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86-415: A rope is a group of yarns , plies , fibres , or strands that are twisted or braided together into a larger and stronger form. Ropes have tensile strength and so can be used for dragging and lifting. Rope is thicker and stronger than similarly constructed cord, string , and twine . Rope may be constructed of any long, stringy, fibrous material (e.g., rattan , a natural material), but generally

172-470: A chalk line . In some marine uses the term rope is retained, such as man rope, bolt rope, and bell rope. Yarn The word " yarn " comes from Middle English , from the Old English gearn , akin to Old High German garn , "yarn", Dutch garen , Ancient Greek χορδή , "string", and Sanskrit hira , "band". The human production of yarn is known to have existed since

258-537: A 20-centimetre long, 40,000 year old mammoth tusk with a line of four holes drilled into it was interpreted as being a device for making rope . Grooves around each hole would have held plant fibres in place. The instrument was found near the base of the Aurignacian deposits at Hohle Fels by a team led by Nicholas Conard of the institute of archaeological sciences at the University of Tübingen . Veerle Rots, of

344-411: A 50 g skein of bulky wool may contain only 60 metres. Craft yarn comes in several thicknesses or weights. This is not to be confused with the measurement and weight listed above. The Craft Yarn Council of America promotes a standardized industry system for measuring yarn weight, where weights are numbered from 0 (finest) to 7 (thickest). Each weight can be described by a number and name: Size 0 yarn

430-444: A buffer zone of a least 100 m (330 ft) width. In the argument why these sites deserve recognition as a part of the universal human heritage, the area is described as the source of the currently oldest (non-stationary) works of human art in the form of carved animal and humanoid figurines as well as the oldest musical instruments. Their creators lived, were inspired and worked in and around these caves. The caves also served as

516-412: A central axis to facilitate yarn ball winding There are two subtypes of hanks: twisted and folded. A twisted hank is a hank that has been twisted into a rope braid. A folded hank is a hank that has been folded in half and wrapped in a label for retail purposes. Skeins are one of the most common types of yarn ball. Although skeins are technically described as yarn that has been wound into an oblong shape,

602-517: A circular pattern with half of the strands going clockwise and the other half going anticlockwise. The strands can interlock with either twill or panama (Basked) or seldom plain weave . Kyosev introduced the German notation in English, where the floating length (German: Flechtigkeit) and the number of yarns in a group (German: Fädigkeit) in more natural way for braiding process are used, instead of

688-425: A concept for a ropemaking machine, but it was never built. Remarkable feats of construction were accomplished using rope but without advanced technology: In 1586, Domenico Fontana erected the 327 ton obelisk on Rome's Saint Peter's Square with a concerted effort of 900 men, 75 horses, and countless pulleys and meters of rope. By the late 18th century several working machines had been built and patented. Some rope

774-413: A far more frequent basis, up to and including before each use. Avoid stepping on climbing rope, as this might force tiny pieces of rock through the sheath, which can eventually deteriorate the core of the rope. Ropes may be flemished into coils on deck for safety, presentation, and tidiness. Many types of filaments in ropes are weakened by corrosive liquids, solvents, and high temperatures. Such damage

860-517: A human-lion hybrid figure similar to the Löwenmensch figurine but only 2.5 cm tall. In 2005, one of the oldest phallic representations was discovered. In 2008, a team from the University of Tübingen , led by archaeologist Nicholas Conard , discovered an artifact known as the Venus of Hohle Fels , dated to about 35,000 to 40,000 years ago. This is the earliest known Venus figurine and

946-470: A load over multiple parts of the same rope to increase safety and decrease wear. Winches and capstans are machines designed to pull ropes. The use of ropes for hunting, pulling, fastening, attaching, carrying, lifting, and climbing dates back to prehistoric times. It is likely that the earliest "ropes" were naturally occurring lengths of plant fibre, such as vines, followed soon by the first attempts at twisting and braiding these strands together to form

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1032-407: A nominal diameter based on the circumference divided by three (as a rough approximation of pi ). In the metric system of measurement, the nominal diameter is given in millimetres. The current preferred international standard for rope sizes is to give the mass per unit length, in kilograms per metre. However, even sources otherwise using metric units may still give a "rope number" for large ropes, which

