143-582: Rajaraja I ( Middle Tamil : Rājarāja Cōḻaṉ ; Classical Sanskrit : Rājarāja Śōḷa ; 3 November 947 – January/February 1014), also known as Rajaraja the Great , was a Chola emperor who reigned from 985 CE to 1014 CE. He is known for his conquests of southern India and parts of Sri Lanka , and increasing Chola influence across the Indian Ocean . Rajaraja's birth name was Arulmozhi Varman. Rajaraja's empire encompassed vast territories, including regions of
286-418: A Meikeerthi , an inscription recording great accomplishments, follows: Hail Prosperity! In the 21st year of (the reign of) the illustrious Ko Raja Rajakesari Varma, alias the illustrious Rajaraja Deva, who, while both the goddess of fortune and the great goddess of the earth, who had become his exclusive property, gave him pleasure, was pleased to destroy the kalam at Kandalur and conquered by his army, which
429-527: A Buddhist monastery, was constructed in the 11th century CE in Nagapattinam . It was named Chudamani or Chulamani Vihara after King Sri Mara's father. The monastery was built by the Sailendra king of Srivijaya, Sri Mara Vijayattungavarman, with the support of Rajaraja I. According to the small Leyden grant, this Vihara was known as Rajaraja-perumpalli during the reign of Kulottunga I. Rajaraja dedicated
572-459: A Teri dune complex extends along the coast; sand dunes also stretch from Manakudi to Sothavilai . Additionally, sandy beaches and isolated boulders define the southern coastline. The Peninsular India is typically described as a highland with faulting on both sides. During the Archaean Eon , the eastern coast experienced faulting, whereas the faulting of the western coast, including
715-622: A broken rocky spur shapes into Marunthuvazh Malai , situated approximately 7 kilometres northwest of Kanyakumari . The Vellimalai in Kalkulam taluk and the Maruntuvazh malai in Agastheeswaram taluk are important isolated hills. The variations in altitude and climate across the hilly terrain of the district have led to a diverse vegetation profile, showcasing distinct representations of different land types. The highest hill within
858-399: A bulbous structure, which is carved entirely from a single rock and weighs approximately 80 tons. At the entrance stands a sizable statue of Nandi, the sacred bull, carved from a single rock, measuring about 16 feet in length and 13 feet in height. The entire temple structure is crafted from granite, obtained from sources located approximately 60 kilometers to the west of the temple. This temple
1001-444: A dense palisade of leaves over the water surface. Numerous marshy plants thrive between the reeds and along the margins. The plains, up to an elevation of 200 meters, are characterised by Southern tropical thorny forests . Notable locations within this ecosystem include Anjugramam , Vattakkottai, Kanniyakumari , Marunthuvazh Malai , Colachel , and Kuzhithurai . These forests support a variety of plant life. Common trees found in
1144-729: A further series of indecisive clashes. In 998 CE, Rajaraja annexed Gangapadi, Nolambapadi, and Tadigaipadi (present-day Karnataka). During this campaign, Raja Chola subdued the Nolambas, who were previously vassals of the Ganga dynasty. These territories were initially under the suzerainty of the Rashtrakutas, who had been defeated by the Western Chalukyas in 973 CE. Consequently, the Cholas found themselves in direct conflict with
1287-682: A major role in the invasion of Sri Lanka . The success of Rajaraja allowed his son Rajendra Chola to lead the Chola invasion of Srivijaya , carrying out naval raids in South-East Asia and briefly occupying Kadaram . Rajaraja married several women, including the following: Vanathi aka Thiripuvāna Mādēviyār, Dantisakti Vitanki aka Lokamadevi, Panchavan Madeviyar, Chola Mahadevi, Trailokya Mahadevi, Lata Mahadevi, Prithvi Mahadevi, Meenavan Mahadevi, Viranarayani and Villavan Mahadevi. He had at least three daughters and two sons. The older son, Rajendra,
1430-659: A minor river originates at an altitude of 950 m in the Velimalai hills and passes through Kothanalloor , Kalkulam, Eraniel , Thalakulam and Manavalakurichi before joining the Arabian Sea at Kadiapattanam. Along the way, it merges with the Thuvalar , another small river originating from the Mampazhathurai hills. Mullayar another minor river flows approximately 11 kilometres through Vilavancode taluk and joins
1573-467: A project of land survey and assessment in 1000 CE which led to the reorganisation of Tamil country into individual units known as valanadus . Rajaraja died in 1014 CE, and was succeeded by his son Rajendra Chola I. Rajaraja was the son of Chola King Parantaka II , also known as Sundara Chola, and Queen Vanavan Mahadevi. As recorded in the Thiruvalangadu copper-plate inscription, his birth name
