris) and Léger's La Noce ( The Wedding , Musée National d'Art Moderne, Paris), were also exhibited. In 1912, Galeries Dalmau presented

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1200-526: A new style caused rapid changes in art across France, Germany, The Netherlands, Italy, and Russia. The Impressionists had used a double point of view, and both Les Nabis and the Symbolists (who also admired Cézanne) flattened the picture plane, reducing their subjects to simple geometric forms. Neo-Impressionist structure and subject matter, most notably to be seen in the works of Georges Seurat (e.g., Parade de Cirque , Le Chahut and Le Cirque ),

1300-526: A painting), and that it uses the material detritus of the world (as collage and papier collé in the Cubist construction and Assemblage). The next logical step, for Duchamp, was to present an ordinary object as a self-sufficient work of art representing only itself. In 1913 he attached a bicycle wheel to a kitchen stool and in 1914 selected a bottle-drying rack as a sculpture in its own right. The Section d'Or , also known as Groupe de Puteaux , founded by some of

1400-558: A process saved from any posterlike suggestion because of the sensitive treatment and appreciation for subtleties of color and design”. In the 1930s and 1940s, Trunk’s work moved increasingly towards geometric and architectural experiments, as his fame grew within the art community in New York City. In 1931, Zoltan Hecht’s School for the New Age reproduced one of Trunk’s sailboat images as a hand-hooked rug, an item which attracted

1500-491: A purely formal frame of reference. Crystal Cubism, and its associative rappel à l'ordre , has been linked with an inclination—by those who served the armed forces and by those who remained in the civilian sector—to escape the realities of the Great War, both during and directly following the conflict. The purifying of Cubism from 1914 through the mid-1920s, with its cohesive unity and voluntary constraints, has been linked to

1600-532: A secondary or satellite role in Cubism is a profound mistake." The history of the term "Cubism" usually stresses the fact that Matisse referred to "cubes" in connection with a painting by Braque in 1908, and that the term was published twice by the critic Louis Vauxcelles in a similar context. However, the word "cube" was used in 1906 by another critic, Louis Chassevent, with reference not to Picasso or Braque but rather to Metzinger and Delaunay: The critical use of

1700-632: A series entitled Formes Circulaires , in which he combined planar structures with bright prismatic hues; based on the optical characteristics of juxtaposed colors his departure from reality in the depiction of imagery was quasi-complete. In 1913–14 Léger produced a series entitled Contrasts of Forms , giving a similar stress to color, line and form. His Cubism, despite its abstract qualities, was associated with themes of mechanization and modern life. Apollinaire supported these early developments of abstract Cubism in Les Peintres cubistes (1913), writing of

1800-534: A time when both artists had recently acquired an interest in primitivism , Iberian sculpture, African art and African tribal masks . They became friendly rivals and competed with each other throughout their careers, perhaps leading to Picasso entering a new period in his work by 1907, marked by the influence of Greek, Iberian and African art. Picasso's paintings of 1907 have been characterized as Protocubism , as notably seen in Les Demoiselles d'Avignon ,

1900-400: A wide audience. Over 200 works were displayed, and the fact that many of the artists showed artworks representative of their development from 1909 to 1912 gave the exhibition the allure of a Cubist retrospective. The group seems to have adopted the name Section d'Or to distinguish themselves from the narrower definition of Cubism developed in parallel by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque in

2000-409: A wide ideological shift towards conservatism in both French society and culture. Yet, Cubism itself remained evolutionary both within the oeuvre of individual artists, such as Gris and Metzinger, and across the work of artists as different from each other as Braque, Léger and Gleizes. Cubism as a publicly debated movement became relatively unified and open to definition. Its theoretical purity made it

2100-490: Is a picture offering beauty, in a deliberate arrangement to achieve that effect. The beauty though is alive, for it is veined with the blood of poetry and energy”. His work was frequently compared to Charles Demuth , but once Trunk’s skill with color determination and line design emerged, he was recognized as having a “style extremely individual”. Another critic explained that, “He has a remarkable flair for reducing natural objects to their essential shapes and primary colors –

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2200-418: Is an early-20th-century avant-garde art movement begun in Paris that revolutionized painting and the visual arts, and influenced artistic innovations in music , ballet , literature , and architecture . Cubist subjects are analyzed, broken up, and reassembled in an abstract form—instead of depicting objects from a single perspective, the artist depicts the subject from multiple perspectives to represent

