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88-604: The premier of Queensland is the head of government in the Australian state of Queensland . By convention the premier is the leader of the party with a parliamentary majority in the Legislative Assembly of Queensland . The premier is appointed by the governor of Queensland . The incumbent premier of Queensland is David Crisafulli of the Liberal National Party . Under section 43 of
176-499: A broader sense, a head of government can be used loosely when referring to various comparable positions under a dominant head of state (especially is the case of ancient or feudal eras, so the term "head of government", in this case, could be considered a contradiction in terms). In this case, the prime minister serves at the pleasure of the monarch and holds no more power than the monarch allows. Some such titles are diwan, mahamantri , pradhan , wasir or vizier . However, just because
264-420: A career in diplomacy. They were supported by their embassy staff. These professionals would be sent on longer assignments and would be far more knowledgeable than the higher-ranking officials about the host country. Embassy staff would include a wide range of employees, including some dedicated to espionage. The need for skilled individuals to staff embassies was met by the graduates of universities, and this led to
352-423: A constitution. In presidential republics or in absolute monarchies , the head of state is also usually the head of government. The relationship between that leader and the government, however, can vary greatly, ranging from separation of powers to autocracy , according to the constitution (or other basic laws) of the particular state. In semi-presidential systems , the head of government may answer to both
440-436: A diplomat does commit a serious crime while in a host country he or she may be declared as persona non grata (unwanted person). Such diplomats are then often tried for the crime in their homeland. Diplomatic communications are also viewed as sacrosanct, and diplomats have long been allowed to carry documents across borders without being searched. The mechanism for this is the so-called " diplomatic bag " (or, in some countries,
528-514: A dispute. These are similar to the conferences mentioned above, as there are technically no established rules or procedures. However, there are general principles and precedents which help define a course for such proceedings. Some examples are: Small state diplomacy is receiving increasing attention in diplomatic studies and international relations . Small states are particularly affected by developments which are determined beyond their borders such as climate change , water security and shifts in
616-517: A great increase in the study of international law , French, and history at universities throughout Europe. At the same time, permanent foreign ministries began to be established in almost all European states to coordinate embassies and their staffs. These ministries were still far from their modern form, and many of them had extraneous internal responsibilities. Britain had two departments with frequently overlapping powers until 1782. They were also far smaller than they are currently. France, which boasted
704-422: A head of government is Prime Minister . This is used as a formal title in many states, but may also be an informal generic term to refer to whichever office is considered the principal minister under an otherwise styled head of state , as minister — Latin for servants or subordinates—is a common title for members of a government (but many other titles are in use, e.g. chancellor and secretary of state). Formally
792-440: A head of government, such as a president, chancellor, or prime minister, and the relationship between that position and other state institutions, such as the relation between the head of state and of the legislature, varies greatly among sovereign states, depending largely on the particular system of the government that has been chosen, won, or evolved over time. In most parliamentary systems , including constitutional monarchies ,
880-459: A number of support staff; the term diplomat is thus sometimes applied broadly to diplomatic and consular personnel and foreign ministry officials. The term diplomacy is derived from the 18th-century French term diplomate ("diplomat" or "diplomatist"), based on the ancient Greek diplōma , which roughly means "an object folded in two". This reflected the practice of sovereigns providing a folded document to confer some official privilege; prior to
968-615: A period of 14 days. In practice, under the conventions of the Westminster System followed in Queensland, the premier's power is derived from two sources: command of a majority in the Legislative Assembly, and the premier's role as chair of Cabinet, determining the appointment and roles of ministers. Although ministerial appointments are the prerogative of the governor of Queensland , in normal circumstances
