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117-564: Qinghai is the atonal pinyin romanisation of the Mandarin pronunciation of the Chinese name 青海 . Although modern Chinese distinguishes between the colors blue and green, this distinction did not exist in classical Chinese . The color 青 ( qīng ) was a "single" color inclusive of both blue and green as separate shades . The name is thus variously translated as "Blue Sea", "Green Sea", "Blue-Green Sea", "Blue/Green Sea", etc. For

234-520: A cold reversal caused a replacement of much of the arboreal vegetation with Magellanic moorland and Alpine species. On Isla Grande de Chiloé , Magellanic moorland and closed-canopy Nothofagus forests were both present during the LGM, but the former disappeared by the late LGM. Little is known about the extent of glaciers during Last Glacial Maximum north of the Chilean Lake District . To

351-518: A five-level scale is used, visualized with Chao tone letters . The values of the pitch for each tone described by Chao are traditionally considered standard, however slight regional and idiolectal variations in tone pronunciation also occur. The Chinese names of the main four tones are respectively 阴平 ; 陰平 ; yīnpíng ; 'dark level', 阳平 ; 陽平 ; yángpíng ; 'light level', 上 ; shǎng or shàng ('rising'), and 去 ; qù ; 'departing'. As descriptions, they apply rather to

468-557: A focal point in global concerns regarding avian influenza ( H5N1 ), as a major outbreak here could spread the virus across Europe and Asia, further increasing the chances of a pandemic. Minor outbreaks of H5N1 have already been identified at the lake. The Bird Islands have been sanctuaries of the Qinghai Lake Natural Protection Zone since 1997. There are five native fish species: The edible naked carp ( Gymnocypris przewalskii , 湟鱼 ; huángyú ), which

585-730: A formal measurement of uncalibrated radiocarbon years , counted from 1950). In New Zealand and neighbouring regions of the Pacific, temperatures may have been further depressed during part of the LGM by the world's most recent supervolcanic eruption , the Oruanui eruption , approximately 25,500 years BP. However, it is estimated that during the LGM, low-to-mid latitude land surfaces at low elevation cooled on average by 5.8 °C relative to their present-day temperatures, based on an analysis of noble gases dissolved in groundwater rather than examinations of species abundances that have been used in

702-413: A general rule, vowels in open syllables (those which have no coda following the main vowel) are pronounced long , while others are pronounced short. This does not apply to weak syllables, in which all vowels are short. In Standard Chinese, the vowels [a] and [ə] harmonize in backness with the coda. For [a] , it is fronted [a̟] before /i, n/ and backed [a̠] before /u, ŋ/ . For [ə] , it

819-399: A glide is followed by the vowel of which that glide is considered an allophone, the glide may be regarded as epenthetic (automatically inserted), and not as a separate realization of the phoneme. Hence the syllable yi , pronounced [ji] , may be analyzed as consisting of the single phoneme /i/ , and similarly yin may be analyzed as /in/ , yu as /y/ , and wu as /u/ . It

936-502: A language such as English. Since Chinese syllables usually constitute whole words, or at least morphemes , the smallness of the syllable inventory results in large numbers of homophones . However, in Standard Chinese, the average word length is actually almost exactly two syllables, practically eliminating most homophony issues even when tone is disregarded, especially when context is taken into account as well. (Still, due to

1053-488: A local glacial maximum in the region. In northeastern Italy , in the region around Lake Fimon , Artemisia -dominated semideserts, steppes, and meadow-steppes replaced open boreal forests at the start of the LGM, specifically during Heinrich Stadial 3. The overall climate of the region became both drier and colder. In the Sar Mountains , the glacial equilibrium-line altitude was about 450 metres lower than in

1170-454: A major expansion of deserts, along with a large drop in sea levels. Based on changes in position of ice sheet margins dated via terrestrial cosmogenic nuclides and radiocarbon dating , growth of ice sheets in the southern hemisphere commenced 33,000 years ago and maximum coverage has been estimated to have occurred sometime between 26,500 years ago and 20,000 years ago. After this, deglaciation caused an abrupt rise in sea level. Decline of

1287-410: A mixture of grassland and tundra prevailed, and even here, the northern limit of tree growth was at least 20° farther south than today. In the period before the LGM, many areas that became completely barren desert were wetter than they are today, notably in southern Australia, where Aboriginal occupation is believed to coincide with a wet period between 40,000 and 60,000 years Before Present (BP,

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1404-401: A sibilant consonant ( z, c, s, zh, ch, sh, r in pinyin) followed by a syllabic consonant (also known as apical vowel in classic literature): Alternatively, the nucleus may be described not as a syllabic consonant, but as a vowel: Phonologically, these syllables may be analyzed as having their own vowel phoneme, /ɨ/ . However, it is possible to merge this with the phoneme /i/ (to which it

1521-461: A slow change in vegetation towards a sparsely distributed vegetation dominated by Nothofagus species. Within this parkland vegetation Magellanic moorland alternated with Nothofagus forest, and as warming progressed even warm-climate trees began to grow in the area. It is estimated that the tree line was depressed about 1,000 m relative to present day elevations during the coldest period, but it rose gradually until 19,300 years ago. At that time

1638-402: A special phoneme, or as an instance of the phoneme /ŋ/ , although it can also be treated as no phoneme (absence of onset). By contrast, in the case of the particle 啊 a , which is a weak onset-less syllable, linking occurs with the previous syllable (as described under § Syllable reduction , below). When a stressed vowel-initial Chinese syllable follows a consonant-final syllable,

1755-693: A standard accent . Elements of the sound system include not only the segments —e.g. vowels and consonants —of the language, but also the tones applied to each syllable. In addition to its four main tones, Standard Chinese has a neutral tone that appears on weak syllables. This article uses the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) to compare the phonetic values corresponding to syllables romanized with pinyin . The sounds shown in parentheses are sometimes not analyzed as separate phonemes ; for more on these, see § Alveolo-palatal series below. Excluding these, and excluding