2300-415: Is difficult to apply to painters such as Jean Metzinger , Albert Gleizes, Robert Delaunay and Henri Le Fauconnier , whose fundamental differences from traditional Cubism compelled Kahnweiler to question whether to call them Cubists at all. According to Daniel Robbins , "To suggest that merely because these artists developed differently or varied from the traditional pattern they deserved to be relegated to

2400-443: Is examined by art historian Cynthia Fowler in the 2009 exhibition Herman Trunk: Catholic Modernist and the accompanying exhibition catalogue. A discussion of Trunk's still-life paintings, the work for which he is best known, is also examined in this catalogue by art historian Dena Gilby. In addition, an October 2009 conference in honor of Trunk at Emmanuel College, “Early American Modernism and Religion,” turned its attention towards

2500-531: Is not yet Cubist. The disruptive, expressionist element in it is even contrary to the spirit of Cubism, which looked at the world in a detached, realistic spirit. Nevertheless, the Demoiselles is the logical picture to take as the starting point for Cubism, because it marks the birth of a new pictorial idiom, because in it Picasso violently overturned established conventions and because all that followed grew out of it." The most serious objection to regarding

2600-521: Is pushed to a high degree of complexity in Metzinger's Nu à la cheminée , exhibited at the 1910 Salon d'Automne; Gleizes' monumental Le Dépiquage des Moissons (Harvest Threshing) , exhibited at the 1912 Salon de la Section d'Or; Le Fauconnier's Abundance shown at the Indépendants of 1911; and Delaunay's City of Paris , exhibited at the Indépendants in 1912. These ambitious works are some of

2700-531: Is vastly interesting and to be appreciated must be seen”. After World War I, Trunk’s work included paintings which Meredith Ward describes as “strikingly proto-Pop,” and marks Trunk as a forerunner of the 1960s Pop art genre. During the 1920s and 1930s, Trunk exhibited alongside some of the most prominent artists in American modernism, those that critics remember today, including Charles Demuth , John Marin , Stuart Davis , Joseph Stella , Joseph Pollet , Edward Hopper , Arthur Dove , and many more. His work

2800-747: The Brooklyn Museum . The depression intervened, and Trunk Brothers printmakers collapsed, as did Dudensing’s gallery. The artist showed in 1938 with the Collectors of American Art in New York. Trunk worked with Marion Grant, of Grant Studios in Brooklyn, holding a one-man exhibition there in March 1939. The New York Sun said of the Grant exhibit, “He will paint in the same composition the outside of

2900-412: The Demoiselles as the origin of Cubism, with its evident influence of primitive art, is that "such deductions are unhistorical", wrote the art historian Daniel Robbins . This familiar explanation "fails to give adequate consideration to the complexities of a flourishing art that existed just before and during the period when Picasso's new painting developed." Between 1905 and 1908, a conscious search for

3000-514: The Montmartre quarter of Paris, and to show that Cubism, rather than being an isolated art-form, represented the continuation of a grand tradition (indeed, the golden ratio had fascinated Western intellectuals of diverse interests for at least 2,400 years). The idea of the Section d'Or originated in the course of conversations between Metzinger, Gleizes and Jacques Villon. The group's title

3100-784: The Society of Independent Artists , the National Academy of Design , the Art Institute of Chicago , and the Brooklyn Society of Independent Artists. In 1925, New York gallery owner F. Valentine Dudensing became interested in Trunk, and thereafter Trunk showed quite frequently with Dudensing. His first one-man show at Dudensing Galleries took place in November–December 1928, and garnered many positive reviews: “His

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3200-411: The antecedent of Cubism. Art historian Douglas Cooper says Paul Gauguin and Paul Cézanne "were particularly influential to the formation of Cubism and especially important to the paintings of Picasso during 1906 and 1907". Cooper goes on to say: "The Demoiselles is generally referred to as the first Cubist picture. This is an exaggeration, for although it was a major first step towards Cubism it

3300-539: The boulevard du Montparnasse . These soirées often included writers such as Guillaume Apollinaire and André Salmon . Together with other young artists, the group wanted to emphasise a research into form, in opposition to the Neo-Impressionist emphasis on color. Louis Vauxcelles, in his review of the 26th Salon des Indépendants (1910), made a passing and imprecise reference to Metzinger, Gleizes, Delaunay, Léger and Le Fauconnier as "ignorant geometers, reducing

3400-686: The painting event in the art competition at the 1932 Summer Olympics . Born in New York City to a family of printmakers, Trunk spent much of his life in the family’s home at 135 Essex Street in Brooklyn. He became interested in art while a child at the Dominican Convent School, and as a young adult took night classes in art at the Pratt Institute in Brooklyn . Trunk joined the Army during World War I and served in Europe with