1118-501: A non-rotating alternative to laid three-strand ropes. Due to its excellent energy-absorption characteristics, it is often used by arborists . It is also a popular rope for anchoring and can be used as mooring warps. This type of construction was pioneered by Yale Cordage. Endless winding rope is made by winding single strands of high-performance yarns around two end terminations until the desired break strength or stiffness has been reached. This type of rope (often specified as cable to make

1204-400: A number of natural or synthetic fibers , or a blend of natural and synthetic fibers. The most common plant fiber is cotton , which is typically spun into fine yarn for mechanical weaving or knitting into cloth . Silk is a natural protein fiber , some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The protein fiber of silk is composed mainly of fibroin and is produced by the larvae of

1290-538: A particular advantage; they do not impart an additional twisting force when they are stressed. The lack of added twisting forces is an advantage when a load is freely suspended, as when a rope is used for rappelling or to suspend an arborist . Other specialized cores reduce the shock from arresting a fall when used as a part of a personal or group safety system. Braided ropes are generally made from nylon , polyester , polypropylene or high performance fibres such as high modulus polyethylene (HMPE) and aramid . Nylon

1376-615: A single uniform hue, but there is also a wide selection of variegated yarns: Each of these different colours and styles are achieved through a process called yarn dyeing. There are many different methods of yarn dyeing: package dyeing, skein dyeing, space dyeing, warp beam dyeing, and more. Yarn quantities for handcrafts are usually measured and sold by weight in ounces (oz) or grams (g). Common sizes include 25g, 50g, and 100g skeins. Some companies also primarily measure in ounces with common sizes being three-ounce, four-ounce, six-ounce, and eight-ounce skeins. Textile measurements are taken at

1462-428: A smell of burnt hair; this is because many, like human hair, are protein-derived. Cotton and viscose (rayon) yarns burn as a wick. Synthetic yarns generally tend to melt, though some synthetics are inherently flame-retardant . Noting how an unidentified fiber strand burns and smells can assist in determining if it is natural or synthetic, and what the fiber content is. Both synthetic and natural yarns can pill . Pilling

1548-431: A solid braid, (square braid, gasket, or form braid there are at least three or more groups of yarns, interlacing in complex (interlocking) structure. This construction is popular for gaskets and general purpose utility rope but rare in specialized high performance line. Kernmantle rope has a core (kern) of long twisted fibres in the center, with a braided outer sheath or mantle of woven fibres. The kern provides most of

1634-471: A standard temperature and humidity because variations in heat and humidity can cause fibers to absorb different amounts of moisture from the air, thus increasing the measured weight of the yarn without adding any fiber material. The actual length of the yarn contained in a ball or skein can vary due to the inherent heaviness of the fibre and the thickness of the strand; for instance, a 50 g skein of lace weight mohair may contain several hundred metres, while

1720-510: Is slub yarns, yarn with thick or thin sections alternating regularly or irregularly. In a similar manner, creating deliberate unevenness, additions or injections of neps or metallic or synthetic fibers (along with natural fibers) in spinning creates novelty yarns. Filament yarn consists of filament fibres (very long continuous fibres) either twisted together or only grouped together. Thicker monofilaments are typically used for industrial purposes rather than fabric production or decoration. Silk

1806-884: Is wool harvested from sheep . As long fibers make better yarn, sheep have been bred over time to produce longer fibers. This increases the need for shearing to prevent pests and overheating. Other animal fibers used include alpaca , angora , mohair , llama , cashmere , and silk. More rarely, yarn may be spun from camel , yak , possum , musk ox , vicuña , cat , dog , wolf , rabbit , bison , or chinchilla hair, as well as turkey or ostrich feathers. Some examples of synthetic fibers that are used as yarn are nylon , acrylic fiber , rayon , and polyester . Synthetic fibers are generally extruded in continuous strands of gel-state materials. These strands are drawn (stretched), annealed (hardened), and cured to obtain properties desirable for later processing. Synthetic fibers come in three basic forms: staple, tow, and filament. Staple

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1892-399: Is 5 years. Serious inspection should be given to line after that point. However, the use to which a rope is put affects frequency of inspection. Rope used in mission-critical applications, such as mooring lines or running rigging , should be regularly inspected on a much shorter timescale than this, and rope used in life-critical applications such as mountain climbing should be inspected on

