84-548: The Rawas River is a river in northern Sumatra , Indonesia , about 500 km (300 mi) northwest of the capital Jakarta It is a tributary of the Musi River . The river flows in the southern area of Sumatra which has a predominantly tropical rainforest climate (designated as Af in the Köppen–Geiger climate classification ). The annual average temperature in the area is 23 °C (73 °F). The warmest month
168-565: A wetland of international importance under the Ramsar Convention . Sumatra has lost almost 50% of its tropical rainforest since 1980. Many species are now critically endangered , such as the Sumatran ground cuckoo , the Sumatran tiger , the Sumatran elephant , the Sumatran rhinoceros , and the Sumatran orangutan . Deforestation on the island has also resulted in serious seasonal smoke haze over neighbouring countries, such as
252-491: A 9.2 earthquake shook Bengkulu and Western Sumatra. Both events caused large tsunamis . Earthquakes are very common throughout the coastal area of the west and center of the island, and tsunamis are common due to the high seismicity in the area. By population, Medan is the largest city in Sumatra. Medan is also the most visited and developed city in Sumatra. Sumatra supports a wide range of vegetation types that are home to
336-535: A diagonal northwest–southeast axis. The Indian Ocean borders the northwest, west, and southwest coasts of Sumatra, with the island chain of Simeulue , Nias , Mentawai , and Enggano off the western coast. In the northeast, the narrow Strait of Malacca separates the island from the Malay Peninsula , which is an extension of the Eurasian continent. In the southeast, the narrow Sunda Strait , containing
420-403: A given territory, whether by human agency or by any other causes, to such an extent that peaceful enjoyment by the inhabitants of that territory has been severely diminished. This definition includes damage caused by individuals, corporations and/or the state. It also includes environmental destruction from 'other causes' (i.e. harm that is not necessarily caused by human activity). The purpose
504-717: A new international agreement to ban ecocide. In 1972 at the United Nations Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment , Prime Minister of Sweden Olof Palme called the Vietnam War an ecocide. Others, including Indira Gandhi from India and Tang Ke, the leader of the Chinese delegation, also denounced the war in human and environmental terms, calling for ecocide to be an international crime. A Working Group on Crimes Against
588-561: A people's cultural and physical existence, and several studies have shown that ecocide has genocidal dimensions. Destruction of the natural environment can result in cultural genocide by preventing people from following their traditional way of life. This is especially true for Indigenous people . Ecocide resulting from climate change and resource extraction may become a primary driver of genocide worldwide. Some Indigenous scholars have argued that ecocide and genocide are inextricable. Mainstream understanding of genocide (as defined by
672-467: A reflection of the need to safeguard and preserve the environment, as well as the first use of nuclear weapons, colonialism , apartheid , economic aggression and mercenarism ". In 1996, Canadian/Australian lawyer Mark Gray published his proposal for an international crime of ecocide, based on established international environmental and human rights law. He demonstrated that states, and arguably individuals and organizations, causing or permitting harm to
756-731: A report by the Yale School of the Environment , some 687,000 tons of petrochemicals have burned as a result of shelling, while nearly 1,600 tons of pollutants have leaked into bodies of water. Hazardous chemicals have contaminated around 70 acres of soil, and likely made agricultural activities temporarily impossible. Around 30% of Ukraine's land is now littered with explosives and more than 2.4 million hectares of forest have been damaged. According to Netherlands-based peace organization PAX, Russia's "deliberate targeting of industrial and energy infrastructure" has caused "severe" pollution, and
840-528: A rich variety of species, including 17 endemic genera of plants. Unique species include the Sumatran pine which dominates the Sumatran tropical pine forests of the higher mountainsides in the north of the island and rainforest plants such as Rafflesia arnoldii (the world's largest individual flower), and the titan arum (the world's largest unbranched inflorescence ). The island is home to 201 mammal species and 580 bird species. There are nine endemic mammal species on mainland Sumatra and 14 more endemic to