3500-473: The École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts , brought back with them both an understanding of modern art movements, including Cubism. Notable works exhibiting Cubist qualities were Tetsugorō Yorozu 's Self Portrait with Red Eyes (1912) and Fang Ganmin 's Melody in Autumn (1934). The Cubism of Picasso and Braque had more than a technical or formal significance, and the distinct attitudes and intentions of

3600-824: The "Salle 41" artists, e.g., Francis Picabia ; the brothers Jacques Villon , Raymond Duchamp-Villon and Marcel Duchamp , who beginning in late 1911 formed the core of the Section d'Or (or the Puteaux Group ); the sculptors Alexander Archipenko , Joseph Csaky and Ossip Zadkine as well as Jacques Lipchitz and Henri Laurens ; and painters such as Louis Marcoussis , Roger de La Fresnaye , František Kupka , Diego Rivera , Léopold Survage , Auguste Herbin , André Lhote , Gino Severini (after 1916), María Blanchard (after 1916) and Georges Valmier (after 1918). More fundamentally, Christopher Green argues that Douglas Cooper's terms were "later undermined by interpretations of

3700-611: The 176th Pursuit Squadron. Upon his return to the states, Trunk resumed his study of painting, working under John Sloan and Hayley Lever at the Art Students League in 1919. He studied with Henry Lee McFee at the League’s summer workshops in Woodstock, New York. According to Meredith Ward, Trunk learned about cubism as a form from McFee, and that with the encouragement of Lever (and critical notice from Forbes Watson in

3800-554: The 1911 Salon des Indépendants and the 1912 Salon d'Automne in Paris). Clarifying their aims as artists, this work was the first theoretical treatise on Cubism and it still remains the clearest and most intelligible. The result, not solely a collaboration between its two authors, reflected discussions by the circle of artists who met in Puteaux and Courbevoie . It mirrored the attitudes of the "artists of Passy", which included Picabia and

3900-586: The 1911 Salon. The article was titled The "Cubists" Dominate Paris' Fall Salon and subtitled Eccentric School of Painting Increases Its Vogue in the Current Art Exhibition – What Its Followers Attempt to Do. Among all the paintings on exhibition at the Paris Fall Salon none is attracting so much attention as the extraordinary productions of the so-called "Cubist" school. In fact, dispatches from Paris suggest these works are easily

4000-483: The 1911 and 1912 Salons extended beyond the conventional Cézanne-like subjects—the posed model, still-life and landscape—favored by Picasso and Braque to include large-scale modern-life subjects. Aimed at a large public, these works stressed the use of multiple perspective and complex planar faceting for expressive effect while preserving the eloquence of subjects endowed with literary and philosophical connotations. In Du "Cubisme" Metzinger and Gleizes explicitly related

4100-422: The 1912 Salon d'Automne, Amorpha-Fugue à deux couleurs and Amorpha chromatique chaude , were highly abstract (or nonrepresentational) and metaphysical in orientation. Both Duchamp in 1912 and Picabia from 1912 to 1914 developed an expressive and allusive abstraction dedicated to complex emotional and sexual themes. Beginning in 1912 Delaunay painted a series of paintings entitled Simultaneous Windows , followed by

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4200-426: The 1912 exhibition had been curated to show the successive stages through which Cubism had transited, and that Du "Cubisme" had been published for the occasion, indicates the artists' intention of making their work comprehensible to a wide audience (art critics, art collectors, art dealers and the general public). Undoubtedly, due to the great success of the exhibition, Cubism became avant-garde movement recognized as

4300-657: The 1920s and the 1930s in the work of the American Stuart Davis and the Englishman Ben Nicholson . In France, however, Cubism experienced a decline beginning in about 1925. Léonce Rosenberg exhibited not only the artists stranded by Kahnweiler's exile but others including Laurens, Lipchitz, Metzinger, Gleizes, Csaky, Herbin and Severini. In 1918 Rosenberg presented a series of Cubist exhibitions at his Galerie de l’Effort Moderne in Paris. Attempts were made by Louis Vauxcelles to argue that Cubism

4400-610: The Cubist depiction of space, mass, time, and volume supports (rather than contradicts) the flatness of the canvas was made by Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler as early as 1920, but it was subject to criticism in the 1950s and 1960s, especially by Clement Greenberg . Contemporary views of Cubism are complex, formed to some extent in response to the "Salle 41" Cubists, whose methods were too distinct from those of Picasso and Braque to be considered merely secondary to them. Alternative interpretations of Cubism have therefore developed. Wider views of Cubism include artists who were later associated with

