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77-643: Ratzel's father was the head of the household staff of the Grand Duke of Baden. Friedrich attended high school in Karlsruhe for six years before being apprenticed at age 15 to apothecaries . In 1863, he went to Rapperswil on the Lake of Zurich , Switzerland , where he began to study the classics . After a further year as an apothecary at Moers near Krefeld in the Lower Rhine region (1865–1866), he spent

154-591: A collection of more than 800 prescriptions. It lists over 700 different drugs. In ancient India, the Sushruta Samhita , a compendium on the practice of medicine and medical formulations, has been traced back to the 1st century BC. The Shen-nung pen ts'ao ching , a Chinese book on agriculture and medicinal plants (3rd century AD), is considered a foundational material for Chinese medicine and herbalism and became an important source for Chinese apothecaries. The book, which documented 365 treatments, had

231-476: A combination of historical factors such as: speciation , extinction , continental drift , and glaciation . Through observing the geographic distribution of species, we can see associated variations in sea level , river routes, habitat, and river capture . Additionally, this science considers the geographic constraints of landmass areas and isolation, as well as the available ecosystem energy supplies. Over periods of ecological changes, biogeography includes

308-470: A focus on roots and grass. It had treatments which came from minerals, roots and grass, and animals. Many of the mentioned drugs and their uses are still followed today. Ginseng's use as a sexual stimulant and aid for erectile dysfunction stems from this book. Ma huang, an herb first mentioned in the book, led to the introduction of the drug ephedrine into modern medicine. According to Sharif Kaf al-Ghazal, and S. Hadzovic, apothecary shops existed during

385-421: A global scale. GIS can show certain processes on the earth's surface like whale locations, sea surface temperatures , and bathymetry. Current scientists also use coral reefs to delve into the history of biogeography through the fossilized reefs. Two global information systems are either dedicated to, or have strong focus on, biogeography (in the form of the spatial location of observations of organisms), namely

462-419: A great impact on Charles Darwin , who was inspired to consider species adaptations and evolution after learning about botanical geography. De Candolle was the first to describe the differences between the small-scale and large-scale distribution patterns of organisms around the globe. Several additional scientists contributed new theories to further develop the concept of biogeography. Charles Lyell developed

539-413: A number of methods have been developed to produce arguably more complete "predictive" or "modelled" distributions for species based on their associated environmental or other preferences (such as availability of food or other habitat requirements); this approach is known as either Environmental niche modelling (ENM) or Species distribution modelling (SDM). Depending on the reliability of the source data and

616-987: A result of tectonic uplift (or subsidence ), natural damming created by a landslide , or headward or lateral erosion of the watershed between adjacent basins. Biogeography is a synthetic science, related to geography , biology , soil science , geology , climatology , ecology and evolution . Some fundamental concepts in biogeography include: The study of comparative biogeography can follow two main lines of investigation: There are many types of biogeographic units used in biogeographic regionalisation schemes, as there are many criteria ( species composition , physiognomy , ecological aspects) and hierarchization schemes: biogeographic realms (ecozones), bioregions ( sensu stricto ), ecoregions , zoogeographical regions , floristic regions , vegetation types, biomes , etc. The terms biogeographic unit, biogeographic area can be used for these categories, regardless of rank. In 2008, an International Code of Area Nomenclature

693-406: A short time at the high school in Karlsruhe and became a student of zoology at the universities of Heidelberg , Jena and Berlin , finishing in 1868. He studied zoology in 1869, publishing Sein und Werden der organischen Welt on Darwin . After the completion of his schooling Ratzel began a period of travels that saw him transform from zoologist/biologist to geographer. He began field work in

770-492: A whole suite of predictor variables for biogeographic analysis, including satellite imaging and processing of the Earth. Two main types of satellite imaging that are important within modern biogeography are Global Production Efficiency Model (GLO-PEM) and Geographic Information Systems (GIS). GLO-PEM uses satellite-imaging gives "repetitive, spatially contiguous, and time specific observations of vegetation". These observations are on

847-538: Is apoteker , which was borrowed from the Dutch apotheker . In Yiddish the word is אַפּטייק apteyk . Use of the term in the names of businesses varies with time and location. It is generally an Americanism, though some areas of the United States use it to invoke an experience of nostalgic revival and it has been used for a wide variety of businesses; while in other areas such as California its use