SECTION 10
#17327646729631716-493: A representation of Chola hegemony and religious fervor. The transformation of Mahatirtha into Rajarajapura, in homage to the Chola sovereign, further underscores the symbolic and cultural import of the Chola conquest of Anuradhapura and their subsequent governance in the northern expanse of Sri Lanka. The Thiruvalangadu Plates directly compare Raja Raja's campaign to the invasion of Lanka by the legendary hero Rama: "Rama built with
1859-435: A rich variety of avifauna , with about 360 species recorded. Notably, 140 out of the 204 species of South Indian Passerine birds are found here. The House Crow is the most common bird, while the jungle crow is less frequently seen. Common babblers include the earthy-brown jungle babbler and the slimmer common babbler found in dry plains. Magpie-robins are usually seen near human habitations. Other common birds include
2002-543: A rocky bed, steep banks, sharp curves, and frequent falls, the Kodayar remains largely untamed except for a few kilometres near its end. The Tirparappu Waterfalls along this river stands at approximately 13 meters. After covering 32 kilometres in Kalkulam and Vilavancode taluks, the Kodayar merges with the Paraliyar to form the western Tambaraparani. It flows southwest through Kuzhithurai , Munchirai and evantually into
2145-533: A significant portion of this region indicates that the rocks underwent intense isoclinal folding , resulting in repeated bands. These folds align in a northwest–southeast direction and may have subsequently experienced cross-folding. These charnockites also occur as lenses and patches within the khondalites. Additionally, thin Pegmatite bodies and quartz veins intrude the khondalites. Tertiary-age Varkala beds appear as thin cappings south of Kaliyakkavilai near
2288-525: A varied topography with the sea on three sides and the mountains of the Western Ghats bordering the northern side. Except for a small stretch of land to the east of Kanniyakumari town, almost the entire district is sandwiched between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea – the only district in Tamil Nadu state facing the Arabian Sea . Historically, Nanjinad and Edai Nadu, which comprise
2431-631: Is abundant in wildlife, with its hill forests showcasing a wide variety of fauna, representing most species of Southern India . The district’s fauna belongs to the Cis gangetic sub-region of the Indomalayan realm , with its hill fauna showing affinities with the Himalayas and the southwestern hill group in Sri Lanka . The district hosts ten orders of mammals . Four species of primates are found in
2574-514: Is adorned with significant avenue trees , including the Banyan , jungle jack , Eugenia , Portia tree , Tamarind and more. Common edible fruits—such as mangoes , jackfruit , custard apple , various plantain varieties , pineapple , guava , and more—contribute to local livelihoods. Oranges , lime , and pomegranate also flourish. Grape cultivation occurs in specific pockets. 329 plant species have been identified across 201 sacred groves in
2717-538: Is an example of Dravidian architecture of the Chola period . Along with Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple and Airavatesvara temple , Brihadisvara is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site known as the " Great Living Chola Temples ". The temple tower, called the vimanam , stands at a remarkable height of 216 feet (66 meters), making it the tallest in the world. At the very top sits the Kumbam,
2860-682: Is described in the Vikrama Chola Ula, where it is said that he achieved it in just one day, crossing 18 mountain passes. According to the Kulottunga Chola Ula, King Rajaraja was depicted as beheading 18 people and burning down Udagai. Additionally, the Kalingathupparani references the establishment of Chadaya Nalvizha in Udiyar Mandalam, the seizure of Udagai, and the plundering of several elephants from
3003-489: Is divided into two revenue divisions: Nagercoil division and Padmanabhapuram division . These divisions are further subdivided into taluks , which are the basic administrative units. Each taluk is managed by a Tahsildar , who handles revenue collection, land records, and local administration. There are nine blocks within these taluks: Agastheeswaram , Rajakkamangalam , Thovalai , Kurunthancode , Thuckalay , Thiruvattar , Killiyoor , Munchirai , and Melpuram . Each block
SECTION 20