4500-469: The Cubists. The 1912 manifesto Du "Cubisme" by Metzinger and Gleizes was followed in 1913 by Les Peintres Cubistes , a collection of reflections and commentaries by Guillaume Apollinaire. Apollinaire had been closely involved with Picasso beginning in 1905, and Braque beginning in 1907, but gave as much attention to artists such as Metzinger, Gleizes, Delaunay, Picabia, and Duchamp. The fact that

4600-523: The Duchamp brothers, to whom sections of it were read prior to publication. The concept developed in Du "Cubisme" of observing a subject from different points in space and time simultaneously, i.e., the act of moving around an object to seize it from several successive angles fused into a single image (multiple viewpoints, mobile perspective, simultaneity or multiplicity), is a generally recognized device used by

4700-550: The Dudensing Gallery, New York City, an artist statement, one notebook labeled Egyptian, Assyrian, Greek, Etruscan, and Greco-Roman, one notebook on fresco painting, and two notebooks listing information on art works by Trunk. Photographs are of Trunk, his wife, and others. Printed material consists of scrapbook pages, newspaper clippings, exhibition catalogs and pamphlets mostly concerning Trunk's exhibitions at Dudensing Gallery, New York.” Many of his paintings remain in

4800-713: The First World War. Léger was based in Montparnasse. In contrast, the Salon Cubists built their reputation primarily by exhibiting regularly at the Salon d'Automne and the Salon des Indépendants, both major non-academic Salons in Paris. They were inevitably more aware of public response and the need to communicate. Already in 1910 a group began to form which included Metzinger, Gleizes, Delaunay and Léger. They met regularly at Henri le Fauconnier's studio near

4900-686: The Modernist Still Life." His work as a Catholic artist also has drawn attention from the National Museum of Catholic Art and History. In December 2011, Cynthia Fowler published, "Herman Trunk's Cubist Crucifix: A Case Study," in Religion and the Arts , a publication of Boston College. The Smithsonian Archives of American Art holds Trunk’s papers, which include the following: "Letters, writings, photographs, printed material, and

5000-596: The Municipal Council of Paris, leading to a debate in the Chambre des Députés about the use of public funds to provide the venue for such art. The Cubists were defended by the Socialist deputy, Marcel Sembat . It was against this background of public anger that Jean Metzinger and Albert Gleizes wrote Du "Cubisme" (published by Eugène Figuière in 1912, translated to English and Russian in 1913). Among

5100-519: The Salon Cubists produced different kinds of Cubism, rather than a derivative of their work. "It is by no means clear, in any case," wrote Christopher Green, "to what extent these other Cubists depended on Picasso and Braque for their development of such techniques as faceting, 'passage' and multiple perspective; they could well have arrived at such practices with little knowledge of 'true' Cubism in its early stages, guided above all by their own understanding of Cézanne." The works exhibited by these Cubists at

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5200-443: The art dealer and collector Léonce Rosenberg . The tightening of the compositions, the clarity and sense of order reflected in these works, led to its being referred to by the critic Maurice Raynal as 'crystal' Cubism. Considerations manifested by Cubists prior to the outset of World War I —such as the fourth dimension , dynamism of modern life, the occult, and Henri Bergson 's concept of duration —had now been vacated, replaced by

5300-432: The artists, by Gris, Léger and Gleizes. The occasional return to classicism—figurative work either exclusively or alongside Cubist work—experienced by many artists during this period (called Neoclassicism ) has been linked to the tendency to evade the realities of the war and also to the cultural dominance of a classical or Latin image of France during and immediately following the war. Cubism after 1918 can be seen as part of

5400-454: The attention of the general public for the first time. Amongst the Cubist works presented, Robert Delaunay exhibited his Eiffel Tower, Tour Eiffel (Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York). At the Salon d'Automne of the same year, in addition to the Indépendants group of Salle 41 , were exhibited works by André Lhote , Marcel Duchamp , Jacques Villon, Roger de La Fresnaye , André Dunoyer de Segonzac and František Kupka . The exhibition

5500-503: The case of Still-life With Chair Caning , freely brushed oil paint and commercially printed oilcloth together on a canvas. The Cubist contribution to the 1912 Salon d'Automne created scandal regarding the use of government owned buildings, such as the Grand Palais , to exhibit such artwork. The indignation of the politician Jean Pierre Philippe Lampué made the front page of Le Journal , 5 October 1912. The controversy spread to