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#17327794680971056-410: A rajmandala (grouping of states), a model that places the home state surrounded by twelve competing entities which can either be potential adversaries or latent allies, depending on how relations with them are managed. This is the essence of realpolitik. It also offers four upaya (policy approaches): conciliation, gifts, rupture or dissent, and force. It counsels that war is the last resort, as its outcome
1144-453: A rung below ambassador. Somewhere between the two was the position of minister plenipotentiary . Diplomacy was a complex affair, even more so than now. The ambassadors from each state were ranked by complex levels of precedence that were much disputed. States were normally ranked by the title of the sovereign; for Catholic nations the emissary from the Vatican was paramount, then those from
1232-486: A situation of mutually contesting kingdoms, the wise king builds alliances and tries to checkmate his adversaries. The envoys sent at the time to the courts of other kingdoms tended to reside for extended periods of time, and Arthashastra contains advice on the deportment of the envoy, including the trenchant suggestion that "he should sleep alone". The highest morality for the king is that his kingdom should prosper. New analysis of Arthashastra brings out that hidden inside
1320-465: A time in which rival states were starting to pay less attention to traditional respects of tutelage to the Zhou dynasty (c. 1050–256 BC) figurehead monarchs while each vied for power and total conquest. However, a great deal of diplomacy in establishing allies, bartering land, and signing peace treaties was necessary for each warring state, and the idealized role of the "persuader/diplomat" developed. From
1408-688: Is a policy of making concessions to an aggressor in order to avoid confrontation; because of its failure to prevent World War 2, appeasement is not considered a legitimate tool of modern diplomacy. Counterinsurgency diplomacy, or expeditionary diplomacy, developed by diplomats deployed to civil-military stabilization efforts in Iraq and Afghanistan, employs diplomats at tactical and operational levels, outside traditional embassy environments and often alongside military or peacekeeping forces. Counterinsurgency diplomacy may provide political environment advice to local commanders, interact with local leaders, and facilitate
1496-758: Is alleged that the increased personalisation of leadership in a number of states has led to heads of government becoming themselves "semi-presidential" figures, due in part to media coverage of politics that focuses on the leader and his or her mandate, rather than on parliament; and to the increasing centralisation of power in the hands of the head of government. Such allegations have been made against three former British Prime ministers: Margaret Thatcher , Tony Blair , and Boris Johnson . They were also made against Italian prime ministers Silvio Berlusconi and Matteo Renzi , Canadian prime minister Pierre Trudeau and Federal Chancellor of West Germany (later all of Germany), Helmut Kohl , when in power. The head of government
1584-740: Is always uncertain. This is the first expression of the raison d'etat doctrine, as also of humanitarian law; that conquered people must be treated fairly, and assimilated. The key challenge to the Byzantine Empire was to maintain a set of relations between itself and its sundry neighbors, including the Georgians , Iberians , the Germanic peoples , the Bulgars , the Slavs , the Armenians ,
1672-466: Is often provided with an official residence , often in the same fashion as heads of state often are. The name of the residence is often used as a metonym or alternative title for 'the government' when the office is politically the highest, e.g. in the UK "Downing Street announced today…" Well-known official residences of heads of government include: Similarly, heads of government of federal entities below
1760-525: Is the main instrument of foreign policy which represents the broader goals and strategies that guide a state's interactions with the rest of the world. International treaties , agreements , alliances , and other manifestations of international relations are usually the result of diplomatic negotiations and processes. Diplomats may also help shape a state by advising government officials . Modern diplomatic methods, practices, and principles originated largely from 17th-century European customs. Beginning in
1848-566: Is to illegally gather intelligence, usually by coordinating spy rings of locals or other spies. For the most part, spies operating out of embassies gather little intelligence themselves and their identities tend to be known by the opposition. If discovered, these diplomats can be expelled from an embassy, but for the most part counter-intelligence agencies prefer to keep these agents in situ and under close monitoring. The information gathered by spies plays an increasingly important role in diplomacy. Arms-control treaties would be impossible without