#17327646729633146-492: Is found on grasslands, while the common weaver bird or Baya weaver is seen in coconut groves of valleys and plains. The skylark is often heard in low country and on hills. Three species of sunbirds — Cinnyris zeylanicus, Cinnyris asiaticus , and Loten's sunbird — are frequently found in gardens. Common woodpeckers include the golden-backed woodpecker , the Yellow-fronted Pied Woodpecker, and
3289-520: Is managed by a Block Development Officer. There is a municipal corporation in the district, the Nagercoil Municipal Corporation , four municipalities and 51 Town Panchayats , which are responsible for urban infrastructure, sanitation , and public services. Rural areas are governed by Panchayats , which are local self-government bodies responsible for village-level administration and development. The District includes
3432-516: Is more intense due to weaker winds. The region’s proximity to the Equator makes it hard to distinctly define the summer season and summers are significantly wetter than winters. Winters from January to February are mild and pleasant, with temperatures rarely dropping below 19°C (66°F). The district lies at the intersection of two distinct climate zones. To the northwest, the Malabar coast , west of
3575-502: Is one of the 38 districts of Tamil Nadu state and the southernmost district in mainland India . It stands second in terms of population density among the districts of Tamil Nadu . It is also the richest district in Tamil Nadu in terms of per capita income, and also tops the state in Human Development Index (HDI), literacy, and education. The district's headquarters is Nagercoil . Kanyakumari district has
3718-528: Is one of the 38 districts of Tamil Nadu state. The district is the birthplace of Ayyavazhi , the henotheistic belief initiated by Hari Gopalan Seedar , one among the 5 prime disciples of Ayya Vaikundar . The social, religious and cultural history of the 19th century Kanniyakumari district is intrinsically inter-twined with those of Ayyavazhi. Many historical assumptions persist in the district and state, which associate with sages namely Vyasa , Agastya , Tolkappiyar , Avvaiyar and Valluvar . The district
3861-747: Is situated between 77°15' and 77°36' east longitude and 8°03' and 8°35' north latitude. The district has borders with Tirunelveli district in the North & North East, the Gulf of Mannar in the East, the Indian Ocean in the South, the Arabian Sea in the West and the Thiruvananthapuram District ( Kerala ) in the West. Kanniyakumari district has a varied topography with sea on three sides and
4004-472: Is the chief administrative officer, responsible for overall administration, including law and order , revenue collection , and implementation of government schemes. The Superintendent of Police oversees the police force and maintains law and order in the district. The District Revenue Officer (DRO) assists the District Collector in revenue administration and land-related issues. The District
4147-612: Is the largest of the two bovines found in the forests, living in rock caves on hills up to an elevation of 5,000 feet. Small herds of bison frequent the sholas and grassy areas around the Muthukuzhi valley and the higher reaches of Asambu. The wild goat is usually confined to grassy slopes. Wild bears are found on the hills and jungles in herds. Additionally, aquatic dolphins and porpoises are found in river mouths and backwaters. Indian pangolins are also present in forests and surrounding valleys. The district’s forests support
4290-791: Is the only district in Tamil Nadu facing the Arabian sea . Pazhayar , the southernmost river in India, originates from the secondary range of the Western Ghats, draining Mahendragiri peak and nearby estates. Flowing through Thovalai and Agastiswaram taluks, the Pazhayar significantly supports irrigation. Its course spans approximately 37 kilometres, ultimately joining the Manakkudy Lagoon at Thamaraikulam . Notable places along
4433-424: Is warm and humid, with significant rainfall during the monsoon Seasons . This tropical climate supports the region’s rich biodiversity and lush landscapes. As part of the Western Ghats , one of the world's eight hottest biodiversity hotspots, this district boasts a rich diversity of flora and fauna, many of which are endemic to the region. The area is home to several endangered and threatened species, including
Rajaraja I - Misplaced Pages Continue