924-533: A serious breach of an international obligation of essential importance for the safeguarding and preservation of the human environment, such as those prohibiting massive pollution of the atmosphere or of the seas." Supporters who spoke out in favor of a crime of ecocide included Romania , the Holy See , Austria, Poland, Rwanda, Congo and Oman. The Whitaker Report , commissioned by the Sub-Commission on
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#17327874952091008-675: A stiff economic decline as the heritage of the Srivijaya empire was superseded by the economic policy of the Singhasari and Majapahit . The Palembang sultanate experienced a terminal decline in the early 19th century. With the coming of the Dutch Empire , the many Sumatran princely states gradually fell under their control. Aceh posed major obstacles, as the Dutch were involved in the long and costly Aceh War (1873–1903). During
1092-518: Is October, when the average temperature is around 24 °C (75 °F), and the coldest is June, at 22 °C (72 °F). The average annual rainfall is 3,546 mm (139.6 in). The wettest month is December, with an average of 482 mm (19.0 in) rainfall, and the driest is June, with 115 mm (4.5 in) of rain. 2°42′23″S 103°24′00″E / 2.7063°S 103.3999°E / -2.7063; 103.3999 Sumatra Sumatra ( / s ʊ ˈ m ɑː t r ə / )
1176-495: Is also an area in the archipelago that received the spread of Islam first compared to other islands or other areas. The island of Sumatra became the first area to receive the spread of Islam because of the position of the island of Sumatra which is close to the Malacca strait. The initial process of Islamization related to trade and also the formation of the kingdom. Islam entered Sumatra through pious Arabs and Tamil traders in
1260-521: Is also used as an inter-ethnic means of communication in some parts of Aceh province. Religion in Sumatra (2023) The majority of people in Sumatra are Muslims (87.12%), while 10.69% are Christians, and less than 2.19% are Buddhists and Hindus. Sumatra is one of seven geographical regions of Indonesia , which includes its adjacent smaller islands. Sumatra was one of the eight original provinces of Indonesia between 1945 and 1948. Including adjacent archipelagoes normally included with Sumatra (such as
1344-493: Is ecocidal. Climate change may result in ecocide. For example, ocean acidification and warming causes damage to coral reefs , although ecocide of coral reefs has also been attributed to causes not related to climate change. Criminalization of ecocide under the Rome Statute has been proposed as a deterrent to corporations responsible for climate change, although others argue that criminalizing ecocide will not address
1428-484: Is long overdue. It could lead to an important change in the way people perceive – and respond to – the current environmental crisis." In 2023, Greta Thunberg , Luisa Neubauer , Anuna de Wever and Adélaïde Carlier demanded, in an open letter, that all European Union leaders and heads of state must "advocate to make ecocide an international crime at the International Criminal Court." At
1512-489: Is often described by academics as an ecocide. The situation has made Indonesia the world's largest forest-based emitter of greenhouse gases. It also threatens the survival of indigenous and endemic species. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) identified 140 species of mammals as threatened and 15 as critically endangered, including the Bali myna , Sumatran orangutan and Javan rhinoceros . After
1596-580: Is one of the Sunda Islands of western Indonesia . It is the largest island that is fully within Indonesian territory, as well as the sixth-largest island in the world at 482,286.55 km (182,812 mi. ), including adjacent islands such as the Simeulue , Nias , Mentawai , Enggano , Riau Islands , Bangka Belitung and Krakatoa archipelago . Sumatra is an elongated landmass spanning
1680-538: Is one of the most polluted regions in the world. The heavy contamination of the air, ground and water with toxic pollutants is often used as an example of ecocide. Damage to the Amazon has widely been described by indigenous groups, human rights groups, politicians, academics and journalists as an ecocide and a genocide . Indigenous chiefs and human rights organizations have submitted an Article 15 communication against former president of Brazil Jair Bolsonaro to
1764-515: Is the destruction of the environment by humans. Ecocide threatens all human populations who are dependent on natural resources for maintaining ecosystems and ensuring their ability to support future generations. The Independent Expert Panel for the Legal Definition of Ecocide describes it as "unlawful or wanton acts committed with knowledge that there is a substantial likelihood of severe and either widespread or long-term damage to