1872-649: A syllable that in fact ends with a long nasalized vowel. See also § Syllable reduction , below. The consonants listed in the first table above as denti-alveolar are sometimes described as alveolars , and sometimes as dentals . The affricates and the fricative are particularly often described as dentals; these are generally pronounced with the tongue on the lower teeth. The retroflex consonants (like those of Polish ) are actually apical rather than subapical , and so are considered by some authors not to be truly retroflex; they may be more accurately called post-alveolar. Some speakers not from Beijing may lack

1989-792: A time after its wars with the Xiongnu , Han China connected the lake with the legendary "Western Sea" assumed to balance the East China Sea , but as the Han Empire expanded further west into the Tarim Basin other lakes assumed the title. The former names Chinghai , Ch'ing-hai , or Ch'inghai Lake are based on the Wade–Giles romanisation of the same Chinese name. Qinghai Lake is also known as Koko Nor from its Classical Mongolian name ᠬᠥᠬᠡ ᠨᠠᠭᠤᠷ . The modern Mongolian form of

2106-432: A vowel) are taken to begin [t͡ɕj] , [t͡ɕʰj] , [ɕj] , [t͡ɕɥ] , [t͡ɕʰɥ] , [ɕɥ] . The actual pronunciations are more like [t͡ɕ] , [t͡ɕʰ] , [ɕ] , [t͡ɕʷ] , [t͡ɕʰʷ] , [ɕʷ] (or for speakers using the dental variants, [t͡sʲ] , [t͡sʰʲ] , [sʲ] , [t͡sᶣ] , [t͡sʰᶣ] , [sᶣ] ). This is consistent with the general observation (see under § Glides ) that medial glides are realized as palatalization and/or labialization of

2223-488: Is mid whereas /a/ is low (open). The precise realization of each vowel depends on its phonetic environment. In particular, the vowel /ə/ has two broad allophones [ e ] and [ o ] (corresponding respectively to pinyin e and o in most cases). These sounds can be treated as a single underlying phoneme because they are in complementary distribution . The mid vowel phoneme may also be treated as an under-specified vowel, attracting features either from

2340-421: Is also a difference in syllable length. Full syllables can be analyzed as having two morae ("heavy"), the vowel being lengthened if there is no coda. Weak syllables, however, have a single mora ("light"), and are pronounced approximately 50% shorter than full syllables. Any weak syllable will usually be an instance of the same morpheme (and written with the same character) as some corresponding strong syllable;

2457-404: Is also possible to hear both from the same speaker, even in the same conversation. For example, one may hear the number "one" 一 ; yī as either [jí] or [í] . The glides can also occur in medial position, that is, after the initial consonant but before the main vowel. Here they are represented in pinyin as vowels: for example, the i in bie represents [j] , and

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2574-399: Is essential for intelligibility because of the vast number of words in the language that only differ by tone (i.e. are minimal pairs with respect to tone). Statistically, tones are as important as vowels in Standard Chinese. The following table shows the four main tones of Standard Chinese, together with the neutral (or fifth) tone. To describe the pitch of the tones, its representation on

2691-608: Is fronted [ə̟] before /n/ and backed [ə̠] before /ŋ/ . Some native Mandarin speakers may pronounce [wei̯] , [jou̯] , and [wən] as [ui] , [iu] , and [un] respectively in the first or second tone . Standard Chinese features syllables that end with a rhotic coda /ɚ/ . This feature, known in Chinese as erhua , is particularly characteristic of the Beijing dialect ; many other dialects do not use it as much, and some not at all. It occurs in two cases: The r final

2808-422: Is historically related), since the two are in complementary distribution – provided that the § Alveolo-palatal series is either left un-merged, or is merged with the velars rather than the retroflex or alveolar series. (That is, [t͡ɕi] , [t͡sɨ] , and [ʈ͡ʂɨ] all exist, but *[ki] and *[kɨ] do not exist, so there is no problem merging both [i]~[ɨ] and [k]~[t͡ɕ] at the same time.) Another approach

2925-776: Is known as the "round-sharp" distinction  [ zh ] . The change took place in the last two or three centuries at different times in different areas. This explains why some European transcriptions of Chinese names (especially in postal romanization ) contain ⟨ki-⟩ , ⟨hi-⟩ , ⟨tsi-⟩ , ⟨si-⟩ where an alveolo-palatal might be expected in modern Chinese. Examples are Pe k ing for Bei j ing ( [kiŋ] → [tɕiŋ] ), Chung k ing for Chong q ing ( [kʰiŋ] → [tɕʰiŋ] ), Fu k ien for Fu j ian (cf. Hokkien ), Tien ts in for Tian j in ( [tsin] → [tɕin] ); S in k iang for X in j iang ( [sinkiaŋ] → [ɕintɕiaŋ] , and S ian for X i'an ( [si] → [ɕi] ). The complementary distribution with

3042-450: Is pronounced with a relatively lax tongue, and has been described as a "retroflex vowel". In dialects that do not make use of the rhotic coda, it may be omitted in pronunciation, or in some cases a different word may be selected: for example, Beijing 这儿 ; 這兒 ; zhèr ; 'here' and 那儿 ; 那兒 ; nàr ; 'there' may be replaced by the synonyms 这里 ; 這裡 ; zhèlǐ and 那里 ; 那裡 ; nàlǐ . Syllables in Standard Chinese have

3159-454: Is that of the sentence-final exclamatory particle 啊 a , a weak syllable, which has different characters for its assimilated forms: Standard Chinese, like all varieties of Chinese , is tonal . This means that in addition to consonants and vowels, the pitch contour of a syllable is used to distinguish words from each other. Many non-native Chinese speakers have difficulties mastering the tones of each character, but correct tonal pronunciation

3276-411: Is the most abundant in the lake, and four stoneloaches ( Triplophysa stolickai , T. dorsonotata , T. scleroptera and T. siluroides ). Other Yellow River fish species occurred in the lake, but they disappeared with the increasing salinity and basicity , beginning in the early Holocene . There is an island in the western part of the lake with a temple and a few hermitages called "Mahādeva,

