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122-519: Brüggen Glacier , also known as Pío XI Glacier named by Spanish explorers after a Pope, is in southern Chile and is the largest western outflow from the Southern Patagonian Ice Field . Now about 66 km (41 mi) in length, it is the longest glacier in the southern hemisphere outside Antarctica. Unlike most glaciers worldwide, it advanced significantly from 1945 to 1976, Brüggen surged 5 km (3.1 mi) across

244-449: A free market economy that saw an increase in domestic and foreign private investment, although the copper industry and other important mineral resources were not opened to competition. In a plebiscite on 5 October 1988, Pinochet was denied a second eight-year term as president (56% against 44%). Chileans elected a new president and the majority of members of a bicameral congress on 14 December 1989. Christian Democrat Patricio Aylwin ,

366-669: A national referendum in April 2020 regarding the creation of a new Constitution, later postponed to October due to the COVID-19 pandemic . On 25 October 2020, Chileans voted 78.28 per cent in favor of a new constitution, while 21.72 per cent rejected the change. Voter turnout was 51 percent. An election for the members of the Constitutional Convention was held in Chile between 15 and 16 May 2021. On 19 December 2021,

488-591: A parliamentary style democracy. However, the Civil War had also been a contest between those who favored the development of local industries and powerful Chilean banking interests, particularly the House of Edwards which had strong ties to foreign investors. Soon after, the country engaged in a vastly expensive naval arms race with Argentina that nearly led to war, as well because of the Puna de Atacama dispute . After

610-492: A parliamentary system of democratic governance. In a two-party system , a polarized legislature has two important characteristics: first, there is little-to-no ideological overlap between members of the two parties; and second, almost all conflict over legislation and policies is split across a broad ideological divide. This leads to a conflation of political parties and ideologies (i.e., Democrat and Republican become nearly perfect synonyms for liberal and conservative) and

732-576: A plurality of votes in a three-way contest, followed by candidates Radomiro Tomic for the Christian Democrat Party and Jorge Alessandri for the Conservative Party. Allende was not elected with an absolute majority, receiving fewer than 35% of the votes. The Chilean Congress conducted a runoff vote between the leading candidates, Allende and former president Jorge Alessandri, and, keeping with tradition, chose Allende by

854-566: A broad range of issues, while others argue that only a few issues are required. Affective polarization refers to the phenomenon where individuals' feelings and emotions towards members of their own political party or group become more positive, while their feelings towards members of the opposing party or group become more negative. This can lead to increased hostility and a lack of willingness to compromise or work together with people who hold different political views. This phenomenon can be seen in both online and offline settings, and has been on

976-626: A campaign of domestic political and economical destabilization, some of which was backed by the United States. By early 1973, inflation was out of control. On 26 May 1973, Chile's Supreme Court, which was opposed to Allende's government, unanimously denounced Allende's disruption of the legality of the nation . Although illegal under the Chilean constitution, the court supported and strengthened Pinochet's soon-to-be seizure of power. A military coup overthrew Allende on 11 September 1973. As

1098-415: A companion Public Defender's office, allegedly because of pernicious polarization. According to Carothers & O'Donohue (2019), pernicious polarization is a process most often driven by a single political cleavage dominating an otherwise pluralistic political life, overriding other cleavages. On the other hand, Slater & Arugay (2019) have argued that it's not the depth of a single social cleavage, but

1220-448: A conflictual orientation toward an opponent and a common identity." Political polarization can also provide voting heuristics to help voters choose among candidates , enabling political parties to mobilize supporters and provide programmatic choices. Polarizing politics can also help to overcome internal differences and frame a common identity, based in part on a common opposition to those resisting reforms . Still, polarization can be

1342-422: A given issue, their voting history, and their political ideology (conservative, liberal, moderate, etc.), and they try to relate those trends to respondents' party identification and other potentially polarizing factors (like geographic location or income bracket). Political scientists typically limit their inquiry to issues and questions that have been constant over time, in order to compare the present day to what

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1464-473: A group (which often happens during Memorial Days). A high prevalence of respectful discussions with political others may also reduce affective polarization by increasing political tolerance and inter-party trust. High salience of a national common identity may also reduce affective polarization, as members of other parties are suddenly seen as in-group members. There are various causes of political polarization and these include political parties, redistricting ,

1586-475: A large variety of climates and landscapes. It contains 756,950 square kilometers (292,260 sq mi) of land area. It is situated within the Pacific Ring of Fire . Excluding its Pacific islands and Antarctic claim, Chile lies between latitudes 17° and 56°S , and longitudes 66° and 75°W . Chile is among the longest north–south countries in the world. If one considers only mainland territory, Chile

1708-414: A leftist candidate, the 35-year-old former student protest leader Gabriel Boric , won Chile's presidential election to become the country's youngest ever leader. On 11 March 2022, Boric was sworn in as president to succeed outgoing President Sebastian Piñera. Out of 24 members of Gabriel Boric's female-majority Cabinet, 14 are women. On 4 September 2022, voters rejected the new constitution proposal in

1830-593: A letter dated 12 November 1821, expressing his plan to conquer Guayaquil , the Galapagos Islands , and the Philippines . There were preparations, but the plan did not push through because O'Higgins was exiled. Chile slowly started to expand its influence and to establish its borders. By the Tantauco Treaty, the archipelago of Chiloé was incorporated in 1826. The economy began to boom due to

1952-555: A period of almost 24 hours, an effort that was carried on live television around the world. 2019–20 Chilean protests are a series of country-wide protests in response to a rise in the Santiago Metro 's subway fare, the increased cost of living , privatization and inequality prevalent in the country. On 15 November, most of the political parties represented in the National Congress signed an agreement to call