1978-591: Is a cave in the Swabian Jura of Germany that has yielded a number of important archaeological finds dating from the Upper Paleolithic . Artifacts found in the cave represent some of the earliest examples of prehistoric art and musical instruments ever discovered. The cave is just outside the town of Schelklingen in the state of Baden-Württemberg , near Ulm . Because of the outstanding archeological finds and their cultural significance, in 2017

2064-464: Is a function of fiber content, spinning method, twist, contiguous staple length, and fabric construction. Single ply yarns or using fibers like merino wool are known to pill more due to the fact that in the former, the single ply is not tight enough to securely retain all the fibers under abrasion, and the merino wool's short staple length allows the ends of the fibers to pop out of the twist more easily. Yarns combining synthetic and natural fibers inherit

2150-489: Is a material, and a tool. When it is assigned a specific function it is often referred to as a "line", especially in nautical usage. A line may get a further distinction, for example sail control lines are known as "sheets" (e.g. A jib sheet ). A halyard is a line used to raise and lower a sail, typically with a shackle on its sail end. Other maritime examples of "lines" include anchor line, mooring line , fishing line , marline . Common items include clothesline and

2236-411: Is a natural filament, and synthetic filament yarns are used to produce silk-like effects. Texturized yarns are made by a process of air texturizing filament yarns (sometimes referred to as taslanizing ), which combines multiple filament yarns into a yarn with some of the characteristics of spun yarns. They are synthetic continuous filaments that are modified to impart special texture and appearance. It

2322-426: Is called cable-laid . Cable-laid rope is sometimes clamped to maintain a tight counter-twist rendering the resulting cable virtually waterproof. Without this feature, deep water sailing (before the advent of steel chains and other lines) was largely impossible, as any appreciable length of rope for anchoring or ship to ship transfers, would become too waterlogged – and therefore too heavy – to lift, even with

2408-404: Is called Lace, size 1 is Super Fine, size 2 is Fine, size 3 is Light, size 4 is Medium, size 5 is Bulky, size 6 is Super Bulky, and size 7 is Jumbo. Each weight also has several commonly used but unregulated terms associated with it. However, this naming convention is more descriptive than precise; fibre artists disagree about where on the continuum each lies, and the precise relationships between

2494-422: Is chosen for its strength and elastic stretch properties. However, nylon absorbs water and is 10–15% weaker when wet. Polyester is about 90% as strong as nylon but stretches less under load and is not affected by water. It has somewhat better UV resistance, and is more abrasion resistant. Polypropylene is preferred for low cost and light weight (it floats on water) but it has limited resistance to ultraviolet light,

2580-405: Is composed of twisted strands of fiber, which are known as plies when grouped together. These strands of yarn are twisted together ( plied ) in the opposite direction to make a thicker yarn. Depending on the direction of this final twist, the yarn will have either s-twist (the threads appear to go "up" to the left) or z-twist (to the right). For a single ply yarn, the direction of the final twist

2666-889: Is constructed of certain natural or synthetic fibres. Synthetic fibre ropes are significantly stronger than their natural fibre counterparts, they have a higher tensile strength , they are more resistant to rotting than ropes created from natural fibres, and they can be made to float on water. But synthetic ropes also possess certain disadvantages, including slipperiness, and some can be damaged more easily by UV light . Common natural fibres for rope are Manila hemp , hemp , linen , cotton , coir , jute , straw , and sisal . Synthetic fibres in use for rope-making include polypropylene , nylon , polyesters (e.g. PET , LCP , Vectran ), polyethylene (e.g. Dyneema and Spectra ), Aramids (e.g. Twaron , Technora and Kevlar ) and acrylics (e.g. Dralon ). Some ropes are constructed of mixtures of several fibres or use co-polymer fibres. Wire rope

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2752-467: Is cut fibers, generally sold in lengths up to 120 mm. Tow is a continuous "rope" of fibers consisting of many filaments loosely joined side-to-side. Filament is a continuous strand consisting of anything from one filament to many. Synthetic fiber is most often measured in a weight per linear measurement basis , along with cut length. Denier and Dtex are the most common weight to length measures. Cut-length only applies to staple fiber. Filament extrusion