3393-596: Is thus an overly literal calque of this name, used by the Upper Mongols , some of whom made up the local ruling class during the standardization of western Chinese toponyms in the Qing dynasty . Similar use of the Chinese word for "sea" to translate Mongolian lake toponyms can be seen elsewhere around Qinghai, as with Lake Heihai ("Black Sea") in the Kunlun Mountains . The Tibetans also separately calqued

3510-402: Is to regard the syllables assigned above to /ɨ/ as having an (underlying) empty nuclear slot ("empty rhyme", Chinese 空韵 ; kōngyùn ), i.e. as not containing a vowel phoneme at all. This is more consistent with the syllabic consonant description of these syllables, and is consistent with the view that phonological representations are minimal (underspecified). When this is the case, sometimes

3627-675: The Baltic Shield , and in Russia in particular, the LGM ice margin of the Fennoscandian Ice Sheet was highly lobate. The main LGM lobes of Russia followed the Dvina , Vologda and Rybinsk basins respectively. Lobes originated as result of ice following shallow topographic depressions filled with a soft sediment substrate. The northern Ural region was covered in periglacial steppes. Permafrost covered Europe south of

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3744-780: The Barents Sea , the Kara Sea , and Novaya Zemlya , ending at the Taymyr Peninsula in what is now northwestern Siberia. Warming commenced in northern latitudes around 20,000 years ago, but it was limited and considerable warming did not take place until around 14,600 year ago. In northwestern Russia , the Fennoscandian ice sheet reached its LGM extent approximately 17,000 years ago, about five thousand years later than in Denmark, Germany and Western Poland. Outside

3861-614: The Cantabrian Mountains of the northwestern corner of the Iberian Peninsula , which in the present day have no permanent glaciers, the LGM led to a local glacial recession as a result of increased aridity caused by the growth of other ice sheets farther to the east and north, which drastically limited annual snowfall over the mountains of northwestern Spain. The Cantabrian alpine glaciers had previously expanded between approximately 60,000 and 40,000 years ago during

3978-772: The Gulf of Oman . Bathymetric data suggests there were two palaeo-basins in the Persian Gulf. The central basin may have approached an area of 20,000 km , comparable at its fullest extent to lakes such as Lake Malawi in Africa. Between 12,000 and 9,000 years ago much of the Gulf's floor was not covered by water, only being flooded by the sea after 8,000 years ago. It is estimated that annual average temperatures in Southern Africa were 6 °C lower than at present during

4095-567: The Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE), substantial numbers of Han Chinese lived in the Xining valley to the east. In the 17th century, Mongolic -speaking Oirat and Khalkha tribals migrated to Qinghai and became known as Qinghai Mongols . In 1724, the Qinghai Mongols led by Lobzang Danjin  [ nl ] revolted against the Qing dynasty . The Yongzheng Emperor , after putting down

4212-617: The Hex River Mountains , in the Western Cape , block streams and terraces found near the summit of Matroosberg evidences past periglacial activity which likely occurred during the LGM. Palaeoclimatological proxies indicate the region around Boomplaas Cave was wetter, with increased winter precipitation. The region of the Zambezi River catchment was colder relative to present and the local drop in mean temperature

4329-474: The final element in some syllables. These are commonly analyzed as diphthongs rather than vowel-glide sequences. For example, the syllable bai is assigned the underlying representation /pai̯/ . (In pinyin, the second element is generally written ⟨-i⟩ or ⟨-u⟩ , but /au̯/ is written as ⟨-ao⟩ .) The syllables written in pinyin as zi , ci , si , zhi , chi , shi , ri may be described as

4446-663: The glides [ j ] , [ ɥ ] , and [ w ] , there are 19 consonant phonemes in the inventory. Between pairs of plosives or affricates having the same place of articulation and manner of articulation , the primary distinction is not voiced vs. voiceless (as in French or Russian ), but unaspirated vs. aspirated (as in Scottish Gaelic or Icelandic ). The unaspirated plosives and affricates may however become voiced in weak syllables (see § Syllable reduction below). Such pairs are represented in

4563-551: The high vowels : [i̯, y̯, u̯] . This is possible because there is no ambiguity in interpreting a sequence like yao/-iao as /iau/ , and potentially problematic sequences such as */iu/ do not occur. The glides may occur in initial position in a syllable. This occurs with [ɥ] in the syllables written yu , yuan , yue , and yun in pinyin; with [j] in other syllables written with initial y in pinyin ( ya , yi , etc.); and with [w] in syllables written with initial w in pinyin ( wa , wu , etc.). When

4680-423: The u in duan represents [w] . There are some restrictions on the possible consonant-glide combinations: [w] does not occur after labials (except for some speakers in bo , po , mo , fo ); [j] does not occur after retroflexes and velars (or after [f] ); and [ɥ] occurs medially only in lüe and nüe and after alveolar-palatals (for which see above ). A consonant-glide combination at

4797-639: The 1980s, drawn by new business opportunities, migration to the area increased, causing ecological stresses. Fresh grass production in Gangcha County north of the lake declined from a mean of 2,057 kilograms per hectare (1,835 lb/acre) to 1,271 kg/ha (1,134 lb/acre) in 1987. In 2001, the State Forestry Administration of China launched the "Retire Cropland, Restore Grasslands" ( 退耕，还草 ) campaign and started confiscating Tibetan and Mongol pastoralists' guns to preserve

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4914-450: The 20th century but increasing since 2004. It had a surface area of 4,317 square kilometers (1,667 sq mi), an average depth of 21 meters (69 ft), and a maximum depth of 25.5 m (84 ft) in 2008. Twenty-three rivers and streams empty into Qinghai Lake, most of them seasonal. Five permanent streams provide 80% of the total influx. The relatively low inflow and high evaporation rates have turned Qinghai saline and alkaline;

5031-606: The Andes occupying lacustrine and marine basins where they spread out forming large piedmont glacier lobes . Glaciers extended about 7 km west of the modern Llanquihue Lake , but not more than 2 to 3 km south of it. Nahuel Huapi Lake in Argentina was also glaciated by the same time. Over most of the Chiloé Archipelago , glacier advance peaked 26,000 years ago, forming a long north–south moraine system along