2074-536: A period of major reform. Under the slogan "Revolution in Liberty", the Frei administration embarked on far-reaching social and economic programs, particularly in education, housing, and agrarian reform , including rural unionization of agricultural workers. By 1967, however, Frei encountered increasing opposition from leftists, who charged that his reforms were inadequate, and from conservatives, who found them excessive. At

2196-422: A polar extreme. A study by Nicholson (2012) found voters are more polarized by contentious statements from leaders of the opposing party than from the leaders of their own party. As a result, political leaders may be more likely to take polarized stances. With regards to multiparty systems , Giovanni Sartori (1966, 1976) claims the splitting of ideologies in the public constituency causes further divides within

2318-484: A popular and aggressive tone to gain popularity. Also stated by Sheena Peckham, Algorithms used by social media to operate creates an echo-chamber for the user causing selective exposure and thus leading to online hate, misinformation, malinformation and more (Peckham, 2023). A number of techniques were employed by the researchers and social scientist to trace the relationship between internet usage. Lelkes, along with his colleagues, use state Right-of-way laws, which affect

2440-710: A prolonged struggle, including infighting from Bernardo O'Higgins , who challenged Carrera's leadership. Intermittent warfare continued until 1817. With Carrera in prison in Argentina, O'Higgins and anti-Carrera cohort José de San Martín , hero of the Argentine War of Independence , led an army that crossed the Andes into Chile and defeated the royalists. On 12 February 1818, Chile was proclaimed an independent republic . The political revolt brought little social change, however, and 19th-century Chilean society preserved

2562-625: A range of issues (e.g., having a conservative position on both abortion and affirmative action even if those positions are not "extreme"). Partisan sorting refers to the extent to which the electorate "sorts" or identifies with a party based on their ideological, racial, religious, gender, or other demographic characteristics. Affective polarization refers to the extent to which the electorate "dislikes" or "distrusts" those from other parties. Political scientists who study mass polarization generally rely on data from opinion polls and election surveys. They look for trends in respondents' opinions on

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2684-490: A reformist president, Arturo Alessandri , whose program was frustrated by a conservative congress. In the 1920s, Marxist groups with strong popular support arose. A military coup led by General Luis Altamirano in 1924 set off a period of political instability that lasted until 1932. Of the ten governments that held power in that period, the longest lasting was that of General Carlos Ibáñez del Campo , who briefly held power in 1925 and then again between 1927 and 1931 in what

2806-432: A single donor who is polarized and contributes large sums to a campaign does not seem to usually drive a politician toward political extremes. In democracies and other representative governments , citizens vote for the political actors who will represent them. Some scholars argue that political polarization reflects the public's ideology and voting preferences. Dixit and Weibull (2007) claim that political polarization

2928-476: A single political cleavage, which can be partisan identity , religious vs secular , globalist vs nationalist , urban vs rural , etc. This political divide creates an explosion of mutual group distrust which hardens between the two political parties (or coalitions ) and spreads beyond the political sphere into societal relations. People begin to perceive politics as "us" vs "them." The office of Ombudsman of Argentina has been vacant since 2009, along with

3050-440: A top-down process, in which elite polarization leads to—or at least precedes—popular polarization. However, polarization among elites does not necessarily produce polarization within the electorate, and polarized electoral choices can often reflect elite polarization rather than voters' preferences. Political scientists have shown politicians have an incentive to advance and support polarized positions. These argue that during

3172-452: A user's search history, location, and previous clicking patterns, creating more polarized access to information. This method of personalizing web content results in filter bubbles , a term coined by digital activist Eli Pariser that refers to the polarized ideological bubbles that are created by computer algorithms filtering out unrelated information and opposing views. A 2011 study found ideological segregation of online news consumption

3294-740: A vote of 153 to 35. Frei refused to form an alliance with Alessandri to oppose Allende, on the grounds that the Christian Democrats were a workers' party and could not make common cause with the right wing. An economic depression that began in 1972 was exacerbated by capital flight , plummeting private investment, and withdrawal of bank deposits in response to Allende's socialist program. Production fell and unemployment rose. Allende adopted measures including price freezes, wage increases, and tax reforms, to increase consumer spending and redistribute income downward. Joint public-private public works projects helped reduce unemployment. Much of

3416-471: Is a natural and regular phenomenon. Party loyalism is a strong element of voters' thinking. Individuals who have higher political knowledge will not be influenced by anything a politician says. The polarization is merely a reflection of the party that the voter belongs to, and whichever direction it moves in. They argue that there is a link between public differences in ideology and the polarization of representatives, but that an increase in preference differences

3538-495: Is also the historical center from which Chile expanded in the late 19th century when it integrated the northern and southern regions. Southern Chile is rich in forests, grazing lands, and features a string of volcanoes and lakes. The southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords, inlets, canals, twisting peninsulas, and islands. The Andes Mountains are located on the eastern border. Political polarization Most discussions of polarization in political science consider polarization in

3660-593: Is associated with the process of politicization . Polarization itself is typically understood as "a prominent division or conflict that forms between major groups in a society or political system and that is marked by the clustering and radicalisation of views and beliefs at two distant and antagonistic poles." as defined by the Institute for Integrated Transitions and Ford Foundation . Political scientists typically distinguish between two levels of political polarization: elite and mass. "Elite polarization" focuses on