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#17327874952091848-583: Is the largest producer of Indonesian coffee . Small-holders grow Arabica coffee ( Coffea arabica ) in the highlands, while Robusta ( Coffea canephora ) is found in the lowlands. Arabica coffee from the regions of Gayo, Lintong and Sidikilang is typically processed using the Giling Basah (wet hulling) technique, which gives it a heavy body and low acidity. Sumatra is a highly seismic island. Huge earthquakes have been recorded throughout history. In 1797, an 8.9 earthquake shook Western Sumatra, and in 1833,
1932-529: The 2005 Nias–Simeulue earthquake and the 2010 Mentawai earthquake and tsunami . Lake Toba is the site of a supervolcanic eruption that occurred around 74,000 years ago, representing a climate-changing event. The most important rivers in Sumatra belong to the catchment area of the South China Sea . Heading north to south, the Asahan , Rokan , Siak , Kampar , Indragiri , Batanghari flow into
2016-404: The 2013 Southeast Asian haze which caused considerable tensions between Indonesia and affected countries Malaysia and Singapore . The widespread deforestation and other environmental destruction in Sumatra and other parts of Indonesia has often been described by academics as an ecocide . Several unconnected railway networks built during Netherlands East Indies exist in Sumatra, such as
2100-807: The Barisan Mountains in the west and swampy plains in the east. Sumatra is the closest Indonesian island to mainland Asia. To the southeast is Java , separated by the Sunda Strait . To the north is the Malay Peninsula (located on the Asian mainland), separated by the Strait of Malacca . To the east is Borneo , across the Karimata Strait . West of the island is the Indian Ocean . The Great Sumatran fault (a strike-slip fault), and
2184-648: The International Association of Penal Law in 2019 stated that "By 'ecocide' we should understand the loss, damage and destruction of ecosystems of a given territory, so that its enjoyment by the inhabitants has been or may be severely affected. This is a fifth category of crimes against peace, which should be recognised as such by the international community." He also stated that "sins against ecology" should be added to Catholic teachings. Environmentalist Jane Goodall supported ecocide being made an international crime, stating: "The concept of Ecocide
2268-638: The International Criminal Court for crimes against humanity and genocide for harm to Indigenous people and destruction of the Amazon. Another has been submitted for ecocide by indigenous chiefs. There has been extensive environmental damage caused by the ongoing Israeli invasion of the Gaza Strip (itself a part of the Israel–Hamas war ), including the destruction of agricultural land, displacement of people, bombing of Gaza ,
2352-510: The Israeli blockade , and famine in the Gaza Strip . By March 2024, nearly half of tree cover and farmland in Gaza had been destroyed. Israeli bombardment and the blockade have led to a total collapse of Gaza's civil infrastructure, including sewage treatment, waste disposal, water management, and fuel supplies. Water has been polluted by 130,000 cubic metres of sewage being discharged into
2436-665: The Krakatoa Archipelago , separates Sumatra from Java . The northern tip of Sumatra is near the Andaman Islands , while off the southeastern coast lie the islands of Bangka and Belitung, Karimata Strait and the Java Sea . The Bukit Barisan mountains, which contain several active volcanoes, form the backbone of the island, while the northeastern area contains large plains and lowlands with swamps, mangrove forest and complex river systems. The equator crosses
2520-532: The Malacca Strait , while the island's largest river, the Musi , flows into the sea at Bangka Strait in the south. To the east, big rivers carry silt from the mountains, forming the vast lowland interspersed by swamps. Even if mostly unsuitable for farming, the area is currently of great economic importance for Indonesia. It produces oil from both above and below the soil – palm oil and petroleum . Sumatra
2604-718: The Maldives called for ecocide to be added to the Statute. In June 2021, an international panel of lawyers submitted a definition of ecocide and proposed a draft amendment to the Rome Statute that would include ecocide among the international crimes prosecuted under the Statute. The panel included members from the UK, Senegal, the US, France, Ecuador, Bangladesh, Sierra Leone, Samoa and Norway, and their proposed definition is: For
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2688-616: The Rome Statute . It was originally planned to be included in the Rome Statute and supported by many states, but was removed due to objections by the United Kingdom , France and the United States of America . Ecocide has been made a national law in several countries with many more discussing implementing a law, including the European Union . Stop Ecocide International and others are working to enshrine ecocide into