5148-491: The Beijing dialect. In phonological analysis, it is often assumed that, when not followed by one of the high front vowels [i] or [y] , the alveolar-palatals consist of a consonant followed by a palatal glide ( [j] or [ɥ] ). That is, syllables represented in pinyin as beginning ⟨ji-⟩ , ⟨qi-⟩ , ⟨xi-⟩ , ⟨ju-⟩ , ⟨qu-⟩ , ⟨xu-⟩ (followed by

5265-632: The Great Barrier Reef was enhanced due to low atmospheric CO 2 levels. The deep waters of the Indian Ocean were significantly less oxygenated during the LGM compared to the Middle Holocene. The deep South Indian Ocean in particular was an enormous carbon sink, partially explaining the very low p CO 2 of the LGM. The intermediate waters of the southeastern Arabian Sea were poorly ventilated relative to today because of

5382-559: The Heart of the Lake", " mTsho snying Ma hā de wa " in Tibetan, which historically was home to a Buddhist monastery. The temple was also used for religious purposes and ceremonies. No boat was used during summer, so monks and pilgrims traveled to and from only when the lake froze over in winter. A nomad described the size of the island by saying that: "if in the morning a she-goat starts to browse

5499-603: The Holocene. In Greece , steppe vegetation predominated. Megafaunal abundance in Europe peaked around 27,000 and 21,000 BP; this bountifulness was attributable to the cold stadial climate. In Greenland, the difference between LGM temperatures and present temperatures was twice as great during winter as during summer. Greenhouse gas and insolation forcings dominated temperature changes in northern Greenland, whereas Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) variability

5616-678: The LGM except in transient intervals around 23,200 and 22,300 BP. In the western South Atlantic , where Antarctic Intermediate Water forms, sinking particle flux was heightened as a result of increased dust flux during the LGM and sustained export productivity. The increased sinking particle flux removed neodymium from shallow waters, producing an isotopic ratio change. On the Island of Hawaii , geologists have long recognized deposits formed by glaciers on Mauna Kea during recent ice ages. The latest work indicates that deposits of three glacial episodes since 150,000 to 200,000 years ago are preserved on

5733-544: The LGM, 21,000 years ago, the sea level was about 125 meters (about 410 feet) lower than it is today. Across most of the globe, the hydrological cycle slowed down, explaining increased aridity in many regions of the world. In Africa and the Middle East, many smaller mountain glaciers formed, and the Sahara and other sandy deserts were greatly expanded in extent. The Atlantic deep sea sediment core V22-196, extracted off

5850-459: The Lake. During the ritual, the Chinese national anthem was sung and all participants bowed to a Portrait of Kuomintang founder Sun Yat-sen as well as to the God of the Lake. Participants, both Han and Muslim, made offerings to the god. After the 1949 Chinese revolution , refugees from the 1950s Anti-Rightist Movement settled in the area west of Qinghai Lake. After the Chinese economic reform in

5967-702: The Last Glacial Maximum. This temperature drop alone would however not have been enough to generate widespread glaciation or permafrost in the Drakensberg Mountains or the Lesotho Highlands . Seasonal freezing of the ground in the Lesotho Highlands might have reached depths of 2 meters or more below the surface. A few small glaciers did however develop during the LGM, in particular in south-facing slopes. In

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6084-688: The Laurentide Ice Sheet reached 3.2 km in height around Keewatin Dome and about 1.7-2.1 km along the Plains divide. In addition to the large Cordilleran Ice Sheet in Canada and Montana , alpine glaciers advanced and (in some locations) ice caps covered much of the Rocky and Sierra Nevada Mountains further south. Latitudinal gradients were so sharp that permafrost did not reach far south of

6201-511: The Mongols. During Nationalist rule (1928–1949), the Han formed a majority of Qinghai Province's residents, although Chinese Muslims ( Hui ) dominated the government. The Kuomintang Hui general Ma Bufang , having invited Kazakh Muslims, joined the governor of Qinghai and other high ranking Qinghai and national government officials in conducting a joint Kokonuur Lake Ceremony to worship the God of

6318-705: The North Atlantic was reduced, as measured by the increased proportion of radiogenic isotopes in neodymium isotope ratios. There is controversy whether upwelling off the Moroccan coast was stronger during the LGM compared to today. Though coccolith size increases in Calcidiscus leptoporus suggest stronger trade winds during the LGM caused there to be increased coastal upwelling of the northwestern coast of Africa, planktonic foraminiferal δ C records show upwelling and primary productivity were not enhanced during

6435-465: The North Atlantic were better ventilated during the LGM by Glacial North Atlantic Intermediate Water (GNAIW) relative to its present-day ventilation by upper North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW). GNAIW was nutrient poor compared to present day upper NADW. Below GNAIW, southern source bottom water that was very rich in nutrients filled the deep North Atlantic. Due to the presence of immense ice sheets in Europe and North America, continental weathering flux into

6552-566: The West Antarctica ice sheet occurred between 14,000 and 15,000 years ago, consistent with evidence for another abrupt rise in the sea level about 14,500 years ago. Glacier fluctuations around the Strait of Magellan suggest the peak in glacial surface area was constrained to between 25,200 and 23,100 years ago. There are no agreed dates for the beginning and end of the LGM, and researchers select dates depending on their criteria and

6669-430: The adjacent sounds or from default rules resulting in /ə/ . (Apparent counterexamples are provided by certain interjections , such as [ɔ] , [ɛ] , [jɔ] , and [lɔ] , but these are normally treated as special cases operating outside the normal phonemic system. ) Transcriptions of the vowels' allophones (the ways they are pronounced in particular phonetic environments) differ somewhat between sources. More details about

6786-416: The atmosphere . The massive sheets of ice locked away water, lowering the sea level, exposing continental shelves , joining land masses together, and creating extensive coastal plains . The ice sheets also changed the atmospheric circulation, causing the northern Pacific and Atlantic oceans to cool and produce more clouds, which amplified the global cooling as the clouds reflected even more sunlight. During