2838-425: Is different from ring spinning . In open-end yarn, there is no roving frame stage. Sliver from the card goes into the rotor, is spun into yarn directly. Open-end yarn can be produced from short fibers. Open-end yarns are different from ring yarns. Open-end yarns are limited to coarser counts. Novelty yarns or complex yarns are yarns with special (fancy) effects introduced during spinning or plying. One example

2924-425: Is historically the prevalent form of rope, at least in modern Western history. Common twisted rope generally consists of three strands and is normally right-laid, or given a final right-handed twist. The ISO 2 standard uses the uppercase letters S and Z to indicate the two possible directions of twist, as suggested by the direction of slant of the central portions of these two letters. The handedness of

3010-641: Is intended to be used by itself. These range in thickness from roughly 9 to 11 mm (0.35 to 0.43 in). Smaller diameter ropes are lighter, but wear out faster. Double ropes are thinner than single, usually 9 mm (0.35 in) and under, and are intended for use in pairs. These offer a greater margin of safety against cutting, since it is unlikely that both ropes will be cut, but complicate both belaying and leading. Double ropes may be clipped into alternating pieces of protection, allowing each to stay straighter and reduce both individual and total rope drag. Twin ropes are thin ropes which must be clipped into

3096-405: Is made by braiding twisted strands, and is also called square braid . It is not as round as twisted rope and coarser to the touch. It is less prone to kinking than twisted rope and, depending on the material, very flexible and therefore easy to handle and knot. This construction exposes all fibres as well, with the same drawbacks as described above. Brait rope is a combination of braided and plaited,

3182-437: Is made of steel or other metal alloys. Ropes have been constructed of other fibrous materials such as silk , wool , and hair, but such ropes are not generally available. Rayon is a regenerated fibre used to make decorative rope. The twist of the strands in a twisted or braided rope serves not only to keep a rope together, but enables the rope to more evenly distribute tension among the individual strands. Without any twist in

3268-505: Is not easily detected visually. Twisted ropes have a preferred direction for coiling. Normal right-laid rope should be coiled clockwise, to prevent kinking. Coiling this way imparts a twist to the rope. Rope of this type must be bound at its ends by some means to prevent untwisting. While rope may be made from three or more strands, modern braided rope consists of a braided (tubular) jacket over strands of fibre (these may also be braided). Some forms of braided rope with untwisted cores have

3354-518: Is not easily found, and often is pulled out of the skein in a jumble of tangled yarn called "yarn barf". There are two types of skeins: a pull skein, which is more rectangular in shape, and a bullet skein, which is rounder. Below are the images taken by a digital USB microscope. These show how the yarn looks in different kinds of clothes when magnified. Hohle Fels The Hohle Fels ( German pronunciation: [ˈhoːləˈfɛls] ; also Hohlefels , Hohler Fels , German for "hollow rock")

3440-433: Is opposite to that of the strand, and that in turn is opposite to that of the rope. It is this counter-twist, introduced with each successive operation, which holds the final rope together as a stable, unified object. Traditionally, a three strand laid rope is called a plain- or hawser -laid , a four strand rope is called shroud-laid , and a larger rope formed by counter-twisting three or more multi-strand ropes together

3526-412: Is particularly treacherous because it is often invisible to the eye. Shock loading should be avoided with general use ropes, as it can damage them. All ropes should be used within a safe working load, which is much less than their breaking strength. A rope under tension – particularly if it has a great deal of elasticity – can be dangerous if parted. Care should be taken around lines under load. "Rope"

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3612-826: Is sometimes referred to as "spinning," but most people equate spinning with spun yarn production. T-shirt yarn is a recycled yarn made from the same fabric as is used in T-shirts and other clothes. It is often made from the remainder fabric of clothing manufacture, and therefore is considered a recycled and eco-friendly product. It can also be made at home out of used clothing. The resulting yarn can be used in knitted or crocheted items. In general, natural fibers tend to require more careful handling than synthetics because they can shrink, felt , stain, shed, fade, stretch, wrinkle, or be eaten by moths more readily, unless special treatments such as mercerization or super washing are performed to strengthen, fix color, or otherwise enhance

3698-494: Is still made from natural fibres , such as coir and sisal , despite the dominance of synthetic fibres such as nylon and polypropylene , which have become increasingly popular since the 1950s. Nylon was discovered in the late 1930s and was first introduced into fiber ropes during World War II. Indeed, the first synthetic fiber ropes were small braided parachute cords and three-strand tow ropes for gliders, made of nylon during World War II. Laid rope, also called twisted rope,