2772-584: The Second World War , Japan invaded Sumatra in 1942. The Free Aceh Movement fought against Indonesian government forces in the Aceh Insurgency from 1976 to 2005. Security crackdowns in 2001 and 2002 resulted in several thousand civilian deaths. The island was heavily impacted by both the 1883 Krakatoa eruption and the 2004 Boxing Day Tsunami . Sumatra’s population as of 2023 was estimated to be about 60,795,669 ; it has about
2856-509: The Sumatran elephant , the Sumatran rhinoceros , and the Sumatran orangutan . Deforestation on the island has also resulted in serious seasonal smoke haze over neighbouring countries, such as the 2013 Southeast Asian haze which caused considerable tensions between Indonesia and affected countries Malaysia and Singapore . The widespread deforestation and other environmental destruction in Sumatra and other parts of Indonesia has often been described by academics as an ecocide . Sumatra
2940-577: The Sunda megathrust (a subduction zone ), run the entire length of the island along its west coast. On 26 December 2004, the western coast and islands of Sumatra, particularly Aceh province, were struck by a tsunami following the Indian Ocean earthquake . This was the longest earthquake recorded, lasting between 500 and 600 seconds (8.33–10 minutes). More than 170,000 Indonesians were killed, primarily in Aceh. Other recent earthquakes to strike Sumatra include
3024-703: The UK Supreme Court . In 2012, a concept paper on the Law of Ecocide was sent out to governments. In June 2012 the idea of making ecocide a crime was presented to legislators and judges from around the world at the World Congress on Justice Governance and Law for Environmental Sustainability, held in Mangaratiba before the Rio +20 Earth Summit . Making ecocide an international crime was voted as one of
3108-574: The United Nations ) restricts genocide to acts committed against the bodies of individual people. Some genocide researchers argue that this human rights framework does a disservice to colonised Indigenous people who experienced social death with the loss of relationship to their land but who were not always killed in the process of colonisation . The ongoing mass extinction of species has been called ecocide. US environmental theorist Patrick Hossay argues that modern industrial civilization
3192-493: The final individual of the subspecies was killed by a poacher in 2010. The aforementioned ecocides, bombings, and poaching and wildlife trafficking fuelled by the war from locals also furthered the declines of several other native Vietnamese species such as the Indochinese tiger , Asian elephant , Edward's pheasant , northern white-cheeked gibbon , and saola . Official US military records have listed figures including
3276-479: The 13th century. In terms of economic development the port of Banda Aceh only started to face competition in the 18th century when more ports were constructed in Sumatra for maritime transport . Nevertheless, major pepper suppliers used the port of Banda Aceh at the beginning of the 19th century. The port in Medan grew swiftly in the late 19th and early 20th century. Meanwhile the medium sized port of Palembang faced
3360-489: The 1972 UN Conference on the Human Environment , Swedish Prime Minister Olof Palme described the damage caused by defoliant Agent Orange in the Vietnam War as ecocide and called for it to be made an international crime. United Nations Secretary-General Antonio Guterres said in 2017 that it is "highly desirable" to include ecocide as a crime at the International Criminal Court. Pope Francis in his address to
3444-1250: The 2010 census (including Riau Islands , Bangka Belitung , Nias , Mentawai , Simeulue and islands around it) There are over 52 languages spoken, all of which (except Chinese and Tamil) belong to the Malayo-Polynesian branch of the Austronesian language family. Within Malayo-Polynesian, they are divided into several sub-branches: Chamic (which are represented by Acehnese in which its closest relatives are languages spoken by Ethnic Chams in Cambodia and Vietnam), Malayic ( Malay , Minangkabau and other closely related languages), Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands ( Batak languages , Gayo and others), Lampungic (includes Proper Lampung and Komering ) and Bornean (represented by Rejang in which its closest linguistic relatives are Bukar Sadong and Land Dayak spoken in West Kalimantan and Sarawak ( Malaysia )). Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands and Lampungic branches are endemic to
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3528-582: The 54th session of the Human Rights Council, Volker Türk , United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights supported ecocide being made a crime at national and international levels. Stop Ecocide International (SEI) is an organisation which advocates amending the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court to include ecocide. It works with governments, politicians, diplomats and wider society. The organisation has branches or associate groups in almost 50 countries. SEI's sister organisation,