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#17327794680971936-579: The Battle of Baideng (200 BC) to the Battle of Mayi (133 BC), the Han dynasty was forced to uphold a marriage alliance and pay an exorbitant amount of tribute (in silk, cloth, grain, and other foodstuffs) to the powerful northern nomadic Xiongnu that had been consolidated by Modu Shanyu . After the Xiongnu sent word to Emperor Wen of Han (r. 180–157) that they controlled areas stretching from Manchuria to
2024-557: The Constitution of Queensland the premier and other members of Cabinet are appointed by the governor. They are collectively responsible to Parliament in accordance with responsible government . The text of the Constitution assigns to the premier certain powers, such as the power to assign roles (s 25) to assistant ministers (formerly known as parliamentary secretaries ), and to appoint ministers as acting ministers (s 45) for
2112-634: The French Revolution . Some of the earliest known diplomatic records are the Amarna letters written between the pharaohs of the eighteenth dynasty of Egypt and the Amurru rulers of Canaan during the 14th century BC. Peace treaties were concluded between the Mesopotamian city-states of Lagash and Umma around approximately 2100 BC. Following the Battle of Kadesh in 1274 BC during
2200-698: The General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party ( top leader in a one-party system) has always held this office since 1993 except for the months of transition . In directorial systems , the executive responsibilities of the head of government are spread among a group of people. A prominent example is the Swiss Federal Council , where each member of the council heads a department and also votes on proposals relating to all departments. The most common title for
2288-689: The Huns , the Avars , the Franks , the Lombards , and the Arabs , that embodied and so maintained its imperial status. All these neighbors lacked a key resource that Byzantium had taken over from Rome, namely a formalized legal structure. When they set about forging formal political institutions, they were dependent on the empire. Whereas classical writers are fond of making a sharp distinction between peace and war, for
2376-741: The Ptolemaic Kingdom and Seleucid Empire , which fought several wars in the Near East and often negotiated peace treaties through marriage alliances . Relations with the Ottoman Empire were particularly important to Italian states, to which the Ottoman government was known as the Sublime Porte . The maritime republics of Genoa and Venice depended less and less upon their nautical capabilities, and more and more upon
2464-539: The Tarim Basin oasis city-states, a treaty was drafted in 162 BC proclaiming that everything north of the Great Wall belong to nomads' lands, while everything south of it would be reserved for Han Chinese . The treaty was renewed no less than nine times, but did not restrain some Xiongnu tuqi from raiding Han borders. That was until the far-flung campaigns of Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BC) which shattered
2552-421: The executive branch, the head of government is the highest or the second-highest official of a sovereign state , a federated state , or a self-governing colony , autonomous region , or other government who often presides over a cabinet , a group of ministers or secretaries who lead executive departments. In diplomacy , "head of government" is differentiated from " head of state ". The authority of
2640-563: The global economy . Diplomacy is the main vehicle by which small states are able to ensure that their goals are addressed in the global arena. These factors mean that small states have strong incentives to support international cooperation. But with limited resources at their disposal, conducting effective diplomacy poses unique challenges for small states. There are a variety of diplomatic categories and diplomatic strategies employed by organizations and governments to achieve their aims, each with its own advantages and disadvantages. Appeasement
2728-433: The kingdoms , then those from duchies and principalities . Representatives from republics were ranked the lowest (which often angered the leaders of the numerous German, Scandinavian, and Italian republics). Determining precedence between two kingdoms depended on a number of factors that often fluctuated, leading to near-constant squabbling. Ambassadors were often nobles with little foreign experience and no expectation of
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2816-623: The nineteenth dynasty , the pharaoh of Egypt and the ruler of the Hittite Empire created one of the first known international peace treaties, which survives in stone tablet fragments , now generally called the Egyptian–Hittite peace treaty . The ancient Greek city-states on some occasions dispatched envoys to negotiate specific issues, such as war and peace or commercial relations, but did not have diplomatic representatives regularly posted in each other's territory. However, some of