5600-429: The current moment: his background and commitments were traditional, as he was a devoted husband and father. He was nicknamed “The Candlelight Painter” by the media in the 1920s since he maintained his job as a printmaker and painted at night. In addition, Trunk was a faithful Catholic during a period of virulent anti-Catholic sentiment. Reconsideration of Trunk’s commitment to his Catholic faith and its impact on his art

5700-517: The darker, more claustrophobic city paintings of Louis Lozowick and the comic anti-capitalist satires of Preston Dickinson . Varying degrees of abstraction are found in Precisionist works. The Figure 5 in Gold (1928) by Charles Demuth , an homage to William Carlos Williams ' imagist poem about a fire truck is abstract and stylized, while the paintings of Charles Sheeler sometimes verge on

5800-483: The facts they identify. Neither phase was designated as such at the time corresponding works were created. "If Kahnweiler considers Cubism as Picasso and Braque," wrote Daniel Robbins, "our only fault is in subjecting other Cubists' works to the rigors of that limited definition." The traditional interpretation of "Cubism", formulated post facto as a means of understanding the works of Braque and Picasso, has affected our appreciation of other twentieth-century artists. It

5900-455: The first Cubist paintings. The first organized group exhibition by Cubists took place at the Salon des Indépendants in Paris during the spring of 1911 in a room called 'Salle 41'; it included works by Jean Metzinger , Albert Gleizes , Fernand Léger , Robert Delaunay and Henri Le Fauconnier , yet no works by Picasso or Braque were exhibited. By 1911 Picasso was recognized as the inventor of Cubism, while Braque's importance and precedence

6000-454: The first declared group exhibition of Cubism worldwide ( Exposició d'Art Cubista ), with a controversial showing by Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Juan Gris, Marie Laurencin and Marcel Duchamp (Barcelona, 20 April to 10 May 1912). The Dalmau exhibition comprised 83 works by 26 artists. Jacques Nayral's association with Gleizes led him to write the Preface for the Cubist exhibition, which

6100-605: The first phase of Cubism, known as Analytic Cubism , a phrase coined by Juan Gris a posteriori , was both radical and influential as a short but highly significant art movement between 1910 and 1912 in France. A second phase, Synthetic Cubism , remained vital until around 1919, when the Surrealist movement gained popularity. English art historian Douglas Cooper proposed another scheme, describing three phases of Cubism in his book, The Cubist Epoch . According to Cooper there

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6200-437: The fluidity of consciousness, blurring the distinctions between past, present and future. One of the major theoretical innovations made by the Salon Cubists, independently of Picasso and Braque, was that of simultaneity , drawing to greater or lesser extent on theories of Henri Poincaré , Ernst Mach , Charles Henry , Maurice Princet , and Henri Bergson. With simultaneity, the concept of separate spatial and temporal dimensions

6300-483: The human body, the site, to pallid cubes." At the 1910 Salon d'Automne , a few months later, Metzinger exhibited his highly fractured Nu à la cheminée (Nude) , which was subsequently reproduced in both Du "Cubisme" (1912) and Les Peintres Cubistes (1913). The first public controversy generated by Cubism resulted from Salon showings at the Indépendants during the spring of 1911. This showing by Metzinger, Gleizes, Delaunay, le Fauconnier and Léger brought Cubism to

6400-492: The industrial age in the movement, but social commentary was not fundamental to the style. Like Pop Art , Precisionism has on occasion been interpreted as a criticism of the de-natured society it portrays, though its artists did not often feel comfortable with this reading of their work. Elsie Driggs ' Pittsburgh (1926) illustrates this gap in perception. A painting of black and gray steel-mill smokestacks, thick piping, and crisscrossing wires, with only clouds of smoke to relieve

6500-636: The largest paintings in the history of Cubism. Léger's The Wedding , also shown at the Salon des Indépendants in 1912, gave form to the notion of simultaneity by presenting different motifs as occurring within a single temporal frame, where responses to the past and present interpenetrate with collective force. The conjunction of such subject matter with simultaneity aligns Salon Cubism with early Futurist paintings by Umberto Boccioni , Gino Severini and Carlo Carrà ; themselves made in response to early Cubism. Herman Trunk Herman Trunk (31 October 1894 – 16 August 1963), also known as Herman Trunk Jr.,

6600-457: The late 1920s, drawing at first from sources of limited data, namely the opinions of Guillaume Apollinaire . It came to rely heavily on Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler 's book Der Weg zum Kubismus (published in 1920), which centered on the developments of Picasso, Braque, Léger, and Gris. The terms "analytical" and "synthetic" which subsequently emerged have been widely accepted since the mid-1930s. Both terms are historical impositions that occurred after