3612-477: The 6th and 7th centuries AD. At the beginning and end of the 13th century the formation of the kingdom, the king of the Samudra kingdom had converted to Islam. Marco Polo visited the island in 1292, and his fellow Italian Odoric of Pordenone in 1321. Aceh in the north of Sumatra became known in the 16th century as trading centre for the pepper trade by shipping quality piperaceae ( pepper ). Aceh became
3696-608: The EU for products derived from ecocidal activities. Three members of the European Parliament, Keith Taylor , Eva Joly , and Jo Leinen , publicly gave the first signatures. The initiative did not collect the 1 million signatures needed, but was discussed in the European Parliament. In December 2019 at the 18th session of the Assembly of States Parties to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Vanuatu and
3780-634: The Environment was formed at the conference, and a draft Ecocide Convention was submitted into the United Nations in 1973. This convention called for a treaty that would define and condemn ecocide as an international war crime, recognising that "man has consciously and unconsciously inflicted irreparable damage to the environment in times of war and peace." The International Law Commission 1978 Yearbook's ' Draft articles on State Responsibility and International Crime ' included: "an international crime (which) may result, inter alia, from: (d)
3864-565: The Indonesian government announced a plan to protect Sumatra's remaining forests. The island includes more than 10 national parks, including three which are listed as the Tropical Rainforest Heritage of Sumatra World Heritage Site – Gunung Leuser National Park , Kerinci Seblat National Park and Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park . The Berbak National Park is one of three national parks in Indonesia listed as
3948-435: The Legal Definition of Ecocide, convened by Stop Ecocide Foundation describes ecocide as "unlawful or wanton acts committed with knowledge that there is a substantial likelihood of severe and either widespread or long-term damage to the environment being caused by those acts". Ecocide may occur with or without intent. Environmental lawyer Polly Higgins distinguishes between ascertainable and non-ascertainable ecocide, with
4032-686: The Portuguese throughout the 16th and 17th century. When the Dutch were weakened in the 18th century the British empire began to actively intervene in Aceh, establishing close relations between Banda Aceh and Penang . In the 17th and 18th century the Aceh Sultanate battled the Siak sultanate in the south of Sumatra. The port city of Banda Aceh was recorded in European historical writings since
4116-589: The Promotion and Protection of Human Rights on the prevention and punishment of genocide was prepared by then Special Rapporteur , Benjamin Whitaker . The report contained a passage that Some members of the Sub-Commission have, however, proposed that the definition of genocide should be broadened to include cultural genocide or "ethnocide", and also "ecocide": adverse alterations, often irreparable, to
4200-563: The Riau Islands, Nias and the Bangka-Belitung group), it now covers ten of Indonesia's 38 provinces , which are set out below with their areas and populations. The longest axis of the island runs approximately 1,790 km (1,110 mi) northwest–southeast, crossing the equator near the centre. At its widest point, the island spans 435 km (270 mi). The interior of the island is dominated by two geographical regions:
4284-660: The Rome Statute, making it both international law and national law in member states' national law. Several countries have supported criminalising ecocide in international law, including Fiji , Niue , the Solomon Islands , Tuvalu , Tonga and Vanuatu . Ecocide is a common theme in fiction with many films and books set in a post-ecocide world, including the James Cameron's Avatar films , Blade Runner , Mad Max , WALL-E , Interstellar , Threads and Soylent Green . The Independent Expert Panel for
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#17327874952094368-841: The Stop Ecocide Foundation convened the Independent Expert Panel for the Legal Definition of Ecocide. The concept of ecocide originated in the 1970s after the United States devastated the environment in Vietnam through use of Agent Orange during the Vietnam War . The word was first recorded at the Conference on War and National Responsibility in Washington DC, where American plant biologist and bioethicist Arthur Galston proposed