2904-502: The "diplomatic pouch"). While radio and digital communication have become more standard for embassies, diplomatic pouches are still quite common and some countries, including the United States, declare entire shipping containers as diplomatic pouches to bring sensitive material (often building supplies) into a country. In times of hostility, diplomats are often withdrawn for reasons of personal safety, as well as in some cases when
2992-466: The 6,000 aphorisms of prose (sutras) are pioneering political and philosophic concepts. It covers the internal and external spheres of statecraft, politics and administration. The normative element is the political unification of the geopolitical and cultural subcontinent of India. This work comprehensively studies state governance; it urges non-injury to living creatures, or malice, as well as compassion, forbearance, truthfulness, and uprightness. It presents
3080-465: The Byzantines diplomacy was a form of war by other means. With a regular army of 120,000–140,000 men after the losses of the 7th century, the empire's security depended on activist diplomacy. Byzantium's " Bureau of Barbarians " was the first foreign intelligence agency, gathering information on the empire's rivals from every imaginable source. While on the surface a protocol office—its main duty
3168-660: The Chinese had sent envoys into Central Asia, India, and Persia , starting with Zhang Qian in the 2nd century BC. Another notable event in Chinese diplomacy was the Chinese embassy mission of Zhou Daguan to the Khmer Empire of Cambodia in the 13th century. Chinese diplomacy was a necessity in the distinctive period of Chinese exploration . Since the Tang dynasty (618–907 AD), the Chinese also became heavily invested in sending diplomatic envoys abroad on maritime missions into
3256-527: The Executive Annexe of Parliament House, Brisbane , which is normally used while Parliament is sitting. At other times the premier's ministerial office is in 1 William Street , which is across the road from the Executive Annexe. Before the 1890s, there was no developed party system in Queensland . Political affiliation labels before that time indicate a general tendency only. Before the end of
3344-802: The German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck were renowned for international diplomacy. Diplomats and historians often refer to a foreign ministry by its address: the Ballhausplatz (Vienna), the Quai d'Orsay (Paris), the Wilhelmstrasse (Berlin), Itamaraty (Brasília), and Foggy Bottom (Washington, D.C.). For the Russian foreign ministry, it was the Choristers' Bridge (Saint Petersburg) until 1917, while "Consulta" referred to
3432-746: The Indian Ocean, to India, Persia, Arabia , East Africa, and Egypt. Chinese maritime activity was increased dramatically during the commercialized period of the Song dynasty, with new nautical technologies, many more private ship owners, and an increasing amount of economic investors in overseas ventures. During the Mongol Empire (1206–1294) the Mongols created something similar to today's diplomatic passport called paiza . The paiza were in three different types (golden, silver, and copper) depending on
3520-569: The Italian foreign ministry, based in the Palazzo della Consulta (Rome) from 1874 to 1922. The sanctity of diplomats has long been observed, underpinning the modern concept of diplomatic immunity . While there have been a number of cases where diplomats have been killed, this is normally viewed as a great breach of honor. Genghis Khan and the Mongols were well known for strongly insisting on
3608-545: The Tang finally made a truce and signed a peace treaty with them in 841. In the 11th century during the Song dynasty (960–1279), there were shrewd ambassadors such as Shen Kuo and Su Song who achieved diplomatic success with the Liao dynasty , the often hostile Khitan neighbor to the north. Both diplomats secured the rightful borders of the Song dynasty through knowledge of cartography and dredging up old court archives. There
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3696-467: The United States, and France. Ancient India , with its kingdoms and dynasties, had a long tradition of diplomacy. The oldest treatise on statecraft and diplomacy, Arthashastra , is attributed to Kautilya (also known as Chanakya ), who was the principal adviser to Chandragupta Maurya , the founder of the Maurya dynasty who ruled in the 3rd century BC. It incorporates a theory of diplomacy, of how in
3784-417: The basis of the strength of party support in the lower house; in some other states, the head of government is directly elected by parliament. Many parliamentary systems require ministers to serve in parliament, while others ban ministers from sitting in parliament (they must resign on becoming ministers). Heads of government are typically removed from power in a parliamentary system by Constitutions differ in