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924-792: Is "blended, compressed, and accelerated" in cities, and they bring out the "greatest, best, most typical aspects of people". Ratzel had traveled to cities such as New York , Boston , Philadelphia , Washington , Richmond , Charleston , New Orleans , and San Francisco . Upon his return in 1875, Ratzel became a lecturer in geography at the Technical High School in Munich . In 1876, he was promoted to assistant professor, then rose to full professor in 1880. While at Munich, Ratzel produced several books and established his career as an academic. In 1886, he accepted an appointment at Leipzig University . His lectures were widely attended, notably by

1001-649: Is acknowledged all over the world is Anthropogeographie . It was completed between 1872 and 1899. The main focus of this monumental work is on the effects of different physical features and locations on the style and life of the people. Here are his other notable writings: Apothecary Apothecary ( / ə ˈ p ɒ θ ə k ər i / ) is an archaic English term for a medical professional who formulates and dispenses materia medica (medicine) to physicians , surgeons and patients. The modern terms 'pharmacist' and 'chemist' (British English) have taken over this role. In some languages and regions, "apothecary"

1078-424: Is an alternate view than that of Linnaeus. Buffon's law eventually became a principle of biogeography by explaining how similar environments were habitats for comparable types of organisms. Buffon also studied fossils which led him to believe that the Earth was over tens of thousands of years old, and that humans had not lived there long in comparison to the age of the Earth. Following the period of exploration came

1155-404: Is in the geological similarities between varying locations around the globe, the geographic distribution of some fossils (including the mesosaurs ) on various continents, and the jigsaw puzzle shape of the landmasses on Earth. Though Wegener did not know the mechanism of this concept of Continental Drift, this contribution to the study of biogeography was significant in the way that it shed light on

1232-476: Is legally obligated to be run at all times by at least one Apotheker (male) or Apothekerin (female), who actually has an academic degree as a pharmacist – in German Pharmazeut (male) or Pharmazeutin (female) – and has obtained the professional title Apotheker by either working in the field for numerous years, usually by working in a pharmacy store, or taking additional exams. Thus a Pharmazeut

1309-489: Is noon apothecarie, I shal myself to herbes techen yow, That shul been for youre hele and for youre prow. In modern English, this can be translated as: ... and you should not linger, Though in this town there is no apothecary, I shall teach you about herbs myself, That will be for your health and for your pride. In Renaissance Italy , Italian Nuns became a prominent source for medicinal needs. At first they used their knowledge in non-curative uses in

1386-561: Is not always an Apotheker . Magdalena Neff became the first woman to gain a medical qualification in Germany when she studied pharmacy at the Technical University of Karlsruhe and later passed the apothecary's examination in 1906. Apothecaries used their own measurement system, the apothecaries' system , to provide precise weighing of small quantities. Apothecaries dispensed vials of poisons as well as medicines, and as

1463-492: Is not archaic and has become those languages' term for "pharmacy" or a pharmacist who owns one. Apothecaries' investigation of herbal and chemical ingredients was a precursor to the modern sciences of chemistry and pharmacology . In addition to dispensing herbs and medicine, apothecaries offered general medical advice and a range of services that are now performed by other specialist practitioners, such as surgeons and obstetricians . Apothecary shops sold ingredients and

1540-473: Is on how the environment and humans affect the distribution of species as well as other manifestations of Life such as species or genetic diversity. Biogeography is being applied to biodiversity conservation and planning, projecting global environmental changes on species and biomes, projecting the spread of infectious diseases, invasive species, and for supporting planning for the establishment of crops. Technological evolving and advances have allowed for generating

1617-401: Is restricted to licensed pharmacies. The profession of apothecary can be dated back at least to 2600 BC to ancient Babylon , which provides one of the earliest records of the practice of the apothecary. Clay tablets have been found with medical texts recording symptoms, prescriptions, and the directions for compounding. The Papyrus Ebers from ancient Egypt, written around 1500 BC, contain