4452-404: The U.S. Air Force. They were used to defoliate large parts of the countryside to prevent the Viet Cong from being able to hide weaponry and encampments under the foliage, and to deprive them of food. Defoliation was also used to clear sensitive areas, including base perimeters and possible ambush sites along roads and canals. More than 20% of South Vietnam's forests and 3.2% of its cultivated land
4536-411: The concrete and direct overall military advantage anticipated. The UN's International Law Commission (ILC) considered the inclusion of the crime of ecocide to be included within the Draft Code of Crimes Against the Peace and Security of Mankind, the document which later became the Rome Statute . Article 26 (crime against the environment) was publicly supported by 19 countries in the Legal Committee but
4620-426: The country's land area, down from 87% in 1950. Since the 1970s, log production, various plantations and agriculture have been responsible for much of the deforestation in Indonesia . Most recently, it has been driven by the palm oil industry, which has been criticised for its environmental impact and displacement of local communities. The widespread deforestation (and other environmental destruction) in Indonesia
4704-422: The crime among those prosecuted by the International Criminal Court established by the Rome Statute . These crimes include genocide , crimes against humanity , war crimes and the crime of aggression . In 2010, environmental lawyer Polly Higgins submitted a proposal to the United Nations International Law Commission that defined ecocide as: The extensive damage to, destruction of or loss of ecosystems of
4788-467: The destruction of 20% of the jungles of South Vietnam and 20-36% (with other figures reporting 20-50%) of the mangrove forests. The environmental destruction caused by this defoliation has been described by Swedish Prime Minister Olof Palme , lawyers, historians and other academics as an ecocide. Based on a preliminary assessment the Russian invasion of Ukraine has inflicted USD 51 billion in environmental damage in both territories. According to
4872-615: The disaster, four square kilometres (1.5 sq mi) of pine forest directly downwind of the reactor turned reddish-brown and died, earning the name of the " Red Forest ". Some animals in the worst-hit areas also died or stopped reproducing. The disaster has been described by lawyers, academics and journalists as an example of ecocide. The effects of oil exploration in the fragile region of Niger Delta communities and environment have been vast. Local indigenous people have seen little improvement in their standard of living while suffering serious damage to their natural environment. Some of
4956-419: The environment and 15 incidents of ecocide (a crime in Ukraine). Zelenskyy and Ukraine's prosecutor general Andriy Kostin have met with prominent European figures ( Margot Wallstrom , Heidi Hautala , Mary Robinson and Greta Thunberg ) to discuss the environmental damage and how to prosecute it. Indonesia has one of the world's fastest deforestation rates. In 2020, forests covered approximately 49.1% of
5040-447: The environment being caused by those acts". Common causes of ecocide include war, pollution, over-exploitation of natural resources such as the Amazon rainforest , and industrial disasters. The term was popularised by Olof Palme when he accused the United States of ecocide at the 1972 UN Conference on the Human Environment . There is currently no international crime of ecocide that applies in peacetime, only in wartime, covered by
5124-423: The environment – for example through nuclear explosions, chemical weapons, serious pollution and acid rain, or destruction of the rain forest – which threaten the existence of entire populations, whether deliberately or with criminal negligence. Discussion of international crimes continued in the International Law Commission in 1987, where it was proposed that "the list of international crimes include "ecocide", as
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#17327874952095208-406: The former having a clear human cause while the latter does not. An example of non-ascertainable ecocide is destruction due to extreme weather events related to climate change. Arthur H. Westing discussed the element of intent in relation to ecocide, stating that "Intent may not only be impossible to establish without admission but, I believe, it is essentially irrelevant." Ecocide can threaten
5292-509: The hazardous damage of oil and gas exploration in the ecosystem are life threatening which includes Air pollution, Water pollution, Noise pollution etc. Affecting the aquatic lives, human health, also leads to deforestation. According to Nigerian federal government figures, there were more than 7,000 oil spills between 1970 and 2000. It has been estimated that a clean-up of the region, including full restoration of swamps, creeks, fishing grounds and mangroves , could take 25 years. The Niger Delta