4576-521: Is widely renowned as one of the premier tourist attractions in Tamil Nadu . Prior to Rajaraja's reign, Chola coins featured the tiger emblem on the obverse, along with the fish and bow emblems representing the Pandya and Chera Dynasties, while the reverse side displayed the name of the King. However, a new type of coin emerged during Rajaraja's rule. These new coins showcased the figure of the standing king on
4719-632: The Cheras , the Cholas , the Ays and the Nayaks . A few artefacts were unearthed by archaeological excavations in parts of the district. The district was part of the princely state of Travancore during the colonial times prior to India's independence ; four of the eight tehsils of Thiruvananthapuram district were separated to form the new district of Kanniyakumari in 1956 following the demands of reunion made by
4862-542: The Indian cobra are common, often found in tree hollows and dilapidated houses. Rat snakes are frequently seen and Pythons are found in dry sandy areas. Among amphibians , 34 species of frogs are present, including Rana aurantiaca , Ixalus travancoricus, and Ferguson's toad . The Indian Leaping frog is found around Kiripparai areas. The coastal area is known for its rich variety of fish, with nearly 370 species identified. Whale sharks and Saw fish are abundant in
5005-1393: The Legume family , the root parasites Aeginetia indica and pedunculata have also been recorded in the region. Moist deciduous forests : These forests occur around Kilaviaru mountains and Kalikesam river near Balamore and Vallachithode at an altitude of about 60 meters. Common trees include Acronychia pedunculata , Alstonia scholaris , Scleropyrum wallichianum , and Vateria indica . Lianas Gnetum and Derris thyrsiflora thrive in these areas. Lithophytic herbs like Begonia floccifera and Begonia malabarica are abundant around Kilaviyaru . Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests : These forests and found in Upper Kodayar , Muthukuzhivayal , and Mahendragiri above 800 meters. These dense, impenetrable forests receive heavy monsoon rains, supporting abundant epiphytic and terrestrial orchids . Tall trees with huge trunks include Aglaia bourdillonii , Cullenia exarillata , Dimocarpus longanetc . Climbers like Embelia basaal and Smilax zeylanica are common along with epiphytes Aeschynanthus perrottetii and Hoya pauciflora . Grasslands : At elevated altitudes in Muthukuzhivayal, Mahendragiri , and Upper Kodayar, distinct grasslands thrive. Within
5148-463: The Pahrali and Thamirabarani have their origin in this forest. The forests and jungles of Kanyakumari district host approximately 600 species of timber trees and 3,500 other plant species. The wetlands of Suchindrum and Arumanallur alone support numerous variety of floral and faunal species across hundreds of genera. New species are frequently being identified throughout the region. Out of
5291-585: The Pallava Grantha script which was used to write Sanskrit, which eventually replaced Vaṭṭeḻuttu. Middle Tamil is attested in many inscriptions, and in a significant body of secular and religious literature. These include the religious poems and songs of the Bhakti poets, such as the Tēvāram verses on Shaivism and Nālāyira Tivya Pirapantam on Vaishnavism , and adaptations of religious legends such as
5434-781: The Pandya country , the Chera country , and northern Sri Lanka . He also extended his influence over strategic islands such as Lakshadweep , Thiladhunmadulu atoll, and parts of the Maldives in the Indian Ocean . His conquests weren't limited to the south; he also launched successful campaigns against the Western Gangas and the Western Chalukyas , extending Chola authority as far as the Tungabhadra River . In
5577-542: The South-west and the North-east monsoons . The region receives moderate rainfall, with the heaviest rains occurring from October to December due to the northeast monsoon which sometimes causes floods. The southwest monsoon, from June to September, also brings some rain, but its effects are less pronounced compared to other parts of India . The average rainfall of the district is 1456.8 mm per annum. From 2005 onwards
5720-642: The Southern Rufous woodpecker . The Malabar whistling thrush , a blue-black bird, is found near hilly streams. Paradise flycatchers often visit shady groves, gardens, and deciduous jungles with bamboo-clad regions. 87 bird species from 39 families and 15 orders, including omnivores , carnivores , piscivores , herbivores , granivores , and nectarivores , such as the Eurasian Spoonbill , Brahminy Starling , Glossy Ibis , Oriental White Ibis and Spot-billed Pelican have been observed around