3782-561: Is formulated by commentators to draw further division in government. Fiorina connects this phenomenon to what he describes as "party sorting", which is where political ideologies tend to associate with specific political parties (conservatives with the Republican Party and liberals with the Democratic party). Other studies indicate that cultural differences focusing on ideological movements and geographical polarization within

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3904-580: Is lower than the segregation of most offline news consumption and lower than the segregation of face-to-face interactions. This suggests that the filter bubbles effects of online media consumption are exaggerated. Other research also shows that online media does not contribute to the increased polarization of opinions. Solomon Messing and Sean J. Westwood state that individuals do not necessarily become polarized through media because they choose their own exposure, which tends to already align with their views. For instance, in an experiment where people could choose

4026-430: Is now Chile. The next Europeans to reach Chile were Diego de Almagro and his band of Spanish conquistadors , who came from Peru in 1535 seeking gold. The Spanish encountered various cultures that supported themselves principally through slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting. The conquest of Chile began in earnest in 1540 and was carried out by Pedro de Valdivia , one of Francisco Pizarro 's lieutenants, who founded

4148-676: Is present-day Chile. Settlement sites from very early human habitation include Monte Verde, Cueva del Milodón and the Pali-Aike Crater 's lava tube . The Incas briefly extended their empire into what is now northern Chile, but the Mapuche (or Araucanians as they were known by the Spaniards) successfully resisted many attempts by the Inca Empire to subjugate them, despite their lack of state organization. They fought against

4270-464: Is prevalent in emotional polarization, while sadness and fear play significant roles in emotional convergence. These findings can help to design more socially responsible algorithms by starting to focus on the emotional content of algorithmic recommendations. Research has primarily focused on the United States , a country with high polarization that has also increased over time. In Sweden , on

4392-619: Is suspended under the terms of the Antarctic Treaty , of which Chile is a signatory. It is the world's southernmost country that is geographically on the mainland. Chile controls Easter Island and Sala y Gómez Island, the easternmost islands of Polynesia, which it incorporated to its territory in 1888, and the Juan Fernández Islands , more than 600 km (370 mi) from the mainland. Also controlled but only temporarily inhabited (by some local fishermen) are

4514-535: Is the southernmost country in the world and the closest to Antarctica , stretching along a narrow strip of land between the Andes Mountains and the Pacific Ocean . Chile had a population of 17.5 million as of the latest census in 2017 and has a territorial area of 756,102 square kilometers (291,933 sq mi), sharing borders with Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to

4636-405: Is unique within this group in its narrowness from east to west, with the other long north–south countries (including Brazil, Russia, Canada, and the United States, among others) all being wider from east to west by a factor of more than 10. Chile also claims 1,250,000 km (480,000 sq mi) of Antarctica as part of its territory ( Chilean Antarctic Territory ). However, this latter claim

4758-433: Is usually temporary and ultimately results in compromise. Fernbach, Rogers, Fox and Sloman (2013) argue that it is a result of people having an exaggerated faith in their understanding of complex issues. Asking people to explain their policy preferences in detail typically resulted in more moderate views. Simply asking them to list the reasons for their preferences did not result in any such moderation. Studies undertaken in

4880-582: The Eyre Fjord , reaching the western shore by 1962 and cutting off Lake Greve from the sea. The glacier continued advancing both northward and southward in the fjord to near its present position before stabilizing. The growth covers a distance of more than 10 km (6.2 mi) north to south, adding nearly 60 square kilometres (23 sq mi) of ice. The glacier is named after the German geologist Juan Brüggen Messtorff . Expedition cruise ships visit

5002-512: The Maule river in 1812, but did not include the indigenous population or the inhabitants of the province of Chiloé. The population is estimated at 210,567, 86.1% of whom were Spanish or of European descent, 10% of whom were indigenous and 3.7% of whom were mestizos, blacks and mulattos . A 2021 study by Baten and Llorca-Jaña shows that regions with a relatively high share of North European migrants developed faster in terms of numeracy , even if

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5124-717: The Pacific Alliance , and joined the OECD in 2010. There are various theories about the origin of the word Chile . According to 17th-century Spanish chronicler Diego de Rosales , the Incas called the valley of the Aconcagua Chili by corruption of the name of a Picunche tribal chief ( cacique ) called Tili , who ruled the area at the time of the Incan conquest in the 15th century. Another theory points to

5246-640: The constitutional referendum , which was put forward by the left-leaning Constitutional Convention . On 17 December 2023, voters rejected a second new constitution proposal in a new constitutional referendum , written by the conservative-led Constitutional Council . A long and narrow coastal Southern Cone country on the west side of the Andes Mountains , Chile stretches over 4,300 km (2,670 mi) north to south, but only 350 km (217 mi) at its widest point east to west and 64 km (40 mi) at its narrowest point east to west, with an average width of 175 km (109 mi). This encompasses

5368-432: The status quo , sometimes addressing injustices or imbalances in a popular vs. oligarchic struggle . Political polarization can serve to unify, invigorate, or mobilize potential allies at the elite and mass levels. It can also help to divide, weaken, or pacify competitors. Even the most celebrated social movements can be described as a "group of people involved in a conflict with clearly defined opponents having

5490-575: The truth or acting in line with one's values when it conflicts with one's party interests. Once pernicious polarization takes hold, it takes on a life of its own, regardless of earlier intentions . Several political scientists have argued that most types of political polarization are beneficial to democracy, as well as a natural feature. The simplifying features of polarization can help democratization . Strategies which depend on opposition and exclusion are present in all forms of observed politics. Political polarization can help transform or disrupt