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1694-404: Is still the case, medicines could be either beneficial or harmful if inappropriately used. Protective methods to prevent accidental ingestion of poisons included the use of specially-shaped containers for potentially poisonous substances such as laudanum . Apothecary businesses were typically family-run, and wives or other women of the family worked alongside their husbands in the shops, learning

1771-643: Is the branch that studies distribution of animals. Mycogeography is the branch that studies distribution of fungi, such as mushrooms . Knowledge of spatial variation in the numbers and types of organisms is as vital to us today as it was to our early human ancestors , as we adapt to heterogeneous but geographically predictable environments . Biogeography is an integrative field of inquiry that unites concepts and information from ecology , evolutionary biology , taxonomy , geology , physical geography , palaeontology , and climatology . Modern biogeographic research combines information and ideas from many fields, from

1848-614: The Age of Enlightenment in Europe, which attempted to explain the patterns of biodiversity observed by Buffon and Linnaeus. At the birth of the 19th century, Alexander von Humboldt, known as the "founder of plant geography", developed the concept of physique generale to demonstrate the unity of science and how species fit together. As one of the first to contribute empirical data to the science of biogeography through his travel as an explorer, he observed differences in climate and vegetation. The Earth

1925-713: The Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF: 2.57 billion species occurrence records reported as at August 2023) and, for marine species only, the Ocean Biodiversity Information System (OBIS, originally the Ocean Biogeographic Information System : 116 million species occurrence records reported as at August 2023), while at a national scale, similar compilations of species occurrence records also exist such as

2002-591: The Mediterranean , writing letters of his experiences. These letters led to a job as a traveling reporter for the Kölnische Zeitung ("Cologne Journal"), which provided him the means for further travel. Ratzel embarked on several expeditions, the lengthiest and most important being his 1874-1875 trip to North America , Cuba , and Mexico . This trip was a turning point in Ratzel's career. He studied

2079-792: The Middle Ages in Baghdad , operated by pharmacists in 754 during the Abbasid Caliphate , or Islamic Golden Age . Apothecaries were also active in Al-Andalus by the 11th century. By the end of the 14th century, Geoffrey Chaucer ( c.  1342 –1400) was mentioning an English apothecary in the Canterbury Tales , specifically " The Nun's Priest's Tale " as Pertelote speaks to Chauntecleer (lines 181–184): ... and for ye shal nat tarie, Though in this toun

2156-479: The 36 volume Histoire Naturelle, générale et particulière , in which he argued that varying geographical regions would have different forms of life. This was inspired by his observations comparing the Old and New World, as he determined distinct variations of species from the two regions. Buffon believed there was a single species creation event, and that different regions of the world were homes for varying species, which

2233-509: The Amazon basin, Orinoco basin, and Guianas ) with an exceptionally low (flat) topographic relief, the many waterways have had a highly reticulated history over geological time . In such a context, stream capture is an important factor affecting the evolution and distribution of freshwater organisms. Stream capture occurs when an upstream portion of one river drainage is diverted to the downstream portion of an adjacent basin. This can happen as

2310-597: The Gómez Farias Region, Tamaulipas, Mexico , which has been described as "ground-breaking" and "a classic treatise in historical biogeography". Martin applied several disciplines including ecology , botany , climatology , geology , and Pleistocene dispersal routes to examine the herpetofauna of a relatively small and largely undisturbed area, but ecologically complex, situated on the threshold of temperate – tropical (nearctic and neotropical) regions, including semiarid lowlands at 70 meters elevation and

2387-619: The Indian Ocean was much narrower than it is today, and that South America was closer to the Antarctic, one would be hard pressed to explain the presence of many "ancient" lineages of perching birds in Africa, as well as the mainly South American distribution of the suboscines . Paleobiogeography also helps constrain hypotheses on the timing of biogeographic events such as vicariance and geodispersal , and provides unique information on

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2464-855: The Italian peninsula. From the 15th century to the 16th century, the apothecary gained the status of a skilled practitioner. In London, the apothecaries merited their own livery company , the Worshipful Society of Apothecaries , founded in 1617. Its roots, however, go back much earlier to the Guild of Pepperers formed in London in 1180. Similarly in Ireland, Apothecaries were organized since before 1446. In Ireland and Great Britain they were allowed to diagnose in addition to compounding and dispensing, becoming regulated general medical practitioners and