6903-919: The best known being Lake Bonneville in Utah . This also occurred in Afghanistan and Iran , where a major lake formed in the Dasht-e Kavir . In Australia , shifting sand dunes covered half the continent, while the Chaco and Pampas in South America became similarly dry. Present-day subtropical regions also lost most of their forest cover, notably in eastern Australia, the Atlantic Forest of Brazil , and southern China , where open woodland became dominant due to much drier conditions. In northern China – unglaciated despite its cold climate –

7020-562: The coast of Senegal, shows a major southward expansion of the Sahara. The Persian Gulf averages about 35 metres in depth and the seabed between Abu Dhabi and Qatar is even shallower, being mostly less than 15 metres deep. For thousands of years the Ur-Shatt (a confluence of the Tigris - Euphrates Rivers ) provided fresh water to the Gulf, as it flowed through the Strait of Hormuz into

7137-411: The consonant does not directly link with the vowel. Instead, the zero onset seems to intervene in between. 棉袄 ; mián'ǎo ("cotton jacket") becomes [mjɛnʔau] , [mjɛnɣau] . However, in connected speech none of these output forms is natural. Instead, when the words are spoken together the most natural pronunciation is rather similar to [mjɛ̃ːau] , in which there is no nasal closure or any version of

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7254-725: The continents: the Indonesian islands as far east as Borneo and Bali were connected to the Asian continent in a landmass called Sundaland . Palawan was also part of Sundaland, while the rest of the Philippine Islands formed one large island separated from the continent only by the Sibutu Passage and the Mindoro Strait . The environment along the coast of South China was not very different from that of

7371-627: The data set consulted. Jennifer French, an archeologist specialising in the European Palaeolithic, dates its onset at 27,500 years ago, with ice sheets at their maximum by around 26,000 years ago and deglaciation commencing between 20,000 and 19,000 years ago. The LGM is referred to in Britain as the Dimlington Stadial , dated to between 31,000 and 16,000 years ago. The average global temperature about 21,000 years ago

7488-636: The east and west extremities of the Sundaland shelf. Only in Central America and the Chocó region of Colombia did tropical rainforests remain substantially intact – probably due to the extraordinarily heavy rainfall of these regions. Most of the world's deserts expanded. Exceptions were in what is the present-day Western United States , where changes in the jet stream brought heavy rain to areas that are now desert and large pluvial lakes formed,

7605-543: The eastern coast of Chiloé Island (41.5–43° S). By that time the glaciation at the latitude of Chiloé was of ice sheet type contrasting to the valley glaciation found further north in Chile. Despite glacier advances much of the area west of Llanquihue Lake was still ice-free during the Last Glacial Maximum. During the coldest period of the Last Glacial Maximum vegetation at this location was dominated by Alpine herbs in wide open surfaces. The global warming that followed caused

7722-551: The endangered Przewalski's gazelle . Prior to the 1960s, 108 freshwater rivers emptied into the lake. As of 2003, 85% of the river mouths have dried up, including the lake's largest tributary, the Buha River. In between 1959 and 1982, there had been an annual water level drop of 10 centimeters (3.9 in), which was reversed at a rate of 10 cm/year (3.9 in/year) between 1983 and 1989, but has continued to drop since. The Chinese Academy of Sciences reported in 1998

7839-439: The expense of including underlying glides in their systems). Edwin G. Pulleyblank has proposed a system which includes underlying glides, but no vowels at all. More common are systems with two vowels; for example, in Mantaro Hashimoto 's system, there are just two vowel nuclei, /ə, a/ . In this analysis, the high vowels [i, u, y] are analyzed as glides /j, w, ɥ/ which surface as vowels before ∅ or /ən, əŋ/ . * ㄧㄞ As

7956-593: The four main tones , and some degree of stress . Weak syllables are unstressed , and have neutral tone . The contrast between full and weak syllables is distinctive; there are many minimal pairs such as 要事 yàoshì "important matter" and 钥匙 yàoshi "key", or 大意 dàyì "main idea" and (with the same characters) dàyi "careless", the second word in each case having a weak second syllable. Some linguists consider this contrast to be primarily one of stress, while others regard it as one of tone. For further discussion, see under Neutral tone and Stress , below. There

8073-468: The grass around it clockwise and its kid anti-clockwise, they will meet only in the night, which shows how big the island is." It is also known as the place to which Gushri Khan and other Khoshut Mongols migrated during the 1620s. The lake is currently circumnavigated by pilgrims, mainly Tibetan Buddhists, especially every Horse Year of the 12-year cycle . Nikolay Przhevalsky estimated it would take about eight days by horse or 15 walking to circumambulate

8190-581: The ice sheet down to as far south as present-day Szeged in Southern Hungary. Ice covered the whole of Iceland . In addition, ice covered Ireland along with roughly the northern half of the British Isles with the southern boundary of the ice sheet running approximately from the south of Wales to the north east of England, and then across the now submerged land of Doggerland to Denmark . Central Europe had isolated pockets of relative warmth corresponding to hydrothermally active areas, which served as refugia for taxa not adapted to extremely cold climates. In

8307-421: The ice sheets except at high elevations. Glaciers forced the early human populations who had originally migrated from northeast Siberia into refugia , reshaping their genetic variation by mutation and drift . This phenomenon established the older haplogroups found among Native Americans , and later migrations are responsible for northern North American haplogroups. In southeastern North America, between

8424-530: The individual consonant sounds are given in the following table. All of the consonants may occur as the initial sound of a syllable, with the exception of /ŋ/ (unless the zero initial is assigned to this phoneme; see below ). Excepting the rhotic coda , the only consonants that can appear in syllable coda (final) position are /n/ and /ŋ/ (although [m] may occur as an allophone of /n/ before labial consonants in fast speech). Final /n/ , /ŋ/ may be pronounced without complete oral closure, resulting in

8541-458: The individual vowel allophones are given in the following table (not including the values that occur with the rhotic coda ). Zhuyin represents vowels differently from normal romanisation schemes, and as such is not displayed in the above table. The vowel nuclei may be preceded by a glide /j, w, ɥ/ , and may be followed by a coda /i, u, n, ŋ/ . The various combinations of glide, vowel, and coda have different surface manifestations, as shown in