5612-502: The 1880s and gaining its current northern territory in the War of the Pacific (1879–83) by defeating Peru and Bolivia. In the 20th century, up until the 1970s, Chile underwent a process of democratization and experienced rapid population growth and urbanization , while relying increasingly on exports from copper mining to support its economy . During the 1960s and 1970s, the country

5734-547: The December 2017 presidential election . On 27 February 2010, Chile was struck by an 8.8 M w earthquake , the fifth largest ever recorded at the time. More than 500 people died (most from the ensuing tsunami ) and over a million people lost their homes. The earthquake was also followed by multiple aftershocks. Initial damage estimates were in the range of US$ 15–30 billion, around 10% to 15% of Chile's real gross domestic product. Chile achieved global recognition for

5856-565: The Earth". Another origin attributed to chilli is the onomatopoeic cheele-cheele —the Mapuche imitation of the warble of a bird locally known as trile . The Spanish conquistadors heard about this name from the Incas, and the few survivors of Diego de Almagro 's first Spanish expedition south from Peru in 1535–36 called themselves the "men of Chilli". Ultimately, Almagro is credited with

5978-567: The Pio XI terminus by sailing up the fjiord from the sea. This article about a glacier in Chile is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Chile Chile ( / ˈ tʃ ɪ l i / CHIL -ee or / ˈ tʃ ɪ l eɪ / CHIL -ay , Spanish: [ˈtʃile] ), officially the Republic of Chile , is a country in western South America . It

6100-827: The Popular Unity platform also called for nationalization of Chile's major copper mines in the form of a constitutional amendment. The measure was passed unanimously by Congress. As a result, the Richard Nixon administration organized and inserted secret operatives in Chile, in order to swiftly destabilize Allende's government. In addition, US financial pressure restricted international economic credit to Chile. The economic problems were also exacerbated by Allende's public spending, financed mostly through printing money, and by poor credit ratings given by commercial banks. Simultaneously, opposition media, politicians, business guilds and other organizations helped to accelerate

6222-704: The Sapa Inca Tupac Yupanqui and his army. The result of the bloody three-day confrontation known as the Battle of the Maule was that the Inca conquest of the territories of Chile ended at the Maule river . In 1520, while attempting to circumnavigate the globe, Ferdinand Magellan discovered the southern passage now named after him (the Strait of Magellan ) thus becoming the first European to set foot on what

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6344-533: The Spanish monarchy (in memory of this day, Chile celebrates its National Day on 18 September each year). After these events, a movement for total independence, under the command of José Miguel Carrera (one of the most renowned patriots) and his two brothers Juan José and Luis Carrera , soon gained a wider following. Spanish attempts to re-impose arbitrary rule during what was called the Reconquista led to

6466-459: The U.S. (2019) and the UK (2022) have found that political polarization is generally less acute among the public than is portrayed in the media. Moreover, non-nuanced reporting by the media about poll data and public opinions can even aggravate political polarization. Morris P. Fiorina (2006, 2008) posits the hypothesis that polarization is a phenomenon which does not hold for the public, and instead

6588-566: The U.S. were able to greatly impact elections through increased undisclosed spending, notably through Super political action committees . Some, such as Washington Post opinion writer Robert Kaiser , argued this allowed wealthy people, corporations, unions, and other groups to push the parties' policy platforms toward ideological extremes, resulting in a state of greater polarization. Other scholars, such as Raymond J. La Raja and David L. Wiltse, note that this does not necessarily hold true for mass donors to political campaigns. These scholars argue

6710-767: The US by examining the ratings of party members published by interest groups, but now, most analyze roll-call voting patterns to investigate trends in party-line voting and party unity. Gentzkow, Shapiro, and Taddy used the text of the Congressional Record to document differences in speech patterns between Republicans and Democrats as a measure of polarization, finding a dramatic increase in polarized speech patterns starting in 1994. Mass polarization, or popular polarization, occurs when an electorate's attitudes towards political issues, policies, celebrated figures, or other citizens are neatly divided along party lines. At

6832-567: The United States constituency is correlated with rises in overall political polarization between 1972 and 2004. Religious, ethnic, and other cultural divides within the public have often influenced the emergence of polarization. According to Layman et al. (2005), the ideological split between U.S. Republicans and Democrats also crosses into the religious cultural divide. They claim that Democrats have generally become more moderate in religious views whereas Republicans have become more traditionalist. For example, political scientists have shown that in

6954-435: The United States, voters who identify as Republican are more likely to vote for a strongly evangelical candidate than Democratic voters. This correlates with the rise in polarization in the United States. Another theory contends that religion does not contribute to full-group polarization, but rather, coalition and party activist polarization causes party shifts toward a political extreme. In some post-colonial countries,

7076-717: The War of the Pacific, Chile became a Naval Power in the Americas, even sending a ship in protests in the Panama crisis of 1885 against the United States intervention in the then Colombian territory. The United States and Chile had the Baltimore crisis which almost became a war as Chile was a potential threat to the intentions of hegemony from the United States in the Western Hemisphere. In 1902 Chile and Argentina received

7198-470: The armed forces bombarded the presidential palace , Allende apparently committed suicide. After the coup, Henry Kissinger told U.S. president Richard Nixon that the United States had "helped" the coup. In 1970, when Allende was first elected, Henry Kissinger had stated "I don't see why we need to stand by and watch a country go Communist due to the irresponsibility of its own people". A military junta, led by General Augusto Pinochet , took control of