2541-452: The Origin of Species were devoted to geographical distribution. The first discoveries that contributed to the development of biogeography as a science began in the mid-18th century, as Europeans explored the world and described the biodiversity of life. During the 18th century most views on the world were shaped around religion and for many natural theologists, the bible. Carl Linnaeus , in

2618-482: The Theory of Continental Drift in 1912, though it was not widely accepted until the 1960s. This theory was revolutionary because it changed the way that everyone thought about species and their distribution around the globe. The theory explained how continents were formerly joined in one large landmass, Pangea , and slowly drifted apart due to the movement of the plates below Earth's surface. The evidence for this theory

2695-603: The Theory of Uniformitarianism after studying fossils. This theory explained how the world was not created by one sole catastrophic event, but instead from numerous creation events and locations. Uniformitarianism also introduced the idea that the Earth was actually significantly older than was previously accepted. Using this knowledge, Lyell concluded that it was possible for species to go extinct. Since he noted that Earth's climate changes, he realized that species distribution must also change accordingly. Lyell argued that climate changes complemented vegetation changes, thus connecting

2772-639: The U.K. National Biodiversity Network , the Atlas of Living Australia , and many others. In the case of the oceans, in 2017 Costello et al. analyzed the distribution of 65,000 species of marine animals and plants as then documented in OBIS, and used the results to distinguish 30 distinct marine realms, split between continental-shelf and offshore deep-sea areas. Since it is self evident that compilations of species occurrence records cannot cover with any completeness, areas that have received either limited or no sampling,

2849-414: The anticipated effects of climate change can also be used to show potential changes in species distributions that may occur in the future based on such scenarios. Paleobiogeography goes one step further to include paleogeographic data and considerations of plate tectonics . Using molecular analyses and corroborated by fossils , it has been possible to demonstrate that perching birds evolved first in

2926-421: The biotic and abiotic features of the Earth in his book, Cosmos . Augustin de Candolle contributed to the field of biogeography as he observed species competition and the several differences that influenced the discovery of the diversity of life. He was a Swiss botanist and created the first Laws of Botanical Nomenclature in his work, Prodromus. He discussed plant distribution and his theories eventually had

3003-410: The convents to solidify the sanctity of religion among their sisters. As they progressed in skill they started to expand their field to create profit. This profit they used towards their charitable goals. Because of their eventual spread to urban society, these religious women gained "roles of public significance beyond the spiritual realm (Strocchia 627). Later apothecaries led by nuns were spread across

3080-475: The development of biogeography as a science. The scientific theory of biogeography grows out of the work of Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859), Francisco Jose de Caldas (1768–1816), Hewett Cottrell Watson (1804–1881), Alphonse de Candolle (1806–1893), Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913), Philip Lutley Sclater (1829–1913) and other biologists and explorers. The patterns of species distribution across geographical areas can usually be explained through

3157-420: The development of the fields of conservation biology and landscape ecology . Classic biogeography has been expanded by the development of molecular systematics , creating a new discipline known as phylogeography . This development allowed scientists to test theories about the origin and dispersal of populations, such as island endemics . For example, while classic biogeographers were able to speculate about

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3234-504: The environmental surroundings to varying species. This largely influenced Charles Darwin in his development of the theory of evolution. Charles Darwin was a natural theologist who studied around the world, and most importantly in the Galapagos Islands . Darwin introduced the idea of natural selection, as he theorized against previously accepted ideas that species were static or unchanging. His contributions to biogeography and

3311-597: The factors affecting organism distribution, and to predict future trends in organism distribution. Often mathematical models and GIS are employed to solve ecological problems that have a spatial aspect to them. Biogeography is most keenly observed on the world's islands . These habitats are often much more manageable areas of study because they are more condensed than larger ecosystems on the mainland. Islands are also ideal locations because they allow scientists to look at habitats that new invasive species have only recently colonized and can observe how they disperse throughout

3388-824: The first woman to be licensed to practice medicine in Britain by passing the examination of the Society of Apothecaries. By the end of the 19th century, the medical professions had taken on their current institutional form, with defined roles for physicians and surgeons, and the role of the apothecary was more narrowly conceived, as that of pharmacist (dispensing chemist in British English). In German-speaking countries, such as Germany, Austria and Switzerland, pharmacies or chemist stores are still called apothecaries or in German Apotheken . The Apotheke ("store")