5863-491: The Swamithoppe saltpans . The House sparrow is commonly found around human habitations. Parrots are mostly seen in hilly and woody areas while various varieties of Kingfishers including White-throated kingfisher , Common kingfisher and Pied kingfisher are found beside inundated paddy fields, ponds, kutcha wells and sandy seashores. Bee-eaters are very common. The Indian blue rock pigeons are seen all over
Rajaraja I - Misplaced Pages Continue
6006-732: The Thengapattanam estaury where it meets the sea. Originating north of Mahendragiri, the Paraliyar , another major river of the district flows southwesterly and passes out of the forest area a mile above Ponmanai where it encounters the Perunchani Dam . The Left Bank Channel supplies water from the Pechipparai reservoir before reaching the weir known as Puthen dam. The ancient Pandyan dam , built in Pandiyan era, across
6149-571: The Tirumurai . In his work Nambiyandar Nambi Puranam alias Tirumurai Kanda Puranam , Nambi identifies his patron as Rasarasamannan-Abhayakula-sekharan , that is king Rajaraja, the best of the race of Abhaya . At that time, Shiva temples only had images of god forms, but after the advent of Rajaraja, the images of the Nayanar saints were also placed inside the temple. Nambi organized the hymns of three saint poets—Sambandar, Appar, and Sundarar—as
6292-488: The cuckoo , golden oriole and Indian robin which are frequently noted in dry areas. The tailorbird and the drongo or king crow often visit the countryside. The red-vented bulbul is seen in plains where food is plentiful and at elevations of about 4,000 feet. The Iora is found in gardens and groves. Among Shrikes , the Scarlet minivet is the most common, found in woody areas and evergreen jungles. The Common myna
6435-730: The pariah kite and the Brahminy kite . Among the birds of prey , the White-rumped vulture and the White scavenger vulture are prominent. Water birds are common along coastal backwaters, inundated paddy fields, and tanks. The White-breasted waterhen is often seen in marshy areas overgrown with reeds and bushes, and on the margins of ponds. Storks and Coots are frequently found in inundated paddy fields, tanks, ponds, and rivers. Comb ducks are observed at Suchindram and Theroor wetlands while four other species of ducks are common in
6578-489: The ponds , large associations of lotus and water lilies thrive, along with smaller Limnanthemum plants. Floating plants like Trapa bispinosa and pistia statistis cover water surfaces, often beneath the shade of big banyan trees. Submerged plants, including Ceratophyllum , Utricularia , and Chara , form a close tangle underwater. In shallow tanks and river basins, reeds flourish in marshy soil. These reeds consist of juncus , scirpus , cyperus , and typha , forming
6721-620: The sholas and moist deciduous forests , including the Bonnet macaque and Toque macaque at lower altitudes, and the Lion-tailed macaque and Nilgiri Langur at elevations above 2,000 feet. The Slender Loris of the order Lemuroidea occurs in the interior forests. Situated at the tail-end of the Central Asian Flyway , the region attracts numerous migratory birds from thousands of miles away. Tigers are found around
6864-462: The 12th book. The initial seven books were later recognized as Tevaram. With the addition of Sekkizhar's Periya Puranam (1135) as the twelfth book, the entire Saiva canon became known as Tirumurai, the holy scripture. Consequently, Saiva literature now encompasses approximately 600 years of religious, philosophical, and literary development. There are no existing contemporary portraits or statues of Rajaraja. The bronze figure purportedly depicting him at
7007-561: The 12th-century Tamil Ramayana composed by Kamban and the story of 63 shaivite devotees known as Periyapurāṇam. Iraiyaṉār Akapporuḷ , an early treatise on love poetics, and Naṉṉūl , a 12th-century grammar that became the standard grammar of literary Tamil, are also from the Middle Tamil period. Despite the significant amount of grammatical and syntactical change between Old, Middle and Modern Tamil, Tamil demonstrates grammatical continuity across these stages: many characteristics of
7150-562: The Black Rock estate which descend to lower reaches during October and November, occasionally entering bordering villages. Panthers inhabit moist deciduous forests and often prey on domesticated animals. Bears usually reside at elevations above 3,000 feet but sometimes descend to lower levels. Wild dogs are found in the lower hills of the Muthukuzhi valley, while the Indian Grey Mongoose and Jungle Cats are common in