7320-626: The banking sector was nationalized . Many enterprises within the copper , coal, iron, nitrate , and steel industries were expropriated , nationalized, or subjected to state intervention. Industrial output increased sharply and unemployment fell during the Allende administration's first year. Allende's program included advancement of workers' interests, replacing the judicial system with "socialist legality", nationalization of banks and forcing others to bankruptcy, and strengthening "popular militias" known as MIR. Started under former President Frei,

7442-555: The candidate of a coalition of 17 political parties called the Concertación , received an absolute majority of votes (55%). President Aylwin served from 1990 to 1994, in what was considered a transition period. In December 1993, Christian Democrat Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle , the son of previous president Eduardo Frei Montalva, led the Concertación coalition to victory with an absolute majority of votes (58%). Frei Ruiz-Tagle

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7564-484: The case of India in the 1970s. Ideological splits within a number of India's major parties resulted in two polarized coalitions on the right and left, each consisting of multiple political parties. Political fund-raisers and donors can also exert significant influence and control over legislators. Party leaders are expected to be productive fund-raisers, in order to support the party's campaigns. After Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission , special interests in

7686-576: The city of Santiago on 12 February 1541. Although the Spanish did not find the extensive gold and silver they sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Chile's central valley, and Chile became part of the Spanish Empire . Conquest took place gradually, and the Europeans suffered repeated setbacks. A massive Mapuche insurrection that began in 1553 resulted in Valdivia's death and

7808-457: The collapse of an ideological center. However, using a cross-national design that covers 25 European countries, a recent study shows that it is not the number of parties itself, but the way a party interreacts with another that influences the magnitude and nature of affective polarization. The vast majority of studies on elite polarization focus on legislative and deliberative bodies. For many years, political scientists measured polarization in

7930-512: The colony in addition to the Mapuche, as was shown by Sir Francis Drake 's 1578 raid on Valparaíso, the colony's principal port. Chile hosted one of the largest standing armies in the Americas, making it one of the most militarized of the Spanish possessions, as well as a drain on the treasury of the Viceroyalty of Peru . The first general census was conducted by the government of Agustín de Jáuregui between 1777 and 1778; it indicated that

8052-775: The command of John Williams Wilson , the Magallanes Region started to be controlled by country in 1843 , while the Antofagasta Region , at the time in dispute with Bolivia , began to fill with people. After the Chilean Civil War of 1829–1830 in which the conservatives won, under the Joaquín Prieto Administration, the Chilean Constitution of 1833 was written and put into effect with high influence from

8174-481: The content they wanted, people did not start to dislike their political opponents more after selecting between pro or anti immigration content. People did, however, start to counterargue the content. Academic studies found that providing people with impartial, objective information has the potential to reduce political polarization, but the effect of information on polarization is highly sensitive to contextual factors. Specifically, polarization over government spending

8296-516: The context of political parties and democratic systems of government. In two-party systems , political polarization usually embodies the tension of its binary political ideologies and partisan identities. However, some political scientists assert that contemporary polarization depends less on policy differences on a left and right scale but increasingly on other divisions such as religious against secular, nationalist against globalist, traditional against modern, or rural against urban. Polarization

8418-425: The cost of internet infrastructure, as an instrument used for internet access in their country (Lelkes et al. 2017) and discovered a positive relation between internet access and affective polarization in the country. At the same time, (Alcot et al. 2021) conducted another experiment in which individuals in the US. were asked to deactivate their Facebook account for a $ 102 incentive, prior to the US. midterm election. It

8540-406: The country into a downward spiral of anger and division for which there are no easy remedies. Pernicious polarization makes compromise , consensus , interaction, and tolerance increasingly costly and tenuous for individuals and political actors on both sides of the divide. Pernicious polarization routinely weakens respect for democratic norms, corrodes basic legislative processes, undermines

8662-408: The country to renounce to its claims in the rest of East Patagonia after a dispute that started in 1842 . As a result of the War of the Pacific with Peru and Bolivia (1879–83), Chile expanded its territory northward by almost one-third, eliminating Bolivia's access to the Pacific, and acquired valuable nitrate deposits, the exploitation of which led to an era of national affluence. Chile had joined

8784-802: The country, several hundred committed Chilean revolutionaries joined the Sandinista army in Nicaragua , guerrilla forces in Argentina or training camps in Cuba , Eastern Europe and Northern Africa. In the late 1980s, largely as a result of events such as the 1982 economic collapse and mass civil resistance in 1983–88, the government gradually permitted greater freedom of assembly, speech , and association, to include trade union and political activity. The government launched market-oriented reforms with Hernán Büchi as Minister of Finance. Chile moved toward

8906-628: The country. The years of the regime were marked by human rights violations . Chile actively participated in Operation Condor . In October 1973, at least 72 people were murdered by the Caravan of Death . According to the Rettig Report and Valech Commission , at least 2,115 were killed, and at least 27,265 were tortured (including 88 children younger than 12 years old). In 2011, Chile recognized an additional 9,800 victims, bringing

9028-520: The destruction of many of the colony's principal settlements. Subsequent major insurrections took place in 1598 and in 1655. Each time the Mapuche and other native groups revolted, the southern border of the colony was driven northward. The abolition of slavery by the Spanish crown in 1683 was done in recognition that enslaving the Mapuche intensified resistance rather than cowing them into submission. Despite royal prohibitions, relations remained strained from continual colonialist interference. Cut off to

9150-538: The discovery of silver ore in Chañarcillo, and the growing trade of the port of Valparaíso, which led to conflict over maritime supremacy in the Pacific with Peru. At the same time, attempts were made to strengthen sovereignty in southern Chile intensifying penetration into Araucanía and colonizing Llanquihue with German immigrants in 1848. Through the founding of Fort Bulnes by the Schooner Ancud under