3784-408: Is suitable for climbing. Climbing ropes cut easily when under load. Keeping them away from sharp rock edges is imperative. Previous falls arrested by a rope, damage to its sheath, and contamination by dirt or solvents all weaken a rope and can render it unsuitable for further sport use. Rock climbing ropes are designated as suitable for single, double or twin use. A single rope is the most common, and

3870-456: Is susceptible to friction and has a poor heat resistance. Braided ropes (and objects like garden hoses , fibre optic or coaxial cables, etc.) that have no lay (or inherent twist) uncoil better if each alternate loop is twisted in the opposite direction, such as in figure-eight coils, where the twist reverses regularly and essentially cancels out. Single braid consists of an even number of strands, eight or twelve being typical, braided into

3956-468: Is the circumference in inches. Rope has been used since prehistoric times. It is of paramount importance in fields as diverse as construction , seafaring , exploration, sports, theatre, and communications. Many types of knots have been developed to fasten with rope, join ropes, and utilize rope to generate mechanical advantage . Pulleys can redirect the pulling force of a rope in another direction, multiply its lifting or pulling power, and distribute

4042-450: Is the same as its original twist. The twist direction of yarn can affect the final properties of the fabric, and combined use of the two twist directions can nullify skewing in knitted fabric. The mechanical integrity of yarn is derived from frictional contacts between its composing fibers. The science behind this was first studied by Galileo . Combed yarns are produced by adding another step of yarn spinning, namely combing, which aligns

4128-481: Is the short splice, which doubles the cross-sectional area of the rope at the area of the splice, which would cause problems in running the line through pulleys. Any splices narrow enough to maintain smooth running would be less able to support the required weight. Rope intended for naval use would have a coloured yarn, known as the "rogue's yarn", included in the layup. This enabled the source to be identified and to detect pilfering. Leonardo da Vinci drew sketches of

4214-414: Is typically sold. The yarn is usually tied in two places directly opposite each other to keep the loops together and to keep them from tangling. Hanks are a preferred method of fastening yarn for many yarn sellers and yarn-dyers due to its ability to more widely display the qualities of the fiber. It is often wound using a swift , a standing contraption that holds a yarn hank without obstruction and spins on

4300-413: Is usually coiled. To prevent fraying or unravelling, the ends of a rope are bound with twine ( whipping ), tape, or heat shrink tubing. The ends of plastic fibre ropes are often melted and fused solid; however, the rope and knotting expert Geoffrey Budworth warns against this practice thus: Sealing rope ends this way is lazy and dangerous. A tugboat operator once sliced the palm of his hand open down to

4386-465: Is very common. The most widely used blends are cotton-polyester and wool-acrylic fibre blends. Blends of different natural fibres are common too, especially with more expensive fibres such as alpaca, angora and cashmere . Yarn is selected for different textiles based on the characteristics of the yarn fibres, such as warmth (wool), light weight (cotton or rayon), durability (nylon is added to sock yarn, for example), or softness (cashmere, alpaca). Yarn

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4472-630: The Egyptians to move the heavy stones required to build their monuments. Starting from approximately 2800 BC, rope made of hemp fibres was in use in China. Rope and the craft of rope making spread throughout Asia, India, and Europe over the next several thousand years. From the Middle Ages until the 18th century, in Europe ropes were constructed in ropewalks , very long buildings where strands

4558-474: The Hohle Fels cave in south-western Germany has been identified as a means for making rope. It is a 20 cm (8 in) strip of mammoth ivory with four holes drilled through it. Each hole is lined with precisely cut spiral incisions. The grooves on three of the holes spiral in a clockwise direction from each side of the strip. The grooves on one hole spiral clockwise on one side, but counter-clockwise from

4644-610: The Stone Age and earlier prehistory , with ancient fiber materials developing from animal hides , to reeds , to early fabrics. Cotton , wool , and silk were the first materials for yarn, and textile trade contributed immensely to the ancient global economy. In 2011, the Bangladesh University of Textiles established a specialized Department of Yarn Engineering, focusing on the advanced techniques of transforming textile fibers into yarn. Yarn can be made from

4730-674: The University of Liège in Belgium was able to make four twisted strands of twine, using a bronze replica of the Hohle Fels cave device, an example of reconstruction archaeology . A similar 15,000 years old device, made of reindeer antler, was found in Gough's Cave in Cheddar Gorge, Somerset and at many other sites. The existence of these tools at different locations indicates rope-making had already become an important human activity by

4816-531: The Upper Paleolithic , and yarn spinning was one of the first processes to be industrialized . Spun yarns are produced by placing a series of individual fibres or filaments together to form a continuous assembly of overlapping fibres, usually bound together by twist. Spun yarns may contain a single type of fibre, or be a blend of various types. Combining synthetic fibres (which can have high strength, lustre, and fire retardant qualities) with natural fibres (which have good water absorbency and skin comforting qualities)

4902-865: The Upper Paleolithic . Chris Stringer , Research Leader in Human Origins at the Natural History Museum , London, said, "These devices were called batons and were originally thought to have been carried by chiefs as badges of rank. However, they had holes with spirals round them and we now realise they must have been used to make or manipulate ropes." The ropes could then have been used to construct fishing nets, snares and traps, bows and arrows, clothing and containers for carrying food. Heavy objects, such as sleds, could now be hauled on ropes while spear points could be lashed to poles. The remains of at least five distinct individuals were found at Hohle Fels. In 2016, researchers successfully extracted

4988-680: The DNA from three samples taken from the Magdalenian period found at Hohle Fels. The tests were performed on two femur fragments, HohleFels10 and HohleFels49 , and a cranial fragment, HohleFels79 . The two femur fragments possibly came from one individual. HohleFels10 and HohleFels49 were indirectly dated to around 16,000–14,260 BP BP , while HohleFels79 was directly dated to around 15,070–14,270 BP. All three samples were found to belong to mtDNA Haplogroup U8a . The Hohle Fels samples were found to be genetically closest to other ancient samples from

5074-692: The Magdalenian, showing closest genetic affinity to each other and for other samples taken from the Swabian Jura, such as Brillenhöhle , while also showing genetic affinity for another Magdalenian sample, taken from the Red Lady of El Mirón , as well as a sample from the Aurignacian, GoyetQ116-1 , taken from Goyet Caves . In January 2016, the federal government of Germany applied for the status of World Heritage Site for two valleys with six caves named Höhlen der ältesten Eiszeitkunst ("Caves with

5160-482: The UK as tension, is a measurement of how many stitches and rows are produced per inch or per cm on a specified size of knitting needle or crochet hook. The proposed standardization uses a four-by-four inch/ten-by-ten cm knitted stockinette or single crocheted square, with the resultant number of stitches across and rows high made by the suggested tools on the label to determine the gauge. In Europe, textile engineers often use

5246-418: The aid of a capstan or windlass. One property of laid rope is partial untwisting when used. This can cause spinning of suspended loads, or stretching , kinking , or hockling of the rope itself. An additional drawback of twisted construction is that every fibre is exposed to abrasion numerous times along the length of the rope. This means that the rope can degrade to numerous inch-long fibre fragments, which

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5332-438: The caves at Lascaux , dating to approximately 15,000 BC . The ancient Egyptians were probably the first civilization to develop special tools to make rope. Egyptian rope dates back to 4000 to 3500 BC and was generally made of water reed fibres. Other rope in antiquity was made from the fibres of date palms , flax , grass , papyrus , leather , or animal hair. The use of such ropes pulled by thousands of workers allowed

5418-462: The climber. Such ropes are of kernmantle construction, as described below . Conversely, "static" ropes have minimal stretch and are not designed to arrest free falls. They are used in caving, rappelling, rescue applications, and industries such as window washing. The UIAA , in concert with the CEN , sets climbing-rope standards and oversees testing. Any rope bearing a GUIANA or CE certification tag

5504-419: The difference between a braided or twined construction) has the advantage of having no construction stretch as is the case with above constructions. Endless winding is pioneered by SmartRigging and FibreMax. The sport of rock climbing uses what is termed "dynamic" rope , an elastic rope which stretches under load to absorb the energy generated in arresting a fall without creating forces high enough to injure

5590-554: The earliest undisputed example of expressly human figurative art . The team also unearthed a bone flute in the cave, and found two fragments of ivory flutes in nearby caves. The flutes date back at least 35,000 years and are some of the earliest musical instruments ever found. In 2012, it was announced that an earlier discovery of bone flute fragments in Geißenklösterle Cave now date back to about 42,000 years, instead of 37,000 years, as earlier perceived. In 2020

5676-907: The fiber's own properties. Some types of protein yarns (i.e., hair, silk, feathers) may feel irritating to some people, causing contact dermatitis , hives , or wheezing . These reactions are likely a sensitivity to thicker and coarser fiber diameter or fiber ends. In fact, contrary to popular belief, wool allergies are practically unknown. According to a study reviewing the evidence of wool as an allergen conducted by Acta Dermato-Venereologica, contemporary superfine or ultrafine Merino wool with their reduced fibre diameters do not provoke itch, are well tolerated and in fact benefit eczema management. Further studies suggest that known allergens applied during textile processing are minimally present in wool garments today given current industry practices and are unlikely to lead to allergic reactions. When natural hair-type fibers are burned, they tend to singe and have

5762-411: The fibres and removes the short fibres carried over from the previous step of carding. Combed yarn results in superior-quality fabrics. In comparison to carded yarns, this particular yarn is slightly more expensive, because the weaving is a long, consuming process. Combining separates small fibres from elongated fibres, in which this procedure makes the yarn softer and smoother. Hosiery yarns are used in

5848-551: The first proper ropes in the modern sense of the word. The earliest evidence of suspected rope is a very small fragment of three-ply cord from a Neanderthal site dated 50,000 years ago. This item was so small, it was only discovered and described with the help of a high power microscope. It is slightly thicker than the average thumb-nail, and would not stretch from edge-to-edge across a little finger-nail. There are other ways fibres can twist in nature, without deliberate construction. A tool dated between 35,000 and 40,000 years found in

5934-499: The full length of the rope were spread out and then laid up or twisted together to form the rope. The cable length was thus set by the length of the available rope walk. This is related to the unit of length termed cable length . This allowed for long ropes of up to 300 yards (270 m) long or longer to be made. These long ropes were necessary in shipping as short ropes would require splicing to make them long enough to use for sheets and halyards . The strongest form of splicing

6020-632: The incisions cannot impart any twist to the fibres pulled through the holes. Other 15,000-year-old objects with holes with spiral incisions, made from reindeer antler, found across Europe are thought to have been used to manipulate ropes, or perhaps some other purpose. They were originally named " batons ", and thought possibly to have been carried as badges of rank. Impressions of cordage found on fired clay provide evidence of string and rope-making technology in Europe dating back 28,000 years. Fossilized fragments of "probably two-ply laid rope of about 7 mm [0.28 in] diameter" were found in one of

6106-431: The manufacturing of knitted fabrics . Since the knitted materials are more delicate than woven materials; hence hosiery yarns are made 'softer' with fewer twists per inch than their woven counterparts. Hosiery yarn comes from a separate spinning process (melt spinning), and is used with circular knitting machines to form fabric. Open-end yarn is produced by open-end spinning without a spindle . The method of spinning

6192-500: The moth Bombyx mori . Silk production is thought to have begun in China and silk thread and cloth manufacture was well-established by the Shang dynasty (1600–1050 BCE). Linen is another natural fiber with a long history of use for yarn and textiles. Linen fibers are derived from the flax plant. Other plant fibers which can be spun include bamboo , hemp , maize , nettle , and soy fiber. The most common spun animal fiber

6278-690: The oldest Ice Age art"). The site would encompass areas in the Lonetal (valley of the Lone ) and the Achtal (valley of the Ach) both in the southern Swabian Jura. The former includes the caves Hohlenstein-Stadel , Vogelherd and Bocksteinhöhle , the latter Geissenklösterle , Hohle Fels and Sirgenstein Cave . Each valley would contain a core area of around 3 to 4 km (1.9 to 2.5 mi) length, surrounded by

6364-422: The other side. Plant fibres have been found on it that could have come from when they fed through the holes and the tool twisted, creating a single ply yarn. Fiber-making experiments with a replica found that the perforations served as effective guides for raw fibers, making it easier to make a strong, elastic rope than simply twisting fibers by hand spiral incisions would have tended to keep the fibres in place. But