7293-545: The Chalukyas. An inscription of Irivabedanga Satyashraya from Dharwar describes him as a vassal of the Western Chalukyas and acknowledges the Chola onslaught. An inscription attributed to Irivabedanga Satyashraya from Dharwar acknowledges his allegiance to the Western Chalukyas and highlights the Chola incursion. He accuses Rajendra Chola of leading a massive force of 955,000 soldiers and causing havoc in Donuwara, blurring
SECTION 50
#17327646729637436-414: The Chola Dynasty and the Eastern Chalukya kingdom by arranging the marriage of his daughter, Kundavai, to the next viceroy of Vengi, Vimaladitya. This strategic union ensured the future succession of Rajaraja's descendants to the throne of the eastern Chalukya kingdom . There were hostile encounters between the Cholas and the Hoysalas , a group who were vassals of the Western Chalukyas. An inscription from
7579-416: The Chola navy, or possibly a joint operation involving both the navy and the army. Rajaraja's inscriptions begin to appear in Kanyakumari district in the 990s and in Thiruvananthapuram district in the early 1000s. The Chola subjugation of Kerala can be dated to the early years of the 11th century. The Senur inscription dated to 1005 CE, attributed to Rajaraja, records his military achievements. It mentions
7722-445: The Chola territory were ruled by hereditary lords and princes who were in a loose alliance with the Chola rulers. Rajaraja initiated a project of land survey and assessment in 1000 CE which led to the reorganization of the empire into units known as valanadus. From the reign of Rajaraja I until the reign of Vikrama Chola in 1133 CE, the hereditary lords and local princes were either replaced or turned into dependent officials. This led to
7865-411: The Cholas established a provincial capital at the strategic military outpost of Polonnaruwa, renaming it Jananathamangalam in honor of Rajaraja's title. Under Chola administration, the official Tali Kumaran oversaw the construction of a significant Shiva temple known as Rajarajeshwara, meaning "Lord of Rajaraja," within the town of Mahatirtha, now recognized as modern-day Mantota. Consequently, Mahatirtha
8008-610: The Foreshore sandy areas, species like Spinifex littoreus , Ipomoea pes-caprae (Sweet), Sesuvium portulacastrum , Trianthema portulacastrum , Atriplex repens , Cyperus rotundus , Mollugo cerviana , Tephrosia purpurea , T. hirta , Pedalium murex and various Portulaca species shall be found. In marshy backwater areas, Suaeda nudiflora , Salicornia brachiata , and Arthrocnemum indicum are frequently found. Backwaters near river mouths and connecting canals are often thickly fringed with Pandanus tectorius . Acrostichum aureum and Excoecaria agallocha are common in shallow waters. In
8151-448: The Gopalakrishna temple at Narasipur , dated to 1006, records that Rajaraja's general Aprameya killed Hoysala generals and a minister identified as Naganna. Additionally, a similar inscription in Channapatna describes Rajaraja defeating the Hoysalas . The invasion of the kingdom of Kalinga occurred after the conquest of Vengi. This conquest marked the northern boundary of the Chola Empire at that time and established their control over
8294-428: The Indian Bison, Indian Rock Python, Lion-tailed Macaque, and Nilgiri Tahr. The Kanyakumari Wildlife Sanctuary , a protected area covering 457.78 km , is situated in the northern and north-western parts of the district. It constitutes the southern section of the Agastyamalai region, bordered by Kerala's Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary to the west and Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve to the east. Seven rivers including
8437-503: The Manakudy, Thengapattanam Munchirai backwater area, Barringtonia racemosa , Ixora coccinea , and Nauclea missionis thrive. Closer to the shore, Neptunia and Hygrophila grow intermingled with Aeschynomene aspera , Ludwigia , and Ipomoea reptans . More than 100 species, spanning across 90 genera and 46 families including Adenanthera pavonina , Ficus religiosa , Psidium guajava , Ocimum tenuiflorum , Waltheria indica , Dendrobium macrostachyum and Sida acuta were recorded in
8580-408: The Nanjilnadu beckoned many invaded kings including the Nayaks during the reign of Umayamma Rani . The Venad region was in anarchy before Marthanda Varma ascended the throne in 1729 CE. Under their rule anarchy was dominant in Kanniyakumari region. However, Marthanda Varma brought a sense of disorder under control by annexing the nearby territories, putting down the feudal lords and establishing
8723-433: The Paraliyar in Kalkulam taluk, along with the Pandyan Kal and related irrigation works, constitute one of the region's ancient irrigation systems. About a kilometre downstream from the Pandyan dam, the river meