Misplaced Pages

#871128

111-512: The earliest surviving commentary written on the work is that of the 10th-century Kashmiri scholar Vallabhadeva . The most popular and widely available commentary, however, is the Sanjivani , written by Mallinatha (ca.1350–1450). The Raghuvaṃśa is a mahākāvya (roughly, epic poem ) containing 1564 stanzas. It describes the line of kings of the Raghu dynasty (also known as the sūryavaṃśa or

222-496: A dakṣiṇā , had a Svayaṃvara, but chose instead to live in the forest and embrace ascetism. Subhadrā's situation was also discussed in the context of Svayaṃvara, with Kṛṣṇa advising Arjuna to abduct (elope) her rather than rely on a traditional Svayaṃvara. Additionally, Devikā and Vijayā chose Yudhiṣṭhira and Sahadeva in their respective Svayaṃvara, while Bhīma won Valandharā 's hand in marriage at her Vīryaśulkā . The daughter of King Citrāngada of Kaliṅga , rejects

333-415: A "Mallinathi", it means that Mr. Y has been speaking for far too long. Svayamvara Svayaṃvara ( Sanskrit : स्वयंवर lit.   ' self-choice ' ) is a matrimonial tradition in ancient Indian society where a bride, usually from Kṣatriya (warrior) caste, selects her husband from a group of assembled suitors either by her own choice or a public contest between her suitors. This practice

444-548: A Svayaṃvara in the traditional sense, this story reflects a different form of marriage, where the woman takes the initiative, showing a variation on the theme of marriage choice. Scholars note that Svayaṃvara is conspicuously absent from the traditional lists of eight marriage types in the Dharmaśāstra , such as the Manusmṛti , though a version of it is described in the texts. Brockington also comments that absence of Svayaṃvara in

555-558: A biography of Mallinātha in verse. Mallinātha is well known as a commentator who has written glosses on the Classical epics of the Sanskrit canon, besides his commentaries on Śāstric works. His Sanjivani commentary on Meghasandesa is the most popular one. He is also known as a poet, a fact which is rather unknown, though the names of his creative compositions are known to the scholars of Sanskrit literature. Source: The following

666-419: A clear indication of his divine favor and destiny as the upholder of dharma. Following Rāma’s success, King Janaka was overjoyed and immediately offered Sītā to Rāma. However, Rāma, in adherence to the cultural norms of the time, sought the permission of his father, King Daśaratha of Ayodhyā, before accepting Sītā as his wife. Once Daśaratha gave his consent, the marriage was arranged with great ceremony, marking

777-461: A grand public event but rather a legal provision that allows a maiden the right to choose her husband if her father or guardian fails to arrange her marriage within a specified period after she reaches puberty. This period, as outlined in various Smṛtis such as the Manusmṛti and Yājñavalkya Smṛti , is generally three years or three menstrual cycles. Sternbach explains that this provision underscores

888-754: A husband independently, without a formal ceremony, the term "Svayaṃvara" is not used—such as in the case of Sāvitrī choosing Satyavan. The term appears 52 times in the Mahābhārata and only 6 times in the Rāmāyaṇa . The term is predominantly used in the Ādiparvan of the Mahābhārata and the Araṇyakāṇḍa of the Rāmāyaṇa , both of which experienced substantial expansion during the later epic phase. Thus, according to John L Brockington, "the term seems to belong not so much to

999-411: A later addition, is structurally essential to the epic, setting the stage for the conflicts and alliances that drive the narrative. Damayantī ’s Svayaṃvara is another prominent instance in the Mahābhārata . Her story is distinct within the epic because it involves not just one, but two Svayaṃvaras , illustrating that Svayaṃvaras could be held more than one time for a bride. Textual references in

1110-479: A place or purpose, Ambā returns to Hastināpura, only to be refused by Bhīṣma, who tells her that she cannot marry Vicitravīrya after having declared her love for another man. This event leads Amba to vow revenge against Bhīṣma, which becomes a significant subplot in the Mahābhārata . The Svayaṃvaras of the Kāśī princesses, particularly Ambā, are pivotal in the Mahābhārata . Ambā's confusion about whether her Svayaṃvara

1221-440: A prestigious family was essential because such alliances legitimised claims to land, political power, and further connections. The svayaṃvara ceremony, although appearing to grant the woman agency in choosing her husband, was structured to fit patriarchal norms; it was essentially a ritual in which the woman was ‘gifted’ in marriage. This ceremony underscored the role of the kṣatriya as a primary giver of gifts. According to scholars,

SECTION 10

#1732776312872

1332-544: A rigorous contest to determine Draupadī’s future husband. The central challenge involves a massive bow that must be strung and used to shoot an arrow at a revolving target while looking at its reflection in water kept beneath—a task requiring extraordinary strength, precision, and focus. The event attracts princes and warriors from across the land, including the Kauravas , Karṇa , and the Pandavas (who are in disguise). Among

1443-453: A series of misfortunes that lead Nala to abandon Damayantī, she is left heartbroken and alone. Believing Nala to be dead, and faced with the prospect of life without him, Damayantī decides to organize another Svayaṃvara . However, this time, the purpose is not merely to find a new husband but to uncover whether Nala is still alive. The conditions she sets for this Svayaṃvara are such that only Nala, disguised as Bahuka, can fulfill them. During

1554-551: A son. He returns with his queen to his capital. Queen Sudakshina gives birth to a baby boy who is named Raghu. The boy's childhood and education are described. When his father the king Dilipa performs the Ashvamedha yajña and the god Indra captures his wandering horse, Raghu fights Indra who is impressed with him. His father crowns him king, and retires to the forest. The reign of Raghu is described. He sets out in all four directions to conquer, and in this chapter much of India

1665-604: A young sage, was chosen by Princess Kamadhyu during her svayaṃvara ceremony. However, envious suitors attacked the couple as they returned to Vimada’s home. Vimada then invoked the Ashvins, who intervened to save them. Chatterjee suggests that this instance of svayaṃvara bears a striking resemblance to those found in the epics. The Mahābhārata , with its extensive narrative scope, features numerous instances of Svayaṃvara , predominantly associated with female protagonists of noble lineage. Svayaṃvara appears approximately 23 times in

1776-402: Is derived from Sanskrit , where it is composed of two parts: "s vayam " (स्वयम्) meaning "self" and "v ara " (वर) meaning "choice" or "desire." Therefore, the term literally translates to "self-choice". The term "Svayaṃvara" specifically refers to the formal ceremony of selecting a groom in the Sanskrit epics. It's important to note that in certain significant instances where the bride chooses

1887-561: Is described. Just after Raghu has performed a sacrifice and given away all his wealth, a freshly graduated student named Kautsa arrives and asks him for an immense amount of wealth, to give as guru-dakshina to his teacher. To grant his wish, Raghu resolves to go to war against the god of wealth Kubera himself, and just as he resolves to do so, Kubera rains a shower of gold to fill his treasury. Both Raghu, who presses on Kautsa much more than he asked, and Kautsa, who accepts nothing more than what he needs to repay his teacher, win praise from all

1998-471: Is driven by love and personal conviction. Secondly, the involvement of the gods in her first Svayaṃvara underscores the theme of divine intervention in human affairs, a common motif in the Mahābhārata; but unlike other instances, the gods are treated as antagonists in her story. Thirdly, the second Svayaṃvara demonstrates Damayantī's resourcefulness and determination. Faced with the possibility of losing her husband forever, she takes active steps to uncover

2109-520: Is mainly featured in the two major Sanskrit epics, the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa , though its prevalence and portrayal vary significantly between them. Origins of Svayaṃvara can be traced back to the Vedic period and few scholars suggest that it emerged from the Gāndharva marriage tradition , diverging from more ritualistic and arranged forms of marriage, and developed as a narrative device within

2220-406: Is not an evolution from an earlier concept of self-choice granted to women, but rather a distinct form that developed during the epic period of Hinduism , possibly having Indo-European roots. Hopkins also believes that the svayaṃvara may have supplanted an earlier kṣatriya practice of bride abduction, a custom that could occur with or without the bride’s consent. According to Hartmut Scharfe, if

2331-520: Is not only integral to the plot but also symbolizes unity and shared responsibility among the brothers. The significance of Draupadī’s Svayaṃvara extends far beyond the mere act of marriage. It acts as a pivotal catalyst for the myriad conflicts that propel the Mahābhārata' s narrative. This event intensifies the resentment of the Kauravas and Karṇa towards the Pandavas, laying the groundwork for

SECTION 20

#1732776312872

2442-530: Is presented differently in various parts of the Rāmāyaṇa , leading to inconsistencies. Specifically, Robert Goldman points out that while Sītā herself refers to her marriage as a Svayaṃvara in the Ayodhyākāṇḍa, the earlier Bālakāṇḍa presents the event with different details, with the Bālakāṇḍa focusing more on the heroic aspect of the contest and the Ayodhyākāṇḍa presenting a more romanticized and dhārmic version of

2553-404: Is required to make a presence before his subjects, he merely hangs his left foot out of a window. This canto serves as contrast to the earlier cantos describing glorious kings. He is consumed by disease and dies. His pregnant queen mounts the throne, and the people hope for a better future. The warrior Raghu leads a military expedition to Transoxiana . He defeats and subjugates local people along

2664-455: Is seen as an early and exceptional form, possibly reflecting an older tradition of more genuine female autonomy in marriage choices. This episode may reflect the Dharmaśāstra influence, where Svayaṃvara becomes a regulated means to ensure matrimonial compliance, diverging from the valor-centric Kṣatriya tradition. The Harivaṃśa is a significant Sanskrit text that serves as an appendix to

2775-475: Is still known for the cultivation of walnuts. The epic is composed in 21 Sanskrit metres, namely Anuṣṭubh , Indravajrā, Upajāti, Upendravajrā, Aupacchandasika, Toṭaka, Drutavilambita, Puṣpitāgrā, Praharṣiṇī, Mañjubhāṣiṇī, Mattamayūra, Mandākrāntā , Mālinī, Rathoddhatā, Vaṃśastha, Vasantatilakā, Vaitālīya, Śārdūlavikrīḍita, Śālinī, Svāgatā, Hariṇī. The Raghuvaṃśa has been published and translated many times. Mallin%C4%81tha S%C5%ABri Mallinātha Sūri

2886-539: Is the list of his commentaries on the Classical Epics of Sanskrit: The following is the list of his commentaries on Śāstric works: Sushil Kumar De notes that Mallinātha's commentary on Meghaduta was the most well known commentary. Interestingly, in the Marathi Language, there is a word 'Mallinathi', which means 'a long monologue' spoken by somebody. For example, if a Mr. X says a Mr. Y is doing

2997-403: Is visited by the deity of the now-abandoned city Ayodhya, who begs him to return to it. He does so, and there he marries Kumudvati. Kusha's son is Atithi, and his reign is described. The dynasty continues, with a line of twenty one kings who succeeded Atithi. The last described king, Agnivarna, gives in to a hedonistic life of pleasure, leaving the kingdom to his ministers to run. Even when he

3108-403: The kṣatriya class, saw the svayaṃvara evolve into a competitive event, where the bride's choice was frequently influenced by a contest of skill or valour among suitors. Brockington adds a subsequent phase that developed after the contest style, placing greater emphasis on the bride's agency and romantic ideals, as well as Dharmashastra's ordinance to marry. The Sanskrit Dharmashastras ,

3219-582: The Ādiparvan (Book of Beginnings) and the Udyogaparvan (Book of Effort). The Kāśī princesses are expected to choose their husbands in their joint ceremony. Bhīṣma , the grand-uncle of the Kuru princes, attends the Svayaṃvara on behalf of his younger brother Vicitravīrya , who is too young and inexperienced to win a bride in combat. At the Svayaṃvara , Bhīṣma overpowers all the suitors and forcibly takes

3330-665: The Ādiparvan (the first book of the Mahābhārata ), 15 times in the Vanaparvan , 6 times in the Udyogaparvan , 3 times in the Dronaparvan , 2 times in the Sāntiparvan , and 1 time each in the Sabha , Bhīṣmaparvan , and Anusāsanaparvans . Draupadī’s Svayaṃvara is the most famous instance in the Mahābhārata . Textual references in the Mahābhārata provide a detailed account of this event. The Ādiparvan describes

3441-550: The Mahābhārata provide a detailed account of Damayantī’s Svayaṃvara . The episodes involving her first Svayaṃvara , her interactions with the gods, and her recognition of Nala are found in the Vana Parva (Mbh. 3.51-62), while the second Svayaṃvara and her reunion with Nala are described in the later sections of the same parva (Mbh. 3.68-72). The first Svayaṃvara of Damayantī is organized by her father, King Bhīma, after he becomes aware of her deep affection for Nala,

Raghuvaṃśa - Misplaced Pages Continue

3552-697: The Mahābhārata , providing additional details about the lives of the Yādava dynasty and the divine aspects of the Kṛṣṇa's life. It expands upon and complements the main narrative of the Mahābhārata by offering enriched stories and supplementary episodes, thus playing a crucial role in the development of the epic's overarching themes and characters. In the Harivamśa , the portrayal of Svayaṃvara reveals an evolving narrative that emphasizes female autonomy. The text provides accounts of two significant Svayaṃvaras involving members of

3663-485: The Svayaṃvara of Sāvitrī, along with Damayantī, as one of the more unusual and poignant instances of this practice, primarily because it closely adheres to the literal meaning of Svayaṃvara—self-choice—rather than the more common contest-based selection of a husband seen in other instances. In the story, when Savitrī, the renowned daughter of King Aśvapati of Mādra , reaches marriageable age, no suitor comes forward to ask for her hand, intimidated by her divine qualities and

3774-459: The Svayaṃvara through hearsay, introduces a personal and emotional dimension, shifting from traditional heroic ideals to a more individualistic and romantic view. Brockington views this Svayaṃvara as a transitional phase in the portrayal of Svayaṃvaras , contrasting with Draupadī’s focus on martial prowess. The narrative of the Kāśī princesses— Ambā , Ambikā , and Ambālikā —particularly appears in

3885-445: The bow of Śiva to win Sītā . The third type, Śauryaśulka Svayaṃvara , involved a contest or challenge for the bride’s hand, exemplified by Arjuna’s marriage to Draupadī . Svayamvara was conducted after a royal girl reached puberty, or attained maidenhood. In Sanskrit literature, the svayamvara follows a highly structured sequence, as outlined by Linguist Stephanie Jamison: While

3996-481: The svayamvara was also a potential source of conflict and violence in many cases, often placing the bride’s family in a precarious situation. Rejected suitors were sometimes hostile, and tales of retaliatory violence are prominent in epic and classical poetry. For example, after Indumatī’s svayamvara in Kālidāsa’s Raghuvaṃśa , suitors ambush the newlyweds, leading to a dramatic confrontation resolved only by

4107-430: The Ṛg Veda contains indirect references to Svayaṃvara through specific words and phrases that indicate the presence of this institution. One of the key terms she discusses is " vrá -", which she proposes might be a syncopated form of a feminine noun corresponding to the masculine "varū-", meaning "suitor" or "chooser." This term could refer to a "female chooser," implying a woman who selects her husband, which aligns with

4218-700: The Kṣatriya right to seize brides by force over the Svayaṃvara’s intended purpose. This reflects the tension between dharma and heroic ideals, with Bhīṣma’s actions having significant consequences for Amba, who later seeks revenge and becomes Śikhaṇḍī, playing a crucial role in Bhīṣma's death. Vanita Ruth discusses how Amba’s story illustrates the limitations of women’s agency and the tragic outcomes of male-dominated decisions and emphasizes how women were often treated as prizes in political and familial strategies. In addition to

4329-521: The Sanjīvani, it is known that Singabhūpāla honoured Mallinātha with the title of Mahāmahopādhyāya, and Mallinātha's younger son with the title of Mahopādhyāya. He had two sons, namely Peddibhatta and Kumaraswamin. Kolachalam Srinivasa Rao (1854-1919), a Telugu scholar of theatre, was a descendant of Mallinātha. Vinay Chandra Suri, perhaps a descendant of Mallinātha, wrote the Mallinātha Charita kavya,

4440-487: The Vedas, state that actual historical records of Svayaṃvara customs are rare, and they contend that by the early Common Era it functioned more as a literary device in the epics than as a commonly practiced tradition. In the epic narratives of the Mahābhārata and Rāmāyaṇa (c. 500 BCE–500 CE), the Svayaṃvara is depicted as a knightly, splendid, and festive ceremony, which, according to Indologist Edward W. Hopkins ,

4551-514: The Yādava dynasty. Rukmiṇī 's Svayaṃvara, found in Appendix 20, though unconventional, involved her being abducted by Kṛṣṇa, whom she had already chosen in her heart. Rukmi’s daughter (Rukmiṇī's niece) held a Svayaṃvara where she selected Pradyumna , Kṛṣṇa's son, as her husband. In contrast to the Mahābhārata , Svayaṃvara in the Rāmāyaṇa is less frequent, with the term appearing six times in

Raghuvaṃśa - Misplaced Pages Continue

4662-513: The allowance for a girl to choose her husband in the Manusmṛti to be a significant contradiction within a legal code otherwise intent on enforcing female dependence, and raises the question of why such independence would be granted under a system aimed at preserving women’s dependence. Professor Arti Dhand clarifies this question through the concepts of pravṛtti dharma and nivṛtti dharma . In this framework, pravṛtti dharma encourages active participation in worldly life, placing high importance on

4773-418: The bow by the "breadth of a hair". Arjuna, disguised as a Brahmin (priest caste), then takes up the challenge. Despite his incognito appearance, Arjuna's inherent skill and divine favor enable him to accomplish the task with ease. He successfully strings the bow and hits the target, winning Draupadī's hand in marriage. The victory of Arjuna, a Kṣatriya warrior disguised as a Brahmin, sparks outrage among

4884-439: The bridegroom’s strategic use of a magic arrow. Scholars also observe that, despite its literal meaning, most svayaṃvaras did not provide complete freedom of choice to the bride. According to Shakambari Jayal, svayaṃvara may have allowed for some degree of preference rather than full autonomy in choosing a spouse. According to Schmidt, despite the ceremony’s premise of self-choice, it is apparent in many literary accounts that

4995-415: The calf, accompanying it on its wanderings and protecting it from danger. One day a lion appears, and when Dilipa raises his hand to draw an arrow and protect the calf, he finds himself magically frozen. He begs the lion to take his own life instead of the calf's, even in the face of the lion's arguments against doing so, after which this is all revealed to be an illusion and Nandini grants him a boon of having

5106-437: The choice was sometimes predetermined or at least heavily influenced by the family. In agreement with Schmidt, Jamison warns that the term "svayamvara" misleadingly suggests the girl has independent control, whereas her autonomy is significantly restricted. The father manages the proceedings, including inviting suitors and determining their eligibility. Few svayamvaras genuinely allow for free choice; instead, they typically follow

5217-432: The competitors, Karṇa, known for his unmatched archery skills, steps forward to attempt the challenge. However, Draupadī, who is granted a degree of choice in the matter, rejects Karṇa, citing his low birth as a sūta (charioteer), though this scene is not universally agreed upon in various recensions of the text. There are variations regarding Karṇa's participation; many renditions of the text describe him failing to string

5328-403: The concept of Svayaṃvara . For example, Jamison analyzes the phrase " svayaṃ sā varūte " (she chooses for herself) as a possible underlying expression in the Ṛg Veda . Although this formula does not appear overtly in the text, Jamison argues that it might exist in a more subtle, encoded form, suggesting that the concept of a maiden choosing her own husband was known in Vedic society. One of

5439-511: The concept of choice (central to Svayaṃvara ) was so embedded in the culture that it could be creatively manipulated by the poets. Jamision also cites that the passage the wedding of Sarañyu , mentioned in Rigveda 10.17.1, is a clear example of Svayaṃvara . James Talboys Wheeler also recognised the presence of Svayaṃvaras in the Ṛg Veda, citing the example of Svayaṃvara of Sūryā and Vimada. Ancient scholar Sāyaṇa explains that Vimada,

5550-480: The conceptual foundation for the Svayaṃvara . This contrasts with other forms of marriage prevalent in ancient India, such as Arranged Marriage or Sacrificial Marriage. Shashtri further proposes that the development of svayaṃvaras unfolded in three phases—an early form akin to the gāndharva marriage, a second form endorsed by the Dharmashastras , and a third form which, aligning with the societal ideals of

5661-430: The cultural values of the time, particularly the emphasis on strength and valor in choosing a husband, as well as the father’s role in arranging marriages. The bow of Śiva, central to the contest, symbolizes the weight of dharma, which Rāma, as an avatar of Vishnu , is destined to uphold. Textual references from the Rāmāyaṇa underscore the significance of this event. Sītā, when recounting her marriage to Anasūyā later in

SECTION 50

#1732776312872

5772-537: The custom may have roots in the Indo-European tradition due to its similarity to the tale of Penelope and her many suitors in the Greek poem Odyssey . Alternatively, scholar Heramba Chatterjee Shashtri posits that Svayaṃvara possibly emerged from the Gāndharva form of marriage prevalent in ancient India. The Gāndharva marriage, which was based on mutual consent and romantic choice, might have provided

5883-493: The earliest, heroic phase of the epics' development as to the next, more aesthetically and even romantically motivated phase and in fact to have become much less common by the next phase again (that of the Śānti and Anusāsana parvans of the Mahābhārata and the Bāla and Uttara kāṇḍas of the Rāmāyaṇa ), with its more moral and religious emphasis". The origins of the Svayaṃvara are somewhat ambiguous, with scholars tracing

5994-617: The entire epic four in Ayodhyākāṇḍa , and one each in the Bālakāṇḍa and the Yuddhakāṇḍa . The Rāmāyaṇa emphasizes the moral and divine aspects of marriage, contrasting with the more martial and heroic portrayal in the Mahābhārata . Sītā’s Svayaṃvara is a critical event in the Rāmāyaṇa , narrated in the Ayodhyākāṇḍa of the text. Organized by King Janaka of Mithilā , the Svayaṃvara

6105-448: The epic svayaṃvara reflects an authentic tradition among kṣatriyas , it may have served as a mechanism for alleviating political pressures associated with marriage alliances. In a social class where marriages were commonly arranged to secure political alliances, often with limited consideration for the preferences of the bride, the svayaṃvara allowed the woman a degree of autonomy in choosing her husband. Alternatively, she might yield to

6216-434: The epic authors do not classify it as a "svayaṃvara." The portrayal of svayaṃvara in the Rāmāyaṇa , particularly regarding Sītā , shifts to a more religious and moral framework, emphasising the divinity of the protagonist Rāma . The concept of svayaṃvara continued to evolve in later Indian literature, often highlighting the bride’s autonomy or divine intervention. Stories such as those of Damayantī and Rukmiṇī , written in

6327-469: The epic, refers to it as a Svayaṃvara, emphasizing the traditional elements of choice and valor that defined the event (Rām. 2.110.47-52). Additionally, the description of the bow and the challenge it posed is detailed in the Bālakāṇḍa of the Rāmāyaṇa , where Janaka explicitly states that Sītā will marry only the man who can string the bow (Rām. 1.65-70). Scholars note that the account of Sītā’s Svayaṃvara

6438-464: The epics to highlight the heroism and valor of protagonists, aligning with the Kṣatriya ethos of competition and martial prowess. Despite being closely associated with the epics, Svayaṃvara is not list as a form of marriage in the Dharmaśāstra , a collection of Sanskrit texts on law and conduct. Due to this, Svayaṃvara is sometimes regarded as the ninth form of Hindu marriage. The term Svayaṃvara

6549-401: The event, Damayantī recognizes Nala despite his disguise, and it restores their marriage and reaffirms their bond. Damayantī’s Svayaṃvara is significant for several reasons. It is one of the rare instances in the Mahābhārata where the bride’s personal choice is crucial to the marriage. Unlike other Svayaṃvaras that emphasize the suitors' valor or the father's decision, Damayantī’s choice

6660-525: The events as they are narrated in the Bālakāṇḍa, indicating that the Rāmāyaṇa may have undergone textual evolution, with later additions or modifications affecting the consistency of the narrative. Another instance is the Svayaṃvara of the daughters of King Kuśanābha , mentioned in the Balakāṇḍa of the Rāmāyaṇa . When approached by the god Vāyu , the daughters refuse his advances, stating that their father will arrange their Svayaṃvara. This episode emphasizes

6771-411: The events. The word Svayaṃvara is never used in the Bālakāṇḍa; instead, the term "vīryaśulka" (prize of heroism) is repeatedly used to describe Sītā. This term contrasts with Sītā’s later description of her marriage as a Svayaṃvara in the Ayodhyākāṇḍa, where the emphasis is on her being given away by her father, Janaka. Goldman argues that Sītā's recounting in the Ayodhyākāṇḍa does not align perfectly with

SECTION 60

#1732776312872

6882-589: The evidence is too indirect and that the Ṛg Veda does not provide a clear picture of the Svayaṃvara as an established institution. He suggests that the Ṛg Vedic poets may have been more concerned with cosmic and symbolic themes than with depicting real social institutions. Schmidt proposed that though svayamvara is not present in the Vedas, but the custom reflects an older Indic custom with Indo-European parallels, particularly in Zoroastrian Iran. However, scholars such as Stephanie W. Jamison , suggest that

6993-527: The failed expectations of the Svayaṃvara and Śālva’s inability to win play significant roles in Amba’s misfortune, highlighting the limited autonomy of the princesses, who are portrayed as passive in their destinies. Scholarly assessments characterize this event as a violent assertion of power rather than a genuine Svayaṃvara where the bride has true choice. Bhīṣma’s actions disrupt the conventional contest among suitors, and he justifies his actions by prioritizing

7104-488: The father's role in deciding marriage, with the daughters showing obedience to patriarchal norms. This Svayaṃvara does not actually result in a contest but underscores the theme of parental control over marriage choices, contrasting with the supposed freedom of choice implied in the Svayaṃvara tradition. In the same section, the Rāmāyaṇa tells the tale of Somadā, a Gandharvī who persuades the sage Cūlina to marry her. While not

7215-548: The forest, during which a fatal hunting accident takes place: Dasharatha kills a boy, and is cursed by the boy's parents that he too will in old age die of grief for his son. These cantos 10 to 15 tell the story of the Ramayana , but the parts from Valmiki well known to Indian readers are abridged. The gods, tormented by Ravana , pray to Vishnu. Dasharatha performs a yajña and is blessed with four children: Rama, Lakshmana, Bharata and Shatrughna. Rama and Lakshmana accompany

7326-405: The forest. Indumati gives birth to a son Dasharatha . One day, Indumati is killed by a freak accident (when a garland of flowers falls on her), and Aja laments at length on losing her. He lives in grief for eight years till his son comes of age, then gives up his body and is reunited after death with his wife. The reign of King Dasharatha and his three queens is described. Once he goes hunting in

7437-521: The forest. She is devastated, but taken care of by the sage Valmiki. In the sage's hermitage, Sita gives birth to two sons Lava and Kusha, who grow up and are taught the Ramayana by Valmiki. As they grow into youths, they come into the presence of Rama, who learns they are his children, and then Sita chooses to be swallowed up by the earth, her mother. Rama divides the kingdom among his brothers and children, and himself ascends to heaven. One night, Kusha

7548-586: The hands of Rama. From Lanka, Rama and Sita return to Ayodhya in the Pushpaka Vimana , and as they fly through the air, Rama points out to Sita many points of interest on the ground. On their return to Ayodhya, Rama is crowned king, and their joy increases when Sita becomes pregnant. She expresses a wish to see the forest again. But on hearing that the people of the kingdom murmur about the queen's character, Rama after some internal struggle decides to exile his beloved wife. He asks Lakshmana to leave Sita in

7659-454: The idea of Svayaṃvara . The Ṛg Vedic poets often engage in formulaic play and metonymy, where different elements are substituted within a familiar formula. For example, in some hymns, the "chariot" of the Aśvins is chosen instead of the suitors themselves, indicating the close association between the vehicle and the husband in the wedding ritual. This kind of metonymic substitution suggests that

7770-430: The influence of local cultural contexts and the specific narrative priorities of diverse communities. For instance, some South Indian versions might place greater emphasis on divine intervention and Kṛṣṇa's role, whereas northern recensions may highlight different aspects. In certain versions, the focus might be on Draupadī’s autonomy and the implications of her marriage to the five Pandavas, while others might concentrate on

7881-660: The king of Nishadha . Damayantī, having heard of Nala's virtues and character through messengers, falls in love with him even before meeting him. Nala, equally enchanted by the descriptions of Damayantī, also desires to marry her. King Bhīma invites kings and princes from across the land to participate in the Svayaṃvara . Among the suitors are not only human princes but also several gods who have disguised themselves as Nala to win Damayantī’s hand. The gods include Indra , Agni , Varuṇa , and Yama , who, despite their divine status, are unable to sway Damayantī’s heart away from Nala. When

7992-462: The later phase of the epic era, illustrate a shift towards individual agency and romantic ideals. Svayamvara remained as a significant plot device in many classical and mediaeval literature such as Kālidāsa ’s Raghuvaṃśa and Chand Bardai 's Prithviraj Raso . Scholars tend to classify the self-choice ceremony in the Hindu literature into two broad categories: According scholar Vettam Mani ,

8103-401: The law books of Hinduism , such as the Manusmṛti (c. 1st century CE), permit a girl to choose her own husband if her father fails to arrange her marriage within three years after her first menses. Although this is very different from the ritualised and grand customs termed as "Svayaṃvaras," many scholars consider it as a sub-type of the custom, granted to girls of all castes. Jamison finds

8214-469: The list has led to the classification of it as the ninth form of marriage. P.V. Kane and Heramba Chatterjee suggest that the Svayaṃvara may have been a later addition to the canon of marriage practices, possibly arising from less formalized traditions like the Gāndharva marriage , a form of marriage recognized in Smṛti literature that is based on mutual consent and affection. Ludwik Sternbach explains that

8325-454: The most compelling pieces of evidence for the Svayaṃvara in the Ṛg Veda is found in the marriage of Sūryā, the daughter of the Sun. This myth, which is prominently featured in the Ṛg Vedic marriage hymn (X.85), serves as a divine model for human marriage and is often interpreted as reflecting a Svayaṃvara scenario. In this hymn, Sūryā is depicted as choosing her husband from among the gods, with

8436-453: The mythological and ritual symbolism of Draupadī’s Svayaṃvara , interpreting it as a key event that reinforces Draupadī’s central role in the cosmic and dharmic order of the epic. M.J. Kashalikar adds that different cultural and religious retellings, such as Jain texts , portray the Svayaṃvara with variations, reflecting diverse interpretations of her role. V.S. Sukthankar notes that few aspects of Draupadī’s Svayaṃvara , although potentially

8547-448: The ordinary Svayaṃvara in Smṛti literature is not a formalized or celebrated event as seen in epics but rather a legal provision that grants a maiden the right to choose her husband under specific circumstances. distinguishing it from the more celebrated and dramatic Svayaṃvaras depicted in ancient Indian epics. Sternbach identifies an "ordinary Svayaṃvara" within the Smṛti texts, which is not

8658-542: The ordinary Svayaṃvara is closely linked to this concept, reflecting similar values of personal choice and agency. However, the Smṛtis emphasize that this autonomy is exercised within limits, ensuring that the marriage conforms to societal norms. Sternbach further discusses how the Smṛtis provide practical guidelines on how a woman should proceed with her choice if she finds herself in this situation, including instructions on approaching

8769-400: The other suitors, particularly the Kauravas and Karṇa. Upon returning to their mother Kuntī with Draupadī, Arjuna and his brothers inadvertently place her in a situation where she becomes the common wife of all five Pandavas. This unusual marital arrangement, while rooted in a misunderstanding, is sanctioned by divine and scriptural reasoning within the epic. Draupadī’s marriage to the Pandavas

8880-450: The outcome of a skill-based competition, which relieved her father of the responsibility of choosing a suitor, thereby avoiding potential conflicts with powerful neighbouring rulers. In the epics, the grand Svayaṃvaras function as significant narrative devices leading to the marriages of several female protagonists. Brockington asserts that the original svayaṃvaras in these epics are centred on valour, such as Draupadi’s svayaṃvara, which

8991-516: The people. A son is born to Raghu and is named Aja, who grows into adulthood and goes to the svayamvara of princess Indumati. Many princes from all regions are at Indumati's svayamvara hoping to be chosen by her. Their qualities and kingdoms are described. Indumati passes by many of them, and finally chooses Aja. Aja is married to Indumati, but on his way home he is attacked by the disappointed rival princes. He defeats them all and returns home, at which his father Raghu crowns him king and retires to

9102-459: The poet's humility and the greatness of the dynasty, King Dilipa and his reign are described. Dilipa has one great sorrow, which is that he has no child. With his queen Sudakshina he journeys to the hermitage of the sage Vasiṣṭha , to seek his advice. Vasiṣṭha reveals that King Dilipa had once offended the divine cow Surabhi and has been cursed by her, and instructs him to care for her daughter calf, Nandini. The king spends his days in service of

9213-399: The political ramifications of the Svayaṃvara , especially in relation to the Kauravas. Scholars like J.L. Brockington and V.S. Sukthankar emphasize that Draupadī's Svayaṃvara is a quintessential example of the Kṣatriya ideal of heroism and valor. The contest where Arjuna wins Draupadī’s hand by hitting a target reflects the epic’s emphasis on martial prowess. Alf Hiltebeitel highlights

9324-574: The practical concerns of ensuring timely marriages and the importance of procreation in ancient Indian society, which viewed remaining unmarried as socially and religiously undesirable. In terms of conditions and restrictions, Sternbach notes that while the ordinary Svayaṃvara grants the maiden some autonomy, her choice is still governed by societal expectations. The Smṛtis require that the chosen husband be of equal caste and rank, blameless in character, and suitable in terms of family background, age, health, and other qualities. This ensures that even though

9435-529: The practice back to the early Vedic period (c. 1500–1100 BCE). Historian Hanns-Peter Schmidt suggests that its origins may lie in ancient Indic customs with parallels in Indo-European tradition , as seen in Zoroastrian Iran . In support of this, linguist Stephanie W. Jamison notes several indirect references to Svayaṃvara in the Ṛg Veda , the oldest Hindu scripture, and suggests that

9546-426: The preparation for the Svayaṃvara , the gathering of suitors, and the specific details of the contest (Mbh. 1.174-185). Draupadī herself refers to the event in later parts of the epic, indicating its lasting importance in her life and the broader story (Mbh. 2.62.4a). Draupadī is the daughter of King Drupada of Pāñcāla . King Drupada organizes a Svayaṃvara to find a suitable husband for his daughter. He sets up

9657-425: The previously listed more famous instances, several other instances of Svayaṃvara are attested in the Mahābhārata . Kuntī participated in a Svayaṃvara arranged by her father, where she chose Pāṇḍu as her husband out of the crowd of suitors. Devakī , the mother of Kṛṣṇa , had a Svayaṃvara that is mentioned in the epic, though details are sparse. Mādhavī , after being passed among various kings by Galava to fulfill

9768-420: The prince of Ayodhyā , at the Svayaṃvara marked a turning point in the event. Accompanied by his brother Lakṣmaṇa and the sage Viśvāmitra , Rāma stepped forward at Viśvāmitra’s encouragement. To the astonishment of everyone present, Rāma effortlessly lifted the bow, strung it, and broke it in half, thereby winning Sītā's hand in marriage. This act was not only a demonstration of Rāma’s physical strength but also

9879-405: The procreative potential of men and women. As Dhand explains, pravṛtti dharma seeks to maximise the reproductive capacity of individuals, revealing a driving logic behind the svayaṃvara: a practical emphasis on ensuring women’s marital and reproductive roles are fulfilled, particularly when their parents have neglected to arrange a timely marriage. Many scholars, though accepting its existence in

9990-412: The rivalry that ultimately leads to the great Kurukṣetra war . Moreover, Draupadī’s Svayaṃvara underscores profound themes of fate, dharma , and divine intervention in human affairs. Her marriage to the Pandavas is not just a personal union but a fulfillment of a destiny intricately shaped by her past life and divine will. The Svayaṃvara also varies significantly across different recensions, reflecting

10101-463: The sage Vishvamitra and kill the demon Tataka. They arrive at Mithila, where at the svayamvara of princess Sita, Rama strings and breaks the bow, and is married to her. On their way back to Ayodhya they encounter Parashurama , and Rama emerges victorious in this challenge. This canto narrates the story of most of the Ramayana (its kāṇda s 2 to 6) in short, ending with the death of Ravana in Lanka at

10212-676: The scarlet colour of their cheeks." After crossing the Oxus, Raghu and his army encountered the Kambojas , an ancient Indo-Scythian people often mentioned in Indian texts. The Kambojas submitted to Raghu and offered him gifts and treasures. Evidently, the Kambojas dwelt in the vicinity of the Pamirs . Kalidasa describes the preponderance of walnut trees in the Oxus country, this particular region

10323-456: The scripture Devī Bhāgavatapurāṇa classifies Svayaṃvara into three types. The first, Icchā Svayaṃvara , allowed the bride complete freedom to choose her husband based on her preference. It involved an assembly at which the bride-to-be simply chooses between her suitors, with Damayantī’s Svayaṃvara being a prime example. The second type, Savyavasthā Svayaṃvara , required the suitor to meet specific qualifications, such as Rāma drawing

10434-464: The solar dynasty) that includes Raghu. It is written in 19 sarga s (cantos), that can be regarded as being divided into three parts: The work begins with a prayer: vāgarthāviva saṁpṛktau vāgarthapratipattaye / jagataḥ pitarau vande pārvatīparameśvarau // To Parvati and Parameshvara, the parents of the world, who are united like word and meaning, I pray, for the gift of speech fit with appropriate meaning. After some stanzas expressing

10545-445: The suitor Duryodhana (antagonist of the epic) by walking past him. Despite her clear refusal, Duryodhana, driven by pride and with help from Karṇa , forcibly abducts her. This event is notable as it is the only instance in the Mahābhārata where a bride is taken against her will. Although not explicitly termed as Svayaṃvara, academics comment that the narrative of Sāvitrī 's marriage closely aligns with its principles. They discuss

10656-440: The svayamvara was not a marriage itself, it marked the woman’s selection of a partner, and additional rites often followed to formalize the union. Draupadi’s svayamvara with the Pandavas in the Mahābhārata and Indumati’s in Kālidāsa’s Raghuvaṃśa both culminate in kanyādāna -style weddings. This suggests that, in many contexts, svayamvara served as a preliminary selection process that required subsequent marriage rites to formalize

10767-554: The three princesses back to Hastināpura . This action aligns with the Rākṣasa form of marriage, where a bride is taken by force after defeating her other suitors. Upon their return, Ambā, the eldest sister, reveals that she was already in love with Śālva, the king of Saubha, and had intended to marry him. Hearing this, Bhīṣma, adhering to his vow of celibacy, allows Ambā to go to Śālva. However, when Ambā reaches Śālva, he rejects her, citing his dishonor in being defeated by Bhīṣma. Left without

10878-413: The time comes for her to make her choice, Damayantī, guided by her unwavering love, identifies Nala among the disguised gods. Her devotion is so strong that even the gods, recognizing her steadfast love and purity, bless the union instead of opposing it. Thus, Damayantī chooses Nala as her husband. The second Svayaṃvara occurs under much different circumstances and is unique in the epic's context. After

10989-575: The truth and restore her marriage, showing both agency and resilience. This second Svayaṃvara also adds depth to her character, portraying her not just as a passive recipient of fate but as an individual capable of shaping her destiny. Scholars describe it as a Svayaṃvara true to its literal meaning, where the bride enjoys full autonomy without paternal influence. They have noted that Damayantī’s Svayaṃvara exemplifies this ideal, with Thomas Parkhill discussing its romanticized narrative. Parkhill highlights that Damayantī’s love for Nala, established before

11100-451: The twin Aśvins being her primary suitors. Jamison points out that the repeated references to Sūryā's choice, the involvement of the Aśvins, and the emphasis on the chariot (a key element in the wedding) suggest a ritualized form of Svayaṃvara . She also notes that the Ṛg Veda uses the verb " vṛṇīta " (chooses) in contexts that imply a maiden’s active selection of her husband, further supporting

11211-526: The union in line with social expectations. Scholars observe that the svayamvara format appears to be restricted to royal daughters of the Kshatriya caste. However, a few instances of inter-caste unions are recorded, though these often led to conflict and disapproval. Historian Romila Thapar notes that svayamvaras were frequently seen as status symbols among royal families, who used them to enhance their social standing. Thapar argues that marriage into

11322-405: The union of two of the most revered figures in Hindu tradition. The Svayaṃvara of Sītā holds significant importance in the Rāmāyaṇa for several reasons. Firstly, it highlights Rāma’s role as a divinely ordained hero, whose actions are guided by higher powers. His victory in the contest is portrayed as not just a feat of strength but as a fulfillment of his destiny. Secondly, the event reinforces

11433-461: The virtue she possessed. Her father, concerned by this, instructs her to find a husband herself—a directive that perfectly aligns with the etymological essence of the term "Svayaṃvara". Savitrī travels on a chariot alone in search of a suitable match, which is unusual given the strict societal norms for women. Finally she finds her match in Satyavan, the son of a blind, exiled king. This Svayaṃvara

11544-437: The vīryaśulka model, where suitors compete in tests of valor set by the father, culminating in the girl selecting a "winner." This process resolves the father's concerns but leaves little room for the daughter’s independent decision-making. The Ṛg Veda , being one of the oldest and most enigmatic texts in Indian literature, provides limited direct evidence for Svayaṃvara . Some scholars, such as Hanns-Peter Schmidt, argue that

11655-757: The way (presumably on his march through Central Asia) until he reaches the Vakshu , as the ancient Indians called the Oxus River. There, Raghu's army battles the Hepthalites , or White Huns, whom the Indians called Hunas and Mlecchas (barbarians). The Hepthalites are defeated, and the Raghuvaṃśa boasts of "The exploits of Raghu, whose valor expressed itself amongst the husbands of the Huna women, became manifest in

11766-423: The woman is exercising her right to choose, her choice aligns with and reinforces the established social hierarchy. The ordinary Svayaṃvara thus serves as a corrective measure, allowing a woman to marry if her guardian fails in his duties, but still within a controlled framework that upholds social order. Sternbach also draws a connection between the ordinary Svayaṃvara and the Gāndharva vivāha . He suggests that

11877-416: Was a critic, known for his commentaries on the five mahakavyas (great compositions) of Sanskrit . During his times, he is said to have received the titles of Mahamahopadhyaya and Vyakhyana Chakravarti. He lived during the reigns of Rachakonda king Singabhupala and Vijayanagara king Deva Raya I . Based on the evidence from inscriptions, it is estimated that he lived between 1350-1450 CE. Mallinātha

11988-597: Was born in a Telugu Brahmin family of the Kamakayanasa gotra with the surname Kolachala, Kolachela, Kolichala or Kolichelama. The village Kolichelama (currently known as Kolchāram ) is near Medak , a village and mandal in the Medak District of Telangana . When Kākatīya rule ended, the scholars of the Kolachelama family migrated to Rāchakonḍa, the capital of Singabhūpāla. From the colophons of

12099-428: Was designed to find a suitable husband for Sītā , Janaka's daughter, who was renowned for her beauty, virtue, and divine origin. The challenge set for the suitors was to string and break a colossal bow, Pināka , which had once belonged to Lord Śiva . This bow was so formidable that none of the assembled princes and warriors from various kingdoms could even lift it, let alone string and break it. The arrival of Rāma ,

12210-472: Was meant for free choice or as a contest of strength leads to her later resentment and tragic conflict with Bhīṣma. Unlike Ambikā and Ambalikā, who do not object to marrying Bhīṣma's brother, Vichitravīrya, Ambā voices her objections only after reaching Bhīṣma's home. This discrepancy turns the Svayaṃvara into a focal point for assigning blame, with Amba grappling with responsibility—whether it lies with herself, her father, Bhīṣma, or Śālva. The text suggests that

12321-466: Was written in the early epic phase of the Mahābhārata , where Arjuna , disguised as a brāhmaṇa, wins her hand through an extraordinary display of archery skill. Brockington also observes that the story of Sāvitrī, where her father is unable to find her a husband, leading her to choose one herself, closely aligns with the practices outlined in the Dharmashastra . However, despite this similarity,

#871128