9272-523: The divide. The impact of redistricting—potentially through gerrymandering or the manipulation of electoral borders to favor a political party—on political polarization in the United States has been found to be minimal in research by leading political scientists. Ranked-choice voting has also been put forward as a solution to political polarization. When politicians repeatedly favor partisan media outlets, they reinforce their supporters' existing biases, which can further fuel political polarization within

9394-686: The early 1990s, the Republican Party used polarizing tactics to become the majority party in the United States House of Representatives —which political scientists Thomas E. Mann and Norman Ornstein refer to as Newt Gingrich 's "guerrilla war." What political scientists have found is that moderates are less likely to run than are candidates who are in line with party doctrine, otherwise known as "party fit." Other theories state politicians who cater to more extreme groups within their party tend to be more successful, helping them stay in office while simultaneously pulling their constituency toward

9516-578: The east, and the Drake Passage to the south. The country also controls several Pacific islands, including Juan Fernández , Isla Salas y Gómez , Desventuradas , and Easter Island , and claims about 1,250,000 square kilometers (480,000 sq mi) of Antarctica as the Chilean Antarctic Territory . The capital and largest city of Chile is Santiago , and the national language is Spanish . Spain conquered and colonized

9638-613: The electorate. For example, after the passage of the Voting Rights Act , the number of conservative Democrats in Congress decreased, while the number of conservative Republicans increased. Within the electorate during the 1970s, Southern Democrats shifted toward the Republican Party , showing polarization among both the elites and the electorate of both main parties. In this sense, political polarization could be

9760-695: The end of his term, Frei had not fully achieved his party's ambitious goals. In the 1970 election, Senator Salvador Allende of the Socialist Party of Chile (then part of the " Popular Unity " coalition which included the Communists, Radicals, Social-Democrats, dissident Christian Democrats, the Popular Unitary Action Movement, and the Independent Popular Action), achieved a partial majority in

9882-548: The essence of the stratified colonial social structure, which was greatly influenced by family politics and the Roman Catholic Church . A strong presidency eventually emerged, but wealthy landowners remained powerful. Bernardo O'Higgins once planned to expand Chile by liberating the Philippines from Spain and incorporating the islands. In this regard he tasked the Scottish naval officer, Lord Thomas Cochrane, in

10004-417: The extent of affective polarization over parties. However, this study does not find evidence that the number of political parties and district magnitude that captures the proportionality of electoral systems would influence the extent of affective polarization. Also, electoral context, such as electoral salience, involvement in elections, elite polarization, and the strength of Eurosceptic parties, can intensify

10126-464: The extreme, each camp questions the moral legitimacy of the other, viewing the opposing camp and its policies as an existential threat to their way of life or the nation as a whole. There are multiple types or measures of mass polarization. Ideological polarization refers to the extent to which the electorate has divergent beliefs on ideological issues (e.g., abortion or affirmative action) or beliefs that are consistently conservative or liberal across

10248-654: The first rightist President in 20 years, defeating former President Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle of the Concertación , for a four-year term succeeding Bachelet. Due to term limits, Sebastián Piñera did not stand for re-election in 2013, and his term expired in March 2014 resulting in Michelle Bachelet returning to office. Sebastián Piñera succeeded Bachelet again in 2018 as the President of Chile after winning

10370-561: The loser from becoming a threat in the future. In these situations, the loser typically questions the legitimacy of the institutions allowing the winner to create a hegemony , which causes citizens to grow cynical towards politics. In these countries, politics is often seen as a self-referential power game that has nothing to do with people. Perniciously polarized societies often witness public controversies over factually provable questions. During this process, facts and moral truths increasingly lose their weight, as more people conform to

10492-428: The messages of their own bloc. Social and political actors such as journalists , academics , and politicians either become engaged in partisan storytelling or else incur growing social , political , and economic costs. Electorates lose confidence in public institutions . Support for norms and democracy decline. It becomes increasingly difficult for people to act in a morally principled fashion by appealing to

10614-442: The nonpartisan nature of the judiciary and fuels public disaffection with political parties. It exacerbates intolerance and discrimination , diminishes societal trust , and increases violence throughout the society. As well as potentially leading to democratic backsliding . In country-by-country instances of pernicious polarization, it is common to see the winner exclude the loser from positions of power or using means to prevent

10736-675: The north by desert, to the south by the Mapuche, to the east by the Andes Mountains, and to the west by the ocean, Chile became one of the most centralized, homogeneous territories in Spanish America. Serving as a sort of frontier garrison , the colony found itself with the mission of forestalling encroachment by both the Mapuche and Spain's European enemies, especially the English and the Dutch . Buccaneers and pirates menaced

10858-399: The other hand, there is a stable ideological polarization over time. Experiments and surveys from Sweden also give limited support to the idea of increased ideological or affective polarization due to media use. Some of recent studies emphasize the role of electoral context and the way parties interact with each other. For example, a recent study shows that coalition partnership can moderate

10980-433: The overall number of migrants was small. This effect might be related to externalities : the surrounding population adopted a similar behavior as the small non-European immigrant group, and new schools were created. Ironically, there might have been positive spillover effects from the educational investment made by migrants, at the same time numeracy might have been reduced by the greater inequality in these regions. However,

11102-475: The past half-century. Political scientists argue that this has particularly affected the voting public in the last three decades, as previously less partisan viewers are given more polarized news media choices. The mass media's current, fragmented, high-choice environment has induced a movement of the audience from more even-toned political programming to more antagonistic and one-sided broadcasts and articles. These programs tend to appeal to partisan viewers who watch