3465-702: The forerunners of General Practitioners there. However, there were ongoing tensions between apothecaries and other medical professions, as is illustrated by the publication of 'A Short View of the Frauds and Abuses Committed by Apothecaries' by the Physician Christopher Merrett in 1669 and the experiences of Susan Reeve Lyon and other women apothecaries in 17th century London. Often women (who were prohibited from entering medical school) became apothecaries which took away business from male physicians. In 1865 Elizabeth Garrett Anderson became

3542-458: The formation of regional biotas. For example, data from species-level phylogenetic and biogeographic studies tell us that the Amazonian teleost fauna accumulated in increments over a period of tens of millions of years, principally by means of allopatric speciation, and in an arena extending over most of the area of tropical South America (Albert & Reis 2011). In other words, unlike some of

3619-483: The former Lifemapper project at the University of Kansas (now continued as a part of BiotaPhy ) and AquaMaps , which as at 2023 contain modelled distributions for around 200,000 terrestrial, and 33,000 species of teleosts , marine mammals and invertebrates, respectively. One advantage of ENM/SDM is that in addition to showing current (or even past) modelled distributions, insertion of changed parameters such as

3696-655: The geographical distribution of organisms around the globe. Alfred Russel Wallace studied the distribution of flora and fauna in the Amazon Basin and the Malay Archipelago in the mid-19th century. His research was essential to the further development of biogeography, and he was later nicknamed the "father of Biogeography". Wallace conducted fieldwork researching the habits, breeding and migration tendencies, and feeding behavior of thousands of species. He studied butterfly and bird distributions in comparison to

3773-519: The growth of German industrialism after the Franco-Prussian war and the subsequent search for markets that brought it into competition with Britain . His writings served as welcome justification for imperial expansion . Influenced by the American geostrategist Alfred Thayer Mahan , Ratzel wrote of aspirations for German naval reach, agreeing that sea power was self-sustaining, as

3850-411: The importance of environmental and geographic similarities or differences as a result of climate and other pressures on the planet. Importantly, late in his career Wegener recognised that testing his theory required measurement of continental movement rather than inference from fossils species distributions. In 1958 paleontologist Paul S. Martin published A Biogeography of Reptiles and Amphibians in

3927-654: The influence of people of German origin in America , especially in the Midwest , as well as other ethnic groups in North America. He produced a written account of his travels in 1876, Städte-und Kulturbilder aus Nordamerika (Profile of Cities and Cultures in North America), which would help establish the field of cultural geography . According to Ratzel, cities are the best place to study people because life

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4004-449: The influential American geographer Ellen Churchill Semple as well as Martha Krug-Genthe , the first woman to obtain a doctorate in geography. Ratzel produced the foundations of human geography in his two-volume Anthropogeographie in 1882 and 1891. This work was misinterpreted by many of his students, creating a number of environmental determinists . He published his work on political geography , Politische Geographie , in 1897. It

4081-559: The island and change it. They can then apply their understanding to similar but more complex mainland habitats. Islands are very diverse in their biomes , ranging from the tropical to arctic climates. This diversity in habitat allows for a wide range of species study in different parts of the world. One scientist who recognized the importance of these geographic locations was Charles Darwin , who remarked in his journal "The Zoology of Archipelagoes will be well worth examination". Two chapters in On

4158-618: The medicines they prepared wholesale to other medical practitioners, as well as dispensing them to patients. In 17th-century England, they also controlled the trade in tobacco which was imported as a medicine. The term "apothecary" derives from the Ancient Greek ἀποθήκη ( apothḗkē , "a repository, storehouse") via Latin apotheca ("repository, storehouse, warehouse", cf. bodega and boutique ), Medieval Latin apothecarius ("storekeeper"), and eventually Old French apotecaire . In some European and other languages,

4235-488: The mid-18th century, improved our classifications of organisms through the exploration of undiscovered territories by his students and disciples. When he noticed that species were not as perpetual as he believed, he developed the Mountain Explanation to explain the distribution of biodiversity; when Noah's ark landed on Mount Ararat and the waters receded, the animals dispersed throughout different elevations on