3872-473: The collegial Government , whose members are all appointed and dismissed at the Prime Minister's sole discretion. Under the unwritten British constitution , the prime minister 's role has evolved, based often on the individual's personal appeal and strength of character, as contrasted between, for example, Winston Churchill as against Clement Attlee , Margaret Thatcher as against John Major . It
3960-509: The conquest of foreign cultures would be better achieved by having his Macedonian and Greek subjects intermingle and intermarry with native populations. For instance, Alexander took as his wife a Sogdian woman of Bactria , Roxana , after the siege of the Sogdian Rock , in order to placate the rebelling populace. Diplomacy remained a necessary tool of statecraft for the great Hellenistic states that succeeded Alexander's empire, such as
4048-463: The convening of international conferences. In such cases, there are fewer ground rules, and fewer formal applications of international law. However, participants are expected to guide themselves through principles of international fairness, logic, and protocol. Some examples of these formal conferences are: Sometimes nations convene official negotiation processes to settle a specific dispute or specific issue between several nations which are parties to
4136-472: The early 20th century, diplomacy became professionalized; the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations , ratified by most of the world's sovereign states, provides a framework for diplomatic procedures, methods, and conduct. Most diplomacy is now conducted by accredited officials , such as envoys and ambassadors, through a dedicated foreign affairs office . Diplomats operate through diplomatic missions , most commonly consulates and embassies, and rely on
4224-643: The envoy's level of importance. With the paiza, there came authority that the envoy can ask for food, transport, place to stay from any city, village, or clan within the empire with no difficulties. In the 17th century, the Qing dynasty concluded a series of treaties with Czarist Russia, beginning with the Treaty of Nerchinsk in 1689. This was followed up by the Aigun Treaty and the Convention of Peking in
4312-548: The existence of political parties within the Leglislative Assembly, to become premier, that member had to be able to command the support of a majority of the individual members of the assembly; this group of members were known informally as Ministerialists , while those who did not support the member who became premier were known informally as Oppositionists (or the Opposition). The premier has an office in
4400-469: The fall of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna of 1815 established an international system of diplomatic rank . Disputes on precedence among nations (and therefore the appropriate diplomatic ranks used) were first addressed at the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818, but persisted for over a century until after World War II , when the rank of ambassador became the norm. In between that time, figures such as
4488-442: The first decade of the twentieth century, political parties were more akin to parliamentary factions, and were fluid, informal and disorganised by modern standards. Notes Citations Chris Minns ( ALP ) David Crisafulli ( LNP ) Peter Malinauskas ( ALP ) Jeremy Rockliff ( Lib ) Jacinta Allan ( ALP ) Roger Cook ( ALP ) Andrew Barr ( ALP ) Lia Finocchiaro ( CLP ) Head of government In
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#17327794680974576-605: The form of formal arbitrations and mediations. In such cases a commission of diplomats might be convened to hear all sides of an issue, and to come some sort of ruling based on international law. In the modern era, much of this work is often carried out by the International Court of Justice at The Hague , or other formal commissions, agencies and tribunals, working under the United Nations. Below are some examples. Other times, resolutions were sought through
4664-557: The functions given to modern diplomatic representatives were fulfilled by a proxenos , a citizen of the host city who had friendly relations with another city, often through familial ties. In times of peace, diplomacy was even conducted with non-Hellenistic rivals such as the Achaemenid Empire of Persia, through it was ultimately conquered by Alexander the Great of Macedon. Alexander was also adept at diplomacy, realizing that
4752-449: The governance efforts, functions and reach of a host government. Debt-trap diplomacy is carried out in bilateral relations, with a powerful lending country seeking to saddle a borrowing nation with enormous debt so as to increase its leverage over it. Economic diplomacy is the use of aid or other types of economic policy as a means to achieve a diplomatic agenda. Gunboat diplomacy is the use of conspicuous displays of military power as
4840-456: The government and provides (e.g. by turns) the ceremonial Head of state. The only state in which this system is currently employed is Switzerland but other countries such as Uruguay have employed it in the past . This system is described as the directorial system . See Head of state for further explanation of these cases. In parliamentary systems, government functions along the following lines: All of these requirements directly impact