5376-414: The island at its centre in West Sumatra and Riau provinces. The climate of the island is tropical , hot, and humid. Lush tropical rain forest once dominated the landscape. Sumatra has a wide range of plant and animal species but has lost almost 50% of its tropical rainforest in the last 35 years. Many species are now critically endangered , such as the Sumatran ground cuckoo , the Sumatran tiger ,
5460-509: The island. Like all parts of Indonesia, Indonesian (which was based on Riau Malay) is the official language and the main lingua franca. Although Sumatra has its own local lingua franca, variants of Malay like Medan Malay and Palembang Malay are popular in North and South Sumatra, especially in urban areas. Minangkabau (Padang dialect) is popular in West Sumatra, some parts of North Sumatra, Bengkulu, Jambi and Riau (especially in Pekanbaru and areas bordered with West Sumatra ) while Acehnese
5544-413: The main commercial centre of the Aceh Sultanate and trading routes were established to the Mediterranean via the Red Sea to rival the Portuguese shipping lanes . The reign of Iskandar Muda is known as the golden age of Sumatra because he extended the cultural influence of the Aceh Sultanate to Padang and Johor . The Aceh Sultanate sustained the rivalry with the Johor sultanate , the Dutch, and
5628-624: The means of destruction, damage or injury to any other State Party." There is no definition of the terms 'widespread, long-lasting or severe'. In February 2024, the European Parliament adopted a law making large-scale, intentionally caused, environmental damage “comparable to ecocide” a crime that can be punished by up to 10 years in prison. Members of the states of the European Union have two years from that date to incorproate their crime into their national laws. As of early 2024, there are growing calls to recognize ecocide as an international crime. Efforts to criminalise ecocide have sought to include
5712-405: The milestone of Kepaksian Sekala Brak in the 13th century AD with the Dalom building. At the same time, the spread of Islam in Indonesia occurred gradually and indirectly, starting from the western regions such as the Sumatra area which became the first place for the spread of Islam in the archipelago, then Java, then to the eastern regions of Indonesia, Sulawesi and Maluku. The island of Sumatra
5796-432: The name for the entire island. By the year 692 , the Melayu Kingdom was absorbed by Srivijaya . Srivijaya's influence waned in the 11th century, specifically in the year 1025, after suffering defeat at the hands of the Chola Empire in southern India By the end of the 12th century, Srivijaya had been reduced to a kingdom, and its dominant role in South Sumatra ended with the last king, Ratu Sekekhummong, who founded
5880-405: The natural environment on a massive scale breach a duty of care owed to humanity in general. He proposed that such breaches, where deliberate, reckless or negligent, be identified as ecocide where they entail serious, and extensive or lasting, ecological damage ; international consequences; and waste . In 2011, the Hamilton Group drafted a mock Ecocide Act and then tested it via a mock trial in
5964-416: The nearby Mentawai Islands . There are about 300 freshwater fish species in Sumatra. There are 93 amphibian species in Sumatra, 21 of which are endemic to Sumatra. The Sumatran tiger , Sumatran rhinoceros , Sumatran elephant , Sumatran ground cuckoo , Sumatran orangutan and Tapanuli orangutan are all critically endangered, indicating the highest level of threat to their survival. In October 2008,
6048-706: The ones connecting Banda Aceh - Lhokseumawe - Besitang - Medan - Tebingtinggi - Pematang Siantar - Rantau Prapat in Northern Sumatra (the Banda Aceh-Besitang section was closed in 1971, but is currently being rebuilt). Padang - Solok - Bukittinggi in West Sumatra , and Bandar Lampung - Palembang - Lahat - Lubuklinggau in Southern Sumatra. Ecocide Ecocide (from Greek oikos "home" and Latin cadere "to kill")
6132-616: The purpose of this Statute, "ecocide" means unlawful or wanton acts committed with knowledge that there is a substantial likelihood of severe and either widespread or long-term damage to the environment being caused by those acts. Many notable people have publicly supported ecocide being made a crime at the International Criminal Court. Several world leaders, environmentalists and celebrities have publicly supported ecocide being made an international crime including Pope Francis , Antonio Guterres , Greta Thunberg , Fiamē Naomi Mataʻafa , Emmanuel Macron , Jane Goodall and Paul McCartney . At
6216-503: The relationship between India and the Indonesian archipelago. In the late 13th century, Marco Polo referred to the kingdom as Samara , while his contemporary fellow Italian traveller Odoric of Pordenone used the form Sumoltra . Later in the 14th century the local form "Sumatra" became popular abroad due to the rising power of the kingdom of Samudera Pasai and the subsequent Sultanate of Aceh . From then on, subsequent European writers mostly used Sumatra or similar forms of