4312-515: The most important and consequential developments in biogeography has been to show how multiple organisms, including mammals like monkeys and reptiles like squamates , overcame barriers such as large oceans that many biogeographers formerly believed were impossible to cross. See also Oceanic dispersal . Biogeography now incorporates many different fields including but not limited to physical geography, geology, botany and plant biology, zoology, general biology, and modelling. A biogeographer's main focus

4389-505: The mountain. This showed different species in different climates proving species were not constant. Linnaeus' findings set a basis for ecological biogeography. Through his strong beliefs in Christianity, he was inspired to classify the living world, which then gave way to additional accounts of secular views on geographical distribution. He argued that the structure of an animal was very closely related to its physical surroundings. This

4466-683: The nature of the models employed (including the scales for which data are available), maps generated from such models may then provide better representations of the "real" biogeographic distributions of either individual species, groups of species, or biodiversity as a whole, however it should also be borne in mind that historic or recent human activities (such as hunting of great whales , or other human-induced exterminations) may have altered present-day species distributions from their potential "full" ecological footprint. Examples of predictive maps produced by niche modelling methods based on either GBIF (terrestrial) or OBIS (marine, plus some freshwater) data are

4543-476: The northernmost cloud forest in the western hemisphere at over 2200 meters. The publication of The Theory of Island Biogeography by Robert MacArthur and E.O. Wilson in 1967 showed that the species richness of an area could be predicted in terms of such factors as habitat area, immigration rate and extinction rate. This added to the long-standing interest in island biogeography . The application of island biogeography theory to habitat fragments spurred

4620-583: The origins of species in the Hawaiian Islands , phylogeography allows them to test theories of relatedness between these populations and putative source populations on various continents, notably in Asia and North America . Biogeography continues as a point of study for many life sciences and geography students worldwide, however it may be under different broader titles within institutions such as ecology or evolutionary biology. In recent years, one of

4697-415: The past such as urine, fecal matter, earwax, human fat, and saliva, are no longer used and are generally considered ineffective or unsanitary. Trial and error were the main source for finding successful remedies, as little was known about the chemistry of why certain treatments worked. For instance, it was known that drinking coffee could help cure headaches, but the existence and properties of caffeine itself

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4774-495: The physiological and ecological constraints on organismal dispersal to geological and climatological phenomena operating at global spatial scales and evolutionary time frames. The short-term interactions within a habitat and species of organisms describe the ecological application of biogeography. Historical biogeography describes the long-term, evolutionary periods of time for broader classifications of organisms. Early scientists, beginning with Carl Linnaeus , contributed to

4851-448: The presence or absence of geographical barriers. His observations led him to conclude that the number of organisms present in a community was dependent on the amount of food resources in the particular habitat. Wallace believed species were dynamic by responding to biotic and abiotic factors. He and Philip Sclater saw biogeography as a source of support for the theory of evolution as they used Darwin's conclusion to explain how biogeography

4928-405: The profit from trade would pay for the merchant marine , unlike land power . Ratzel's idea of Raum (space) would grow out of his organic state conception. His early concept of lebensraum was not political or economic but spiritual and racial nationalist expansion. The Raum-motiv is a historically-driving force, pushing peoples with great Kultur to naturally expand. Space, for Ratzel,

5005-420: The region of Australia or the adjacent Antarctic (which at that time lay somewhat further north and had a temperate climate). From there, they spread to the other Gondwanan continents and Southeast Asia – the part of Laurasia then closest to their origin of dispersal – in the late Paleogene , before achieving a global distribution in the early Neogene . Not knowing that at the time of dispersal,

5082-428: The study of plant and animal species in: their past and/or present living refugium habitat ; their interim living sites; and/or their survival locales. As writer David Quammen put it, "...biogeography does more than ask Which species? and Where . It also asks Why? and, what is sometimes more crucial, Why not? ." Modern biogeography often employs the use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS), to understand

5159-1156: The term is current and used to designate a pharmacist/chemist, such as Dutch and German Apotheker , Hungarian patikus , Irish poitigéir , Latvian aptiekārs and Luxembourgish Apdikter . Likewise, "pharmacy" translates as apotek in Danish , Norwegian and Swedish , apteekki in Finnish , apoteka in Bosnian , patika in Hungarian, aptieka in Latvian , апотека ( apoteka ) in Serbian , аптека ( apteka ) in Russian , Bulgarian , Macedonian and Ukrainian , Apotheke in German and apteka in Polish . The word in Indonesian

5236-416: The theory of evolution were different from those of other explorers of his time, because he developed a mechanism to describe the ways that species changed. His influential ideas include the development of theories regarding the struggle for existence and natural selection. Darwin's theories started a biological segment to biogeography and empirical studies, which enabled future scientists to develop ideas about

5313-920: The trade themselves. Women were still not allowed to train and be educated in universities so this allowed them a chance to be trained in medical knowledge and healing. Previously, women had some influence in other women's healthcare, such as serving as midwives and other feminine care in a setting that was not considered appropriate for males. Though physicians gave medical advice, they did not make medicine, so they typically sent their patients to particular independent apothecaries, who did also provide some medical advice, in particular remedies and healing. Many recipes for medicines included herbs, minerals, and pieces of animals (meats, fats, skins) that were ingested, made into paste for external use, or used as aromatherapy. Some of these are similar to natural remedies used today, including catnip , chamomile , fennel , mint , garlic , and witch hazel . Many other ingredients used in

5390-447: The well-known insular faunas ( Galapagos finches , Hawaiian drosophilid flies, African rift lake cichlids ), the species-rich Amazonian ichthyofauna is not the result of recent adaptive radiations . For freshwater organisms, landscapes are divided naturally into discrete drainage basins by watersheds , episodically isolated and reunited by erosional processes. In regions like the Amazon Basin (or more generally Greater Amazonia,

5467-502: Was a staunch German. During the outbreak of Franco-Prussian war in 1870, he joined the Prussian army and was wounded twice during the war. Influenced by thinkers including Darwin and zoologist Ernst Heinrich Haeckel , he published several papers. Among them is the essay Lebensraum (1901) concerning biogeography , creating a foundation for the uniquely German variant of geopolitics : Geopolitik . Ratzel's writings coincided with

5544-450: Was a vague concept, theoretically unbounded. Raum was defined as where German peoples live, and other weaker states could serve to support German peoples economically, and German culture could fertilize other cultures. However, it ought to be noted that Ratzel's concept of raum was not overtly aggressive, but he theorized simply as the natural expansion of strong states into areas controlled by weaker states. The book for which Ratzel

5621-400: Was divided into regions which he defined as tropical, temperate, and arctic and within these regions there were similar forms of vegetation. This ultimately enabled him to create the isotherm, which allowed scientists to see patterns of life within different climates. He contributed his observations to findings of botanical geography by previous scientists, and sketched this description of both

5698-529: Was important to a George Louis Buffon's rival theory of distribution. Closely after Linnaeus, Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon observed shifts in climate and how species spread across the globe as a result. He was the first to see different groups of organisms in different regions of the world. Buffon saw similarities between some regions which led him to believe that at one point continents were connected and then water separated them and caused differences in species. His hypotheses were described in his work,

5775-550: Was in this work that Ratzel introduced concepts that contributed to Lebensraum and Social Darwinism . His three volume work The History of Mankind was published in English in 1896 and contained over 1100 excellent engravings and remarkable chromolithography . Ratzel continued his work at Leipzig until his sudden death on August 9, 1904, in Ammerland, Lake Starnberg , Germany. Ratzel, a scholar of versatile academic interest,

5852-502: Was similar to a record of species inheritance. Key findings, such as the sharp difference in fauna either side of the Wallace Line , and the sharp difference that existed between North and South America prior to their relatively recent faunal interchange , can only be understood in this light. Otherwise, the field of biogeography would be seen as a purely descriptive one. Moving on to the 20th century, Alfred Wegener introduced

5929-439: Was still a mystery. Biogeography Biogeography is the study of the distribution of species and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time . Organisms and biological communities often vary in a regular fashion along geographic gradients of latitude , elevation , isolation and habitat area . Phytogeography is the branch of biogeography that studies the distribution of plants. Zoogeography

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