6450-417: The pattern names in weaving. The central void may be large or small; in the former case the term hollow braid is sometimes preferred. Double braid, also called braid on braid, consists of an inner braid filling the central void in an outer braid, that may be of the same or different material. Often the inner braid fibre is chosen for strength while the outer braid fibre is chosen for abrasion resistance. In

6536-447: The properties of each parent, according to the proportional composition. Synthetics are added to lower cost, increase durability, add unusual color or visual effects, provide machine washability and stain resistance, reduce heat retention, or lighten garment weight. Spun yarn is made by twisting staple fibres together to make a cohesive thread, or "single". Twisting fibres into yarn in the process called spinning can be dated back to

6622-423: The rope, the shortest strand(s) would always be supporting a much higher proportion of the total load. Because rope has a long history, many systems have been used to specify the size of a rope. In systems that use the inch ( Imperial and US customary measurement systems ), large ropes over 1 inch (25.4 mm) diameter – such as those used on ships – are measured by their circumference in inches; smaller ropes have

6708-432: The same piece of protection, in effect being treated as a single strand. This adds security in situations where a rope may get cut. However new lighter-weight ropes with greater safety have virtually replaced this type of rope. The butterfly and alpine coils are methods of coiling a rope for carrying. Rope made from hemp , cotton or nylon is generally stored in a cool dry place for proper storage. To prevent kinking it

6794-417: The sinews after the hardened (and obviously sharp ) end of a rope that had been heat-sealed pulled through his grasp. There is no substitute for a properly made whipping. If a load-bearing rope gets a sharp or sudden jolt or the rope shows signs of deteriorating, it is recommended that the rope be replaced immediately and should be discarded or only used for non-load-bearing tasks. The average rope life-span

6880-564: The site became part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Caves and Ice Age Art in the Swabian Jura . The first excavation took place in 1870, yielding remnants of cave bears , reindeer , mammoths and horses as well as tools belonging to the Aurignacian culture of the Upper Paleolithic . Further excavations during 1958 to 1960, 1977, and 2002 yielded a number of spectacular finds, including several specimens of prehistoric sculpture such as an ivory bird and

6966-454: The sizes. These terms include: fingering, sport, double-knit (or DK), worsted , aran (or heavy worsted), bulky, super-bulky, and roving. Another measurement of yarn weight, often used by weavers, is wraps per inch (WPI). The yarn is wrapped snugly around a ruler and the number of wraps that fit in an inch are counted. Labels on yarn for handicrafts often include information on gauge , which can also help determine yarn weight. Gauge, known in

7052-419: The strength (about 70%), while the mantle protects the kern and determines the handling properties of the rope (how easy it is to hold, to tie knots in, and so on). In dynamic climbing line , core fibres are usually twisted to make the rope more elastic. Static kernmantle ropes are made with untwisted core fibres and tighter braid, which causes them to be stiffer in addition to limiting the stretch. Plaited rope

7138-403: The twist is the direction of the twists as they progress away from an observer. Thus Z-twist rope is said to be right-handed , and S-twist to be left-handed. Twisted ropes are built up in three steps. First, fibres are gathered and spun into yarns . A number of these yarns are then formed into strands by twisting . The strands are then twisted together to lay the rope. The twist of the yarn

7224-415: The unit tex , which is the weight in grams of a kilometre of yarn, or decitex, which is a finer measurement corresponding to the weight in grams of 10 km of yarn. Many other units have been used over time by different industries. There are many different ways in which yarn is wound, including hanks, skeins, donut balls, cakes, and cones. A hank of yarn is a looped bundle of yarn, similar to how wire

7310-415: The word "skein" is used generically to describe any ball of yarn. Many large-scale yarn retailers like Lion brand and parent companies like Yarnspirations sell their yarn in skeins. Unlike other types of yarn balls, a skein allows you to access both ends of the yarn. The yarn end in the inside of the skein is called a center pull. One major complaint of center pull bullet skeins is that the inside yarn end

7396-459: Was originally applied to synthetic fibers to reduce transparency, slipperiness and increase warmth, absorbency and makes the yarn more opaque. It was used to manufacture a variety of textile products: knitted underwear and outer wear, shape-retaining knitted suits, overcoats. They also were used in the production of artificial fur, carpets, blankets, etc. Yarn may be used undyed, or may be coloured with natural or artificial dyes . Most yarns have

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