6300-578: The root causes of the climate crisis . While ecocide is recognised as a crime in a small number of countries, many examples of environmental destruction have been described as ecocides by academics, journalists, politicians and others. One of the most controversial aspects of the U.S. military effort in Southeast Asia was the widespread use of chemical defoliants between 1961 and 1971. 20 million gallons of toxic herbicides (like Agent Orange ) were sprayed on 6 million acres of forests and crops by
6384-473: The same number of inhabitants as South Africa , making it the fifth-most populous island in the world . Yet because it is such a large island, it is not densely populated: it has an average of about 126 people per km . The largest indigenous ethnic groups in Sumatra are Malays, Minangkabaus, Bataks, Acehnese, and Lampungs. Other major non-indigenous ethnic groups are Javanese , Sundanese , and Chinese . Below are 11 largest ethnic groups in Sumatra based on
6468-549: The sea every day due to Israel cutting off fuel supplies. Groundwater has been contaminated by toxins and munitions and air has been polluted by smoke and particulates from bombing. Soils have been degraded by uprooting trees and contaminated by toxins, munitions, heavy bombing and demolitions. Bombing by the Israeli army has created 37 million tonnes of debris and hazardous material, much of which contains human remains and tens of thousands of bombs. In June 2024, northern Gaza
6552-541: The tenth through thirteenth centuries, in reference to a kingdom near modern-day Banda Aceh which was the first landfall for traders. The island has also been known by other names, including Andalas or Percha Island . Scholars suggest that mention of Suwarnadwipa in the Hindu Epic the Ramayana may be a reference to Sumatra. According to experts on The Ramayana , the epic is one of the first sources to document
6636-500: The use of explosive weapons has left "millions of tonnes" of contaminated debris in cities and towns. In early June 2023, the Kakhovka Dam , under Russian occupation, was damaged , causing flooding and triggering warnings of an ″ecological disaster.″ The Ukrainian government, international observers and journalists have described the damage as ecocide. The Ukrainian government is investigating more than 200 war crimes against
6720-449: Was described as a "wasteland", unable to sustain life. There is no international law against ecocide that applies in peacetime, but the Rome Statute makes it a crime to Intentionally launch an attack in the knowledge that such attack will cause incidental loss of life or injury to civilians or damage to civilian objects or widespread, long-term and severe damage to the natural environment which would be clearly excessive in relation to
6804-506: Was known in ancient times by the Sanskrit names of Svarṇadvīpa ('Island of Gold') and Svarṇabhūmi ('Land of Gold'), because of the gold deposits in the island's highlands . The earliest known mention of the current form "Sumatra" was in 1017, when the local king Haji Sumatrabhumi ("king of the land of Sumatra") sent an envoy to China . Arab geographers referred to the island as Lamri ( Lamuri , Lambri or Ramni ) in
6888-670: Was removed due to opposition from the Netherlands , the United Kingdom and the United States of America . In 1977 the United Nations adopted the Convention on the Prohibition of Military or any other Hostile use of Environmental Modification Technique . Article I of this Convention says, "Each State Party to this Convention undertakes not to engage in military or any other hostile use of environmental modification techniques having widespread, long-lasting or severe effects as
6972-587: Was sprayed at least once. 90% of herbicide use was directed at forest defoliation. The chemicals used continue to change the landscape, cause diseases and birth defects, and poison the food chain. Agent Orange in combination with bombings and poaching by locals for their erroneously valued horns led to the extinction of the Vietnamese Javan rhinoceros , reducing the population to 12 or less individuals in Cát Tiên National Park where
7056-561: Was to create a duty of care to mitigate or prevent naturally occurring disasters as well as creating criminal responsibility for human-caused ecocide. The proposal has yet to be accepted by the United Nations. On 22 January 2013, a committee of eleven citizens from nine European Union countries launched the " European Citizens Initiative (ECI) to End Ecocide in Europe". The initiative aimed at criminalizing ecocide and investments in activities causing ecocide, as well as denying market access to
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