11224-466: The polarization of the political elites, like party organizers and elected officials . "Mass polarization" (or popular polarization) focuses on the polarization of the masses, most often the electorate or general public. Elite polarization refers to polarization between the party-in-government and the party-in-opposition. Polarized political parties are internally cohesive, unified, programmatic, and ideologically distinct; they are typically found in

11346-583: The polarization of the public. For example, in post- World War I Germany , the Communist Workers Party , and the National Socialists , a fascist party, emerged as the dominant political ideologies and proposed to address Germany's economic problems in drastically different ways. In Venezuela , in the late 20th century, presidential candidate Hugo Chávez used economic inequality in the country to polarize voters, employing

11468-412: The polarized programming as a self-confirming source for their ideologies. Countries with less diversified but emerging media markets, such as China and South Korea , have become more polarized due to the diversification of political media. In addition, most search engines and social networks (e.g., Google, Facebook) now utilize computer algorithms as filters, which personalize web content based on

11590-482: The political climate has historically been. Some of recent studies also use decision-making games to measure the extent to which ingroup members discriminate outgroup members relative to their group members. Recent academic work suggests that intolerance at the ideological extremes can lead to polarization with opinions more polarized than identities, intolerance among moderates improves cohesion. Some political scientists argue that polarization requires divergence on

11712-429: The political elite's process for removing a leader which best explains whether or not polarization truly becomes pernicious. Lebas & Munemo (2019) have argued pernicious polarization is marked by both deeper societal penetration and segregation than other forms of political polarization, making it less amenable to resolution. It is agreed, however, that pernicious polarization reinforces and entrenches itself, dragging

11834-508: The political parties of the countries. He theorizes that the extremism of public ideological movement is the basis for the creation of highly polarized multiparty systems. Sartori named this polarizing phenomenon polarized pluralism and claimed it would lead to further polarization in many opposing directions (as opposed to in simply two directions, as in a polarized two-party system) over policy issues. Polarization in multiparty systems can also be defined along two ideological extremes, like in

11956-444: The political process and the political composition of the general public. In political science, pernicious polarization occurs when a single political cleavage overrides other divides and commonalities to the point it has boiled into a single divide which becomes entrenched and self-reinforcing. Unlike most types of polarization, pernicious polarization does not need to be ideological . Rather, pernicious polarization operates on

12078-402: The population consisted of 259,646 inhabitants: 73.5% of European descent , 7.9% mestizos , 8.6% indigenous peoples and 9.8% blacks. Francisco Hurtado, Governor of the province of Chiloé , conducted a census in 1784 and found the population consisted of 26,703 inhabitants, 64.4% of whom were whites and 33.5% of whom were natives. The Diocese of Concepción conducted a census in areas south of

12200-461: The positive effects of immigration were apparently stronger. In 1808, Napoleon's enthronement of his brother Joseph as the Spanish King precipitated the drive by Chile for independence from Spain . A national junta in the name of Ferdinand – heir to the deposed king – was formed on 18 September 1810. The Government Junta of Chile proclaimed an autonomous government for Chile within

12322-465: The public may be polarized along ethnic divides that remain from the colonial regime. In South Africa in the late 1980s, members of the conservative, pro-apartheid National Party were no longer supportive of apartheid , and, therefore, no longer ideologically aligned with their party. Dutch Afrikaners , white English, and native Africans split based on racial divisions, causing polarization along ethnic lines. Economic inequality can also motivate

12444-612: The public's political ideology , the mass media, and political context. Some scholars argue that diverging parties has been one of the major driving forces of polarization as policy platforms have become more distant. This theory is based on recent trends in the United States Congress , where the majority party prioritizes the positions that are most aligned with its party platform and political ideology. The adoption of more ideologically distinct positions by political parties can cause polarization among both elites and

12566-499: The public. The implications of political polarization "are not entirely clear and may include some benefits as well as detrimental consequences." Polarization can be benign, natural, and democratizing, or it can be pernicious, having long term malignant effects on society and congesting essential democratic functions. Where voters see the parties as less divergent, they are less likely to be satisfied with how their democracy works. While its exact effects are disputed, it clearly alters

12688-426: The region in the mid-16th century, replacing Inca rule , but failed to conquer the independent Mapuche people who inhabited what is now south-central Chile. Chile emerged as a relatively stable authoritarian republic in the 1830s after their 1818 declaration of independence from Spain . During the 19th century, Chile experienced significant economic and territorial growth, putting an end to Mapuche resistance in

12810-558: The result from the arbitral award of the Andes resolved by the British Crown . In 1903 the Puna de Atacama dispute was solved. In 1904 Chile and Bolivia signed a Treaty of Peace and Friendship which clarified the border between both countries. The Chilean economy partially degenerated into a system protecting the interests of a ruling oligarchy . By the 1920s, the emerging middle and working classes were powerful enough to elect

12932-580: The rise in several countries in recent years. Affective polarization has been estimated via a variety of methods, including the Affective Polarization Scale. Affective polarization may lead to aggressive attitudes and behaviors toward members of other ideological groups within the same country. Extreme affective polarization may even lead to dangerous consequences like societal disintegration. Affective polarization can be reduced by various means, such as feeling sadness together as

13054-667: The similarity of the valley of the Aconcagua with that of the Casma Valley in Peru, where there was a town and valley named Chili . Other theories say Chile may derive its name from a Native American word meaning either 'ends of the earth' or 'sea gulls'; from the Mapuche word chilli , which may mean 'where the land ends'" or from the Quechua chiri , 'cold', or tchili , meaning either 'snow' or "the deepest point of

13176-482: The small islands of San Ambrosio and San Felix . These islands are notable because they extend Chile's claim to territorial waters out from its coast into the Pacific Ocean. The northern Atacama Desert contains great mineral wealth, primarily copper and nitrates . The relatively small Central Valley, which includes Santiago, dominates the country in terms of population and agricultural resources. This area

13298-609: The stand as one of the high-income countries in South America by 1870. On 9 September 1888, Chile took possession of Easter Island by the signing of a mutual will agreement with the local king, thanks to the efforts of the Bishop of Tahiti, Monsignor José María Verdier since the island was constantly attacked by slave merchants. The naval officer Policarpo Toro represented the Chilean Government and Atamu Tekena

13420-535: The successful rescue of 33 trapped miners in 2010. On 5 August 2010, the access tunnel collapsed at the San José copper and gold mine in the Atacama Desert near Copiapó in northern Chile, trapping 33 men 700 meters (2,300 ft) below ground. A rescue effort organized by the Chilean government located the miners 17 days later. All 33 men were brought to the surface two months later on 13 October 2010 over

13542-448: The total number of killed, tortured or imprisoned for political reasons to 40,018. At the national stadium, filled with detainees, one of those tortured and killed was internationally known poet-singer Víctor Jara (see "Music and Dance", below). A new Constitution was approved by a controversial plebiscite on 11 September 1980, and General Pinochet became president of the republic for an eight-year term. After Pinochet obtained rule of

13664-517: The triple minister Diego Portales . Two other civil wars happened in Chile in the 1850s, one in 1851 and the other one in 1859 . Toward the end of the 19th century, the government in Santiago consolidated its position in the south by the Occupation of Araucanía . The Boundary treaty of 1881 between Chile and Argentina confirmed Chilean sovereignty over the Strait of Magellan but also made

13786-591: The universalization of the name Chile , after naming the Mapocho valley as such. The older spelling "Chili" was in use in English until the early 20th century before switching to "Chile". Stone tool evidence indicates humans sporadically frequented the Monte Verde valley area as long as 18,500 years ago. About 10,000 years ago, migrating Indigenous peoples settled in fertile valleys and coastal areas of what

13908-524: Was a de facto dictatorship (although not really comparable in harshness or corruption to the type of military dictatorship that have often bedeviled the rest of Latin America). By relinquishing power to a democratically elected successor, Ibáñez del Campo retained the respect of a large enough segment of the population to remain a viable politician for more than thirty years, in spite of the vague and shifting nature of his ideology. When constitutional rule

14030-421: Was found that those who deactivated their accounts and did not use Facebook were less polarized as compared to those individuals whose accounts were still activated during the experiment. In addition, Boxell assess ANEX data from 1972-2016 by age cohorts analyzing their likelihood of using social media. He was shocked to found that the largest polarization index over time was occurred among oldest cohort, which

14152-496: Was less likely to use social media (Boxell et al., 2017). Thus, he found a small or negative relation between internet usage and polarization. Also, Markus Prior in his article tried to trace the causal link between social media and affective polarization but he found no evidence that partisan media are making ordinary American voter more partisan, thus negating the role of partisan media as a cause of affective polarization (Prior, 2013). The mass media has grown as an institution over

14274-422: Was marked by severe left-right political polarization and turmoil, which culminated in the 1973 Chilean coup d'état that overthrew Salvador Allende 's democratically elected left-wing government . This was followed by a 16-year right-wing military dictatorship under Augusto Pinochet , which resulted in more than 3,000 deaths or disappearances . The regime ended in 1990, following a referendum in 1988 , and

14396-414: Was reduced when people were provided with a "Taxpayer Receipt," but not when they were also asked how they wanted the money to be spent. This suggests that subtle factors like the mood and tone of partisan news sources may have a large effect on how the same information is interpreted. This is confirmed by another study that shows that different emotions of messages can lead to polarization or convergence: joy

14518-632: Was restored in 1932, a strong middle-class party, the Radicals, emerged. It became the key force in coalition governments for the next 20 years. During the period of Radical Party dominance (1932–52), the state increased its role in the economy. In 1952, voters returned Ibáñez del Campo to office for another six years. Jorge Alessandri succeeded Ibáñez del Campo in 1958, bringing Chilean conservatism back into power democratically for another term. The 1964 presidential election of Christian Democrat Eduardo Frei Montalva by an absolute majority initiated

14640-618: Was succeeded by a center-left coalition , which ruled until 2010. Chile is a developing country with a high-income economy and is one of the most economically and socially stable nations in South America. Chile also performs well in the region in terms of sustainability of the state and democratic development. Chile is a founding member of the United Nations , the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC), and

14762-608: Was succeeded in 2000 by Socialist Ricardo Lagos , who won the presidency in an unprecedented runoff election against Joaquín Lavín of the rightist Alliance for Chile . In January 2006, Chileans elected their first female president, Michelle Bachelet Jeria , of the Socialist Party, defeating Sebastián Piñera , of the National Renewal party, extending the Concertación governance for another four years. In January 2010, Chileans elected Sebastián Piñera as

14884-536: Was the head of the Council of Rapanui. The Rapa Nui elders ceded sovereignty, without renouncing their titles as chiefs, the ownership of their lands, the validity of their culture and traditions and on equal terms. The Rapa Nui sold nothing, they were integrated in equal conditions to Chile. The 1891 Chilean Civil War brought about a redistribution of power between the President and Congress, and Chile established

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