4928-418: The governor will make these appointments on the advice of the premier. Immediately following an election for the Legislative Assembly, the governor will call on the leader of the party which commands a majority in the Legislative Assembly to become premier and ask them to commission a government. A re-elected government will be resworn, with adjustments to the ministry as determined by the premier. Prior to
5016-429: The head of government is the de facto political leader of the government, and is answerable to at least one chamber of the legislature. Although there is often a formal reporting relationship to a head of state , the latter usually acts as a figurehead who may take the role of chief executive on limited occasions, either when receiving constitutional advice from the head of government or under specific provisions in
5104-453: The head of government's role. Consequently, they often play a 'day to day' role in parliament, answering questions and defending the government on the 'floor of the House', while in semi-presidential systems they may not be required to play as much of a role in the functioning of parliament. In many countries, the head of government is commissioned by the head of state to form a government, on
5192-493: The head of state and the legislature with the specifics provided by each country's constitution. A modern example is the present French government, which originated as the French Fifth Republic in 1958. In France, the president , the head of state, appoints the prime minister , who is the head of government. However, the president must choose someone who can act effectively as an executive, but who also enjoys
5280-477: The head of state can also be the head of government as well ( ex officio or by ad hoc cumulation, such as a ruling monarch exercising all powers himself) but otherwise has formal precedence over the head of government and other ministers, whether he is their actual political superior (ruling monarch, executive president) or rather theoretical or ceremonial in character (constitutional monarch, non-executive president). Various constitutions use different titles, and even
5368-411: The head of state is a figurehead whilst the head of the government leads the ruling party. In some cases a head of government may even pass on the title in hereditary fashion. Such titles include the following: In some models the head of state and head of government are one and the same. These include: An alternative formula is a single chief political body (e.g., presidium ) which collectively leads
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#17327794680975456-434: The head of state is the de jure dominant position does not mean that he/she will not always be the de facto political leader. A skilled head of government like 19th-century German statesman Otto von Bismarck , Minister President of Prussia and later Chancellor of Germany under Emperor / King Wilhelm I , serves as an example showing that possession of formal powers does not equal political influence. In some cases,
5544-414: The head of state, such as a governor-general , may well be housed in a grander, palace-type residence. However, this is not the case when both positions are combined into one: Diplomacy Diplomacy comprises spoken or written communication by representatives of state , intergovernmental , or non-governmental institutions intended to influence events in the international system. Diplomacy
5632-523: The host country is friendly but there is a perceived threat from internal dissidents. Ambassadors and other diplomats are sometimes recalled temporarily by their home countries as a way to express displeasure with the host country. In both cases, lower-level employees still remain to actually do the business of diplomacy. Diplomacy is closely linked to espionage or gathering of intelligence. Embassies are bases for both diplomats and spies, and some diplomats are essentially openly acknowledged spies. For instance,
5720-518: The interests of all the German princes (who were in theory all subordinate to the Emperor, but in practice each independent). Between 1500 and 1700, rules of modern diplomacy were further developed. French replaced Latin from about 1715. The top rank of representatives was an ambassador. At that time an ambassador was a nobleman, the rank of the noble assigned varying with the prestige of the country he
5808-401: The invention of the envelope, folding a document served to protect the privacy of its content. The term was later applied to all official documents, such as those containing agreements between governments, and thus became identified with international relations. This established history has in recent years been criticized by scholars pointing out how the term originates in the political context of