6700-558: The main feature of the exhibition. [...] In spite of the crazy nature of the "Cubist" theories the number of those professing them is fairly respectable. Georges Braque, André Derain, Picasso, Czobel, Othon Friesz, Herbin, Metzinger—these are a few of the names signed to canvases before which Paris has stood and now again stands in blank amazement. What do they mean? Have those responsible for them taken leave of their senses? Is it art or madness? Who knows? The subsequent 1912 Salon des Indépendants located in Paris (20 March to 16 May 1912)

6800-567: The mid-1920s), Trunk selected watercolor as his main medium. In a 1935 interview in the Brooklyn Eagle newspaper, Trunk explained, “With water color . . . you can get a thing done after you have figured out its content and form – while you still feel it. But oils – by the time you’re half through, most of the emotion may have died.” In the 1920s Trunk’s work appeared in exhibitions by the Art Students League of New York ,

6900-463: The modernist sense. Picasso is credited with creating the first Cubist collage, Still-life With Chair Caning , in May 1912, while Braque preceded Picasso in the creation of Cubist cardboard sculptures and papiers collés . Papiers collés were often composed of pieces of everyday paper artifacts such as newspaper, table cloth, wallpaper and sheet music, whereas Cubist collages combined disparate materials—in

7000-491: The most conspicuous Cubists, was a collective of painters, sculptors and critics associated with Cubism and Orphism, active from 1911 through about 1914, coming to prominence in the wake of their controversial showing at the 1911 Salon des Indépendants . The Salon de la Section d'Or at the Galerie La Boétie in Paris, October 1912, was arguably the most important pre-World War I Cubist exhibition; exposing Cubism to

7100-479: The newspapers Esquella de La Torratxa and El Noticiero Universal attacking the Cubists with a series of caricatures laced with derogatory text. Art historian Jaime Brihuega writes of the Dalmau show: "No doubt that the exhibition produced a strong commotion in the public, who welcomed it with a lot of suspicion. A major development in Cubism occurred in 1912 with Braque's and Picasso's introduction of collage in

7200-595: The notice of architect and designer Eugene Schoen. Trunk joined many museum exhibitions, including the first and second biennial exhibitions at the Whitney Museum of American Art in 1932 and 1934. In 1933, his work appeared in the Venice Biennale as part of the Whitney Exhibit; he was the only artist from Brooklyn to be included. During the same period he participated in group exhibitions at

7300-462: The photographers Paul Strand and Lewis Hine . The movement had no major presence outside the United States, although it did influence Australian art where Jeffrey Smart adopted its principles. Although no manifesto was ever created, some of the artists were friends and frequently exhibited at the same galleries. Georgia O'Keeffe 's husband, photographer and art dealer Alfred Stieglitz ,

7400-485: The poet and critic Guillaume Apollinaire accepted the term on behalf of a group of artists invited to exhibit at the Brussels Indépendants. The following year, in preparation for the Salon de la Section d'Or , Metzinger and Gleizes wrote and published Du "Cubisme" in an effort to dispel the confusion raging around the word, and as a major defence of Cubism (which had caused a public scandal following

7500-724: The role of faith to the artistic movement. Most important to understanding Trunk’s lack of visibility today may very well be the fact that a World War I injury rendered Trunk nearly deaf, and as a result social networking at galleries and shows was difficult for him. Two shows appeared in 2009. Emmanuel College in Boston held “Herman Trunk: Catholic Modernist” in September and October; and in October through December Endicott College in Beverly, Massachusetts hosted “Herman Trunk (1894-1963) and

7600-447: The same time or successively, also called multiple perspective, simultaneity or multiplicity, while Constructivism was influenced by Picasso's technique of constructing sculpture from separate elements. Other common threads between these disparate movements include the faceting or simplification of geometric forms, and the association of mechanization and modern life. Scholars have divided the history of Cubism into phases. In one scheme,

7700-436: The sense of time to multiple perspective, giving symbolic expression to the notion of ‘duration’ proposed by the philosopher Henri Bergson according to which life is subjectively experienced as a continuum, with the past flowing into the present and the present merging into the future. The Salon Cubists used the faceted treatment of solid and space and effects of multiple viewpoints to convey a physical and psychological sense of

7800-474: The severity of the image, viewers have been tempted to see this dark painting as a statement of environmental concern. To the contrary, Driggs always claimed that she intended an ironic beauty in the image and referred to it as "my El Greco ." Upon seeing the painting, Charles Daniel dubbed her "one of the new classicists." More often than not, Precisionism implicitly celebrated man-made dynamism and new technologies. Possible exceptions to this statement are some of

7900-422: The simplification of natural forms into cylinders, spheres, and cones. However, the cubists explored this concept further than Cézanne. They represented all the surfaces of depicted objects in a single picture plane, as if the objects had all their faces visible at the same time. This new kind of depiction revolutionized the way objects could be visualized in painting and art. The historical study of Cubism began in

8000-399: The skyline and grid of the modern city. Other artists, however, such as Georgia O'Keeffe , Charles Demuth, Niles Spencer, Ralston Crawford , Sanford Ross , and Charles Sheeler , applied the same approach to more pastoral settings and painted starkly geometric renderings of barns, cottages, country roads, and farm houses. Stuart Davis and Gerald Murphy painted still life compositions in

8100-559: The subject in a greater context. Cubism has been considered the most influential art movement of the 20th century. The term cubism is broadly associated with a variety of artworks produced in Paris ( Montmartre and Montparnasse ) or near Paris ( Puteaux ) during the 1910s and throughout the 1920s. The movement was pioneered in partnership by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque , and joined by Jean Metzinger , Albert Gleizes , Robert Delaunay , Henri Le Fauconnier , Juan Gris , and Fernand Léger . One primary influence that led to Cubism

8200-585: The word "cube" goes back at least to May 1901 when Jean Béral, reviewing the work of Henri-Edmond Cross at the Indépendants in Art et Littérature , commented that he "uses a large and square pointillism, giving the impression of mosaic. One even wonders why the artist has not used cubes of solid matter diversely colored: they would make pretty revetments." (Robert Herbert, 1968, p. 221) The term Cubism did not come into general usage until 1911, mainly with reference to Metzinger, Gleizes, Delaunay, and Léger. In 1911,

8300-462: The work of Braque, Picasso, Gris (from 1911) and Léger (to a lesser extent) implied an intentional value judgement. Cubism burgeoned between 1907 and 1911. Pablo Picasso's 1907 painting Les Demoiselles d'Avignon has often been considered a proto-Cubist work. In 1908, in his review of Georges Braque 's exhibition at Kahnweiler 's gallery, the critic Louis Vauxcelles called Braque a daring man who despises form, "reducing everything, places and

8400-498: The work of Picasso, Braque, Gris and Léger that stress iconographic and ideological questions rather than methods of representation." John Berger identifies the essence of Cubism with the mechanical diagram. "The metaphorical model of Cubism is the diagram: The diagram being a visible symbolic representation of invisible processes, forces, structures. A diagram need not eschew certain aspects of appearance but these too will be treated as signs not as imitations or recreations." There

8500-766: The works exhibited were Le Fauconnier 's vast composition Les Montagnards attaqués par des ours (Mountaineers Attacked by Bears) now at Rhode Island School of Design Museum, Joseph Csaky 's Deux Femme, Two Women (a sculpture now lost), in addition to the highly abstract paintings by Kupka, Amorpha (The National Gallery, Prague), and Picabia , La Source (The Spring) (Museum of Modern Art, New York). The most extreme forms of Cubism were not those practiced by Picasso and Braque, who resisted total abstraction. Other Cubists, by contrast, especially František Kupka , and those considered Orphists by Apollinaire (Delaunay, Léger, Picabia and Duchamp), accepted abstraction by removing visible subject matter entirely. Kupka's two entries at

8600-453: Was "Early Cubism", (from 1906 to 1908) when the movement was initially developed in the studios of Picasso and Braque; the second phase being called "High Cubism", (from 1909 to 1914) during which time Juan Gris emerged as an important exponent (after 1911); and finally Cooper referred to "Late Cubism" (from 1914 to 1921) as the last phase of Cubism as a radical avant-garde movement. Douglas Cooper's restrictive use of these terms to distinguish

8700-594: Was a distinct difference between Kahnweiler's Cubists and the Salon Cubists. Prior to 1914, Picasso, Braque, Gris and Léger (to a lesser extent) gained the support of a single committed art dealer in Paris, Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler, who guaranteed them an annual income for the exclusive right to buy their works. Kahnweiler sold only to a small circle of connoisseurs. His support gave his artists the freedom to experiment in relative privacy. Picasso worked in Montmartre until 1912, while Braque and Gris remained there until after

8800-487: Was a highly regarded mentor for the group and was especially supportive of Paul Strand. Precisionism had an indirect influence on the later styles known as magic realism , pop art , and photorealism , but it was largely considered a dated "period style" by the 1950s, though its influence on advertising imagery and stage and set design continued throughout the twentieth century. Its two most famous practitioners are Charles Demuth and Charles Sheeler. Cubism Cubism

8900-406: Was an American painter active in the modernist movement of the 1920s and 1930s. He exhibited alongside some of the most famous artists of the day. His contributions to figurative abstract art are being recovered by scholars and critics interested in disability studies and religious studies, as he was a deaf artist and a devoted Catholic during a time of anti-Catholic sentiment. His work was part of

9000-408: Was another important influence. There were also parallels in the development of literature and social thought. In addition to Seurat, the roots of cubism are to be found in the two distinct tendencies of Cézanne's later work: first his breaking of the painted surface into small multifaceted areas of paint, thereby emphasizing the plural viewpoint given by binocular vision , and second his interest in

9100-458: Was argued later, with respect to his treatment of space, volume and mass in the L’Estaque landscapes. But "this view of Cubism is associated with a distinctly restrictive definition of which artists are properly to be called Cubists," wrote the art historian Christopher Green: "Marginalizing the contribution of the artists who exhibited at the Salon des Indépendants in 1911 [...]" The assertion that

9200-537: Was comprehensively challenged. Linear perspective developed during the Renaissance was vacated. The subject matter was no longer considered from a specific point of view at a moment in time, but built following a selection of successive viewpoints, i.e., as if viewed simultaneously from numerous angles (and in multiple dimensions) with the eye free to roam from one to the other. This technique of representing simultaneity, multiple viewpoints (or relative motion )

9300-402: Was dead, but these exhibitions, along with a well-organized Cubist show at the 1920 Salon des Indépendants and a revival of the Salon de la Section d’Or in the same year, demonstrated it was still alive. The reemergence of Cubism coincided with the appearance from about 1917 to 1924 of a coherent body of theoretical writing by Pierre Reverdy, Maurice Raynal and Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler and, among

9400-419: Was far-reaching and wide-ranging in the arts and in popular culture. Cubism introduced collage as a modern art form. In France and other countries Futurism , Suprematism , Dada , Constructivism , De Stijl and Art Deco developed in response to Cubism. Early Futurist paintings hold in common with Cubism the fusing of the past and the present, the representation of different views of the subject pictured at

9500-512: Was fully translated and reproduced in the newspaper La Veu de Catalunya . Duchamp's Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2 was exhibited for the first time. Extensive media coverage (in newspapers and magazines) before, during and after the exhibition launched the Galeries Dalmau as a force in the development and propagation of modernism in Europe. While press coverage was extensive, it was not always positive. Articles were published in

9600-452: Was marked by the presentation of Marcel Duchamp's Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2 , which itself caused a scandal, even amongst the Cubists. It was in fact rejected by the hanging committee, which included his brothers and other Cubists. Although the work was shown in the Salon de la Section d'Or in October 1912 and the 1913 Armory Show in New York, Duchamp never forgave his brothers and former colleagues for censoring his work. Juan Gris,

9700-608: Was reviewed in the October 8, 1911 issue of The New York Times . This article was published a year after Gelett Burgess ' The Wild Men of Paris , and two years prior to the Armory Show , which introduced astonished Americans, accustomed to realistic art, to the experimental styles of the European avant garde, including Fauvism, Cubism, and Futurism. The 1911 New York Times article portrayed works by Picasso, Matisse, Derain, Metzinger and others dated before 1909; not exhibited at

9800-555: Was suggested by Villon, after reading a 1910 translation of Leonardo da Vinci 's Trattato della Pittura by Joséphin Péladan . During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Europeans were discovering African , Polynesian, Micronesian and Native American art. Artists such as Paul Gauguin , Henri Matisse , and Pablo Picasso were intrigued and inspired by the stark power and simplicity of styles of those foreign cultures. Around 1906, Picasso met Matisse through Gertrude Stein , at

9900-477: Was supported by Juliana Force, Frederick C. Bartlett, Chester Holmes Aldrich , H.C. Richardson, Nathaniel Pousette-Dart, Edward Root, Forbes Watson, and others. In a January 20, 1928 letter to Stella Bowen , Ford Madox Ford praised Trunk's work as "really remarkable." Trunk’s recovery as a major American modernist painter began with the spring 1989 exhibition at Herschl & Adler Galleries. There are many reasons Trunk had been overlooked by art historians until

10000-487: Was the representation of three-dimensional form in the late works of Paul Cézanne . A retrospective of Cézanne's paintings was held at the Salon d'Automne of 1904, current works were displayed at the 1905 and 1906 Salon d'Automne , followed by two commemorative retrospectives after his death in 1907. In France, offshoots of Cubism developed, including Orphism , abstract art and later Purism . The impact of Cubism

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