8658-414: The lake was again threatened with loss of surface area due to livestock over-grazing, land reclamations, and natural causes. Surface area decreased 11.7% in the period from 1908 to 2000. During that period, higher lake floor areas were exposed and numerous water bodies separated from the rest of the main lake. In the 1960s, the 48.9-square-kilometer (18.9 sq mi) Gahai Lake (尕海, Gǎhǎi ) appeared in

8775-433: The lake, but pilgrims report it takes about 18 days on horseback, and one took 23 days walking to complete the circuit. Chinese tones The phonology of Standard Chinese has historically derived from the Beijing dialect of Mandarin . However, pronunciation varies widely among speakers, who may introduce elements of their local varieties . Television and radio announcers are chosen for their ability to affect

8892-599: The limited phonetic inventory, homophonic puns in Mandarin Chinese are very common and important in Chinese culture . ) For a list of all Standard Chinese syllables (excluding tone and rhotic coda) see the pinyin table or zhuyin table . Syllables can be classified as full (or strong ), and weak . Weak syllables are usually grammatical markers such as 了 le , or the second syllables of some compound words (although many other compounds consist of two or more full syllables). A full syllable carries one of

9009-466: The maximal form (CG)V(X) , traditionally analysed as an "initial" consonant C, a "final", and a tone T. The final consists of a "medial" G (which may be one of the glides [j, w, ɥ] ), a vowel V, and a coda X, which may be one of [n, ŋ, ɚ̯, i̯, u̯] . The vowel and coda may also be grouped as the " rhyme ", sometimes spelled " rime ". Any of C, G, and X (and V, in some analyses) may be absent. However, in some analyses, C cannot be absent, due to

9126-581: The name as Mtsho-sngon-po or Tso ngönpo ( མཚོ ་ སྔོན་པོ ་ , "Blue Lake or Sea"). Qinghai Lake lies about 100 kilometers (62 mi) west of Xining in a hollow of the Tibetan Plateau at 3,205 meters (10,515 ft) above sea level . It lies between Haibei Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture and Hainan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture in northeastern Qinghai in Northwest China . The lake has fluctuated in size, shrinking over much of

9243-412: The north, in the dry Andes of Central and the Last Glacial Maximum is associated with increased humidity and the verified advance of at least some mountain glaciers. Montane glaciers in the northern Andes reached their peak extent approximately 27,000 years ago. In northwestern Argentina, pollen deposits record the altitudinal descent of the treeline during the LGM. Amazonia was much drier than in

9360-433: The north; Shadao Lake (沙岛, Shādǎo ), covering an area of 19.6 km (7.6 sq mi) to the northeast, followed in the 1980s, along with Haiyan Lake (海晏, Hǎiyàn ) of 112.5 km (43.4 sq mi). Another 96.7 km (37.3 sq mi) daughter lake split off in 2004. In addition, the lake has now split into half a dozen more small lakes at the border. Qinghai Provincial Remote Sensing Center, attributed

9477-412: The other three series. The existence of the above-mentioned dental variants inclines some to prefer to identify the alveolo-palatals with the dentals, but identification with any of the three series is possible (unless the empty rime / ɨ / is identified with /i/ , in which case the velars become the only candidate). The Yale and Wade–Giles systems mostly treat the alveolo-palatals as allophones of

9594-428: The past. During the Last Glacial Maximum, much of the world was cold, dry, and inhospitable, with frequent storms and a dust-laden atmosphere. The dustiness of the atmosphere is a prominent feature in ice cores; dust levels were as much as 20 to 25 times greater than they are in the present. This was probably due to a number of factors: reduced vegetation, stronger global winds, and less precipitation to clear dust from

9711-654: The persistence of rainforests in eastern Australia at this time. Rivers maintained their sinuous form in southeastern Australia and there was increased aeolian deposition of sediment in compared to today. The Flinders Ranges likewise experienced humid conditions. In southwestern Western Australia, forests disappeared during the LGM. Between Sahul and Sundaland – a peninsula of South East Asia that comprised present-day Malaysia and western and northern Indonesia – there remained an archipelago of islands known as Wallacea . The water gaps between these islands, Sahul and Sundaland were considerably narrower and fewer in number than in

9828-507: The phoneme is described as shifting from voiceless to voiced, e.g. sī becoming /sź̩/ . Syllabic consonants may also arise as a result of weak syllable reduction; see below . Syllabic nasal consonants are also heard in certain interjections ; pronunciations of such words include [m] , [n] , [ŋ] , [hm] , [hŋ] . Standard Chinese can be analyzed as having between two and six vowel phonemes. /i, u, y/ (which may also be analyzed as underlying glides) are high (close) vowels, /ə/

9945-542: The pinyin system mostly using letters which in Romance languages generally denote voiceless/voiced pairs (for example [p] and [b] ), or in Germanic languages often denotes fortis/lenis pairs (for example initial aspirated voiceless/unaspirated voiced pairs such as [pʰ] and [b] ). However, aspirated/unaspirated pairs such as /pʰ/ and /p/ are represented with p and b respectively in pinyin. More details about

10062-568: The preceding consonant (palatalization already being inherent in the case of the palatals). On the above analysis, the alveolar-palatals are in complementary distribution with the dentals [t͡s, t͡sʰ, s] , with the velars [k, kʰ, x] , and with the retroflexes [ʈ͡ʂ, ʈ͡ʂʰ, ʂ] , as none of these can occur before high front vowels or palatal glides, whereas the alveolo-palatals occur only before high front vowels or palatal glides. Therefore, linguists often prefer to classify [t͡ɕ, t͡ɕʰ, ɕ] not as independent phonemes, but as allophones of one of

10179-610: The predecessor Middle Chinese tones than to the modern tones. Last Glacial Maximum The Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM ), also referred to as the Last Glacial Coldest Period , was the most recent time during the Last Glacial Period where ice sheets were at their greatest extent 26,000 and 20,000 years ago. Ice sheets covered much of Northern North America , Northern Europe , and Asia and profoundly affected Earth 's climate by causing

10296-925: The present day, featuring moist subtropical evergreen forests, despite sea levels in the South China Sea being about 100 metres lower than the present day. The Australian mainland, New Guinea , Tasmania and many smaller islands comprised a single land mass. This continent is now referred to sometimes as Sahul . In the Bonaparte Gulf of northwestern Australia, sea levels were about 125 metres lower than present. Interior Australia saw widespread aridity, evidenced by extensive dune activity and falling lake levels. Eastern Australia experienced two nadirs in temperature. Lacustrine sediments from North Stradbroke Island in coastal Queensland indicated humid conditions. Data from Little Llangothlin Lagoon likewise indicate

10413-569: The present day. The two main islands of New Zealand, along with associated smaller islands, were joined as one landmass. Virtually all of the Southern Alps were under permanent ice cover, with alpine glaciers extending from them into much of the surrounding high country . Northern Europe was largely covered by ice, with the southern boundary of the ice sheets passing through Germany and Poland. This ice extended northward to cover Svalbard and Franz Josef Land and northeastward to occupy

10530-515: The present lake level, after which they declined slightly until around 9,200 years ago, when they began to rise again. Around 5,900 years ago, lake levels reached a peak of a few metres higher than today, before declining again amidst a regional cooling and drying trend until 1,400 years ago, when they were less than 10 metres lower than average modern levels. They then began to rise once more until reaching their present level. The lake often remains frozen for three months continuously in winter. During

10647-557: The present, with flora diminished to almost the same degree as in glaciated areas of Europe and North America. Even in less affected regions, rainforest cover was greatly diminished, especially in West Africa where a few refugia were surrounded by tropical grasslands . The Amazon rainforest was split into two large blocks by extensive savanna , and the tropical rainforests of Southeast Asia probably were similarly affected, with deciduous forests expanding in their place except on

10764-536: The present. δ D values from plant waxes from the LGM are significantly more enriched than those in the present and those dating back to MIS 3, evidencing this increased aridity. Eastern Brazil was also affected; the site of Guanambi in Bahia was much drier than today. AMOC was weaker and more shallow during the LGM. Sea surface temperatures in the western subtropical gyre of the North Atlantic were around 5 °C colder compared to today. Intermediate depth waters of

10881-577: The rebellion, stripped away Qinghai's autonomy and imposed direct rule. Although some Tibetans lived around the lake, the Qing maintained an administrative division from the time of Güshi Khan between the Dalai Lama's western realm (slightly smaller than the current Tibet Autonomous Region ) and the Tibetan-inhabited areas in the east. Yongzheng also sent Manchu and Han settlers to dilute

10998-528: The retroflex series arose when syllables that had a retroflex consonant followed by a medial glide lost the medial glide. A full syllable such as ai , in which the vowel is not preceded by any of the standard initial consonants or glides, is said to have a null initial or zero onset . This may be realized as a consonant sound: [ ʔ ] and [ ɣ ] are possibilities, as are [ŋ] and [ ɦ ] in some non-standard varieties. It has been suggested by San Duanmu that such an onset be regarded as

11115-420: The retroflexes in their native dialects, and may thus replace them with dentals. The alveolo-palatal consonants (pinyin j , q , x ) have standard pronunciations of [t͡ɕ, t͡ɕʰ, ɕ] . Some speakers realize them as palatalized dentals [t͡sʲ] , [t͡sʰʲ] , [sʲ] ; this is claimed to be especially common among children and women, although officially it is regarded as substandard and as a feature specific to

11232-542: The retroflexes; Tongyong Pinyin mostly treats them as allophones of the dentals; and Mainland Chinese Braille treats them as allophones of the velars. In standard pinyin and bopomofo , however, they are represented as a separate sequence. The alveolo-palatals arose historically from a merger of the dentals [t͡s, t͡sʰ, s] and velars [k, kʰ, x] before high front vowels and glides. Previously, some instances of modern [t͡ɕ(ʰ)i] were instead [k(ʰ)i] , and others were [t͡s(ʰ)i] ; distinguishing these two sources of [t͡ɕ(ʰ)i]

11349-544: The salt concentration is presently about 1.4% by weight ( seawater has a salt concentration of about 3.5%), with a pH of 9.3. It has increased in salinity and basicity since the early Holocene . At the tip of the peninsula on the western side of the lake are Cormorant Island and Egg Island, collectively known as the Bird Islands. Qinghai Lake became isolated from the Yellow River about 150,000 years ago. If

11466-445: The same name is Höhnuur ( Хөхнуур ). Similar to Chinese, Classical Mongolian used ᠬᠥᠬᠡ inclusive of both the color of the sky and fresh grass, but now uses xöx specifically for deep or dark blue distinguished both from light blue ( цэнхэр , tsenher ) and green ( ногоон , nogoon ). Classical Mongolian also did not distinguish between lakes and larger bodies of water. The Chinese name, using "sea" rather than "lake,"

11583-401: The separation of Qinghai Lake to shrinkage of the water surface as a result of a lowered water level and desertification in the region. The water surface has shrunk by 312 km (120 sq mi) over the last three decades. The lake is located at the crossroads of several bird migration routes across Asia. Many species use Qinghai as an intermediate stop during migration. As such, it is

11700-572: The shutting down of the Oyashio Current and the presence of large east–west mountain ranges were secondary factors that prevented the development of continental glaciation in Asia . All over the world, climates at the Last Glacial Maximum were cooler and almost everywhere drier. In extreme cases, such as South Australia and the Sahel , rainfall could have been diminished by up to 90% compared to

11817-606: The southern Appalachian Mountains and the Atlantic Ocean, there was an enclave of unusually warm climate. In the Southern Hemisphere, the Patagonian Ice Sheet covered the whole southern third of Chile and adjacent areas of Argentina. On the western side of the Andes the ice sheet reached sea level as far north as in the 41 degrees south at Chacao Channel . The western coast of Patagonia

11934-585: The start of a syllable is articulated as a single sound – the glide is not in fact pronounced after the consonant, but is realized as palatalization [ʲ] , labialization [ʷ] , or both [ᶣ] , of the consonant. (The same modifications of initial consonants occur in syllables where they are followed by a high vowel, although normally no glide is considered to be present there. Hence a consonant is generally palatalized [ʲ] when followed by /i/ , labialized [ʷ] when followed by /u/ , and both [ᶣ] when followed by /y/ .) The glides [j] and [w] are also found as

12051-418: The tables below. Any of the three positions may be empty, i.e. occupied by a null meta-phoneme ∅ . The following table provides a typical five vowel analysis according to Duanmu (2000 , p. 37) and Lin (2007) . In this analysis, the high vowels /i, u, y/ are fully phonemic and may form sequences with the nasal codas /n, ŋ/ . Some linguists prefer to reduce the number of vowel phonemes drastically (at

12168-506: The volcano. Glacial moraines on the volcano formed about 70,000 years ago and from about 40,000 to 13,000 years ago. If glacial deposits were formed on Mauna Loa , they have long since been buried by younger lava flows. Low sea surface temperature (SST) and sea surface salinity (SSS) in the East China Sea during the LGM suggests the Kuroshio Current was reduced in strength relative to the present. Abyssal Pacific overturning

12285-553: The water level were to rise by approximately 50 meters (160 ft), the connection to the Yellow River would be reestablished via the low pass to the east used by highway S310. 18,000 years ago, just after the end of the Last Glacial Maximum , the lake level of Lake Qinghai was around 30 metres lower than today. Between 15,600 and 10,700 years ago, lake levels secularly increased to around 10 metres lower than

12402-452: The weak form will often have a modified pronunciation, however, as detailed in the following section. Apart from differences in tone, length, and stress, weak syllables are subject to certain other pronunciation changes (reduction). The example of shénme → shém also involves assimilation , which is heard even in unreduced syllables in quick speech (for example, in guǎmbō for 广播 guǎngbō "broadcast"). A particular case of assimilation

12519-399: The zero initial being considered a consonant. Many of the possible combinations under the above scheme do not actually occur. There are only some 35 final combinations (medial+rime) in actual syllables (see pinyin finals ). In all, there are only about 400 different syllables when tone is ignored, and about 1300 when tone is included. This is a far smaller number of distinct syllables than in

12636-519: The zero onset, and instead nasalization of the vowel occurs. The glides [ j ] , [ ɥ ] , and [ w ] sound respectively like the y in English yes , the (h)u in French huit , and the w in English we . ( Beijing speakers often replace initial [w] with a labiodental [ʋ] , except when it is followed by [o] or [u] . ) The glides are commonly analyzed not as independent phonemes, but as consonantal allophones of

12753-614: Was 15 °C (59 °F) for the 2013–2017 period. As of 2012 about 3.1% of Earth's surface and 10.7% of the land area is covered in year-round ice. Carbon sequestration in the highly stratified and productive Southern Ocean was essential in producing the LGM. The formation of an ice sheet or ice cap requires both prolonged cold and precipitation ( snow ). Hence, despite having temperatures similar to those of glaciated areas in North America and Europe , East Asia remained unglaciated except at higher elevations. This difference

12870-629: Was a pocket of relative warmth. Following a preceding period of relative retreat from 52,000 to 40,000 years ago, the Laurentide Ice Sheet grew rapidly at the onset of the LGM until it covered essentially all of Canada east of the Rocky Mountains and extended roughly to the Missouri and Ohio Rivers , and eastward to Manhattan , reaching a total maximum volume of around 26.5 to 37 million cubic kilometres. At its peak,

12987-489: Was about 6 °C (11 °F) colder than today. According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS), permanent summer ice covered about 8% of Earth's surface and 25% of the land area during the last glacial maximum. The USGS also states that sea level was about 125 meters (410 ft) lower than in present times (2012). When comparing to the present, the average global temperature

13104-565: Was because the ice sheets in Europe produced extensive anticyclones above them. These anticyclones generated air masses that were so dry on reaching Siberia and Manchuria that precipitation sufficient for the formation of glaciers could never occur (except in Kamchatka where these westerly winds lifted moisture from the Sea of Japan ). The relative warmth of the Pacific Ocean due to

13221-486: Was largely glaciated, but some authors have pointed out the possible existence of ice-free refugia for some plant species. On the eastern side of the Andes, glacier lobes occupied the depressions of Seno Skyring , Seno Otway , Inútil Bay , and Beagle Channel . On the Straits of Magellan, ice reached as far as Segunda Angostura . During the LGM, valley glaciers in the southern Andes (38–43° S) merged and descended from

13338-729: Was seasonally uniform. On the island of Mauritius in the Mascarenhas Archipelago , open wet forest vegetation dominated, contrasting with the dominantly closed-stratified-tall-forest state of Holocene Mauritian forests. There were ice sheets in modern Tibet (although scientists continue to debate the extent to which the Tibetan Plateau was covered with ice) as well as in Baltistan and Ladakh . In Southeast Asia , many smaller mountain glaciers formed, and permafrost covered Asia as far south as Beijing . Because of lowered sea levels, many of today's islands were joined to

13455-570: Was similar in spatial extent. The outflow of North Pacific Intermediate Water through the Tasman Sea was stronger during the LGM. In the Great Barrier Reef along the coast of Queensland , reef development shifted seaward due to the precipitous drop in sea levels, reaching a maximum distance from the present coastline as sea levels approached their lowest levels around 20,700-20,500 years ago. Microbial carbonate deposition in

13572-505: Was the dominant influence on southern Greenland's climate. Illorsuit Island was exclusively covered by cold-based glaciers. Eastern Beringia was extremely cold and dry. July air temperatures in northern Alaska and Yukon were about 2-3 °C lower compared to today. Equilibrium line altitudes in Alaska suggest summer temperatures were 2-5 °C compared to preindustrial. Sediment core analysis from Lone Spruce Pond in southwestern Alaska show it

13689-526: Was weaker during the LGM than in the present day, although it was temporarily stronger during some intervals of ice sheet retreat. The El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) was strong during the LGM. Evidence suggests that the Peruvian Oxygen Minimum Zone in the eastern Pacific was weaker than it is in the present day, likely as a result of increased oxygen concentrations in seawater permitted by cooler ocean water temperatures, though it

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