5896-409: The job of military attachés includes learning as much as possible about the military of the nation to which they are assigned. They do not try to hide this role and, as such, are only invited to events allowed by their hosts, such as military parades or air shows . There are also deep-cover spies operating in many embassies. These individuals are given fake positions at the embassy, but their main task
5984-674: The largest foreign affairs department, had only some 70 full-time employees in the 1780s. The elements of modern diplomacy slowly spread to Eastern Europe and Russia, arriving by the early 18th century. The entire edifice would be greatly disrupted by the French Revolution and the subsequent years of warfare. The revolution would see commoners take over the diplomacy of the French state, and of those conquered by revolutionary armies. Ranks of precedence were abolished. Napoleon also refused to acknowledge diplomatic immunity, imprisoning several British diplomats accused of scheming against France. After
6072-426: The level of the sovereign state (often without an actual head of state, at least under international law) may also be given an official residence, sometimes used as an opportunity to display aspirations of statehood: Usually, the residence of the heads of government is not as prestigious and grand as that of the head of state, even if the head of state only performs ceremonial duties. Even the formal representative of
6160-625: The mid-19th century. As European power spread around the world in the 18th and 19th centuries so too did its diplomatic model, and Asian countries adopted syncretic or European diplomatic systems. For example, as part of diplomatic negotiations with the West over control of land and trade in China in the 19th century after the First Opium War , the Chinese diplomat Qiying gifted intimate portraits of himself to representatives from Italy, England,
6248-465: The model of governance. The Japanese sent frequent embassies to China in this period, although they halted these trips in 894 when the Tang seemed on the brink of collapse. After the devastating An Shi Rebellion from 755 to 763, the Tang dynasty was in no position to reconquer Central Asia and the Tarim Basin . After several conflicts with the Tibetan Empire spanning several different decades,
6336-465: The need to accept emissaries was recognized. Soon the major European powers were exchanging representatives. Spain was the first to send a permanent representative; it appointed an ambassador to the Court of St. James's (i.e. England) in 1487. By the late 16th century, permanent missions became customary. The Holy Roman Emperor , however, did not regularly send permanent legates, as they could not represent
6424-537: The need to accommodate themselves diplomatically, due to the emergence of the powerful political environment of the Ottoman Empire. One could come to the conclusion that the atmosphere of diplomacy within the early modern period revolved around a foundation of conformity to Ottoman culture. One of the earliest realists in international relations theory was the 6th-century BC military strategist Sun Tzu (d. 496 BC), author of The Art of War . He lived during
6512-518: The perpetuation of good relations with the Ottomans. Interactions between various merchants, diplomats and clergymen hailing from the Italian and Ottoman empires helped inaugurate and create new forms of diplomacy and statecraft . Eventually the primary purpose of a diplomat, which was originally a negotiator, evolved into a persona that represented an autonomous state in all aspects of political affairs. It became evident that all other sovereigns felt
6600-678: The power of reconnaissance satellites and agents to monitor compliance. Information gleaned from espionage is useful in almost all forms of diplomacy, everything from trade agreements to border disputes. Various processes and procedures have evolved over time for handling diplomatic issues and disputes. Nations sometimes resort to international arbitration when faced with a specific question or point of contention in need of resolution. For most of history, there were no official or formal procedures for such proceedings. They were generally accepted to abide by general principles and protocols related to international law and justice. Sometimes these took
6688-476: The practical reality for the Prime Minister of Belgium and the Prime Minister of Finland . Other states however, make their head of government a central and dominant figure within the cabinet system; Ireland's Taoiseach , for example, alone can decide when to seek a parliamentary dissolution, in contrast to other countries where this is a cabinet decision, with the Prime Minister just one member voting on
6776-530: The prime minister, along with the cabinet, controls domestic policy, with the president's influence largely restricted to foreign affairs. In communist states , the General Secretary of the Communist Party is the supreme leader, serving as de facto head of state and government. In China , the de jure head of government is the Premier . The Chinese president is legally a ceremonial office , but
6864-407: The range and scope of powers granted to the head of government. Some older constitutions; for example, Australia's 1900 text , and Belgium's 1830 text ; do not mention their prime ministerial offices at all, the offices became a de facto political reality without a formal constitutional status. Some constitutions make a Prime Minister primus inter pares ( first among equals ) and that remains
6952-461: The rights of diplomats, and they would often wreak horrific vengeance against any state that violated these rights. Diplomatic rights were established in the mid-17th century in Europe and have spread throughout the world. These rights were formalized by the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations , which protects diplomats from being persecuted or prosecuted while on a diplomatic mission. If
7040-406: The same title can have various multiple meanings, depending on the constitutional order and political system of the state in question. In addition to prime minister, titles used for the democratic model, where there is an elected legislative body checking the head of government, include the following. Some of these titles relate to governments below the national level (e.g. states or provinces). In
7128-480: The states of Northern Italy in the early Renaissance , with the first embassies being established in the 13th century. Milan played a leading role, especially under Francesco Sforza who established permanent embassies to the other city states of Northern Italy. Tuscany and Venice were also flourishing centers of diplomacy from the 14th century onward. It was in the Italian Peninsula that many of
7216-558: The suggestion. In Israel , while the Government is nominally a collegiate body with a primus inter pares role for the Prime Minister , the Israeli Prime Minister is the dominant figure in the executive branch in practice. The Prime Minister of Sweden , under the 1974 Instrument of Government , is a constitutional office with all key executive powers either directly at his or her disposal or indirectly through
7304-636: The support of France's legislature, the National Assembly , to be able to pass legislation. In some cases, the head of state may represent one political party but the majority in the National Assembly is of a different party. Given that the majority party has greater control over state funding and primary legislation , the president is in effect forced to choose a prime minister from the opposition party to ensure an effective, functioning legislature. In this case, known as cohabitation ,
7392-475: The traditions of modern diplomacy began, such as the presentation of an ambassador's credentials to the head of state . From Italy, the practice was spread across Europe. Milan was the first to send a representative to the court of France in 1455. However, Milan refused to host French representatives, fearing they would conduct espionage and intervene in its internal affairs. As foreign powers such as France and Spain became increasingly involved in Italian politics
7480-692: The unity of the Xiongnu and allowed Han to conquer the Western Regions ; under Wu, in 104 BC the Han armies ventured as far Fergana in Central Asia to battle the Yuezhi who had conquered Hellenistic Greek areas . The Koreans and Japanese during the Chinese Tang dynasty (618–907 AD) looked to the Chinese capital of Chang'an as the hub of civilization and emulated its central bureaucracy as
7568-526: Was also a triad of warfare and diplomacy between these two states and the Tangut Western Xia dynasty to the northwest of Song China (centered in modern-day Shaanxi ). After warring with the Lý dynasty of Vietnam from 1075 to 1077, Song and Lý made a peace agreement in 1082 to exchange the respective lands they had captured from each other during the war. Long before the Tang and Song dynasties,
7656-440: Was delegated to. Strict standards developed for ambassadors, requiring they have large residences, host lavish parties, and play an important role in the court life of their host nation. In Rome, the most prized posting for a Catholic ambassador, the French and Spanish representatives would have a retinue of up to a hundred. Even in smaller posts, ambassadors were very expensive. Smaller states would send and receive envoys , who were
7744-596: Was to ensure foreign envoys were properly cared for and received sufficient state funds for their maintenance, and it kept all the official translators—it clearly had a security function as well. On Strategy , from the 6th century, offers advice about foreign embassies: "[Envoys] who are sent to us should be received honorably and generously, for everyone holds envoys in high esteem. Their attendants, however, should be kept under surveillance to keep them from obtaining any information by asking questions of our people." In Europe, early modern diplomacy's origins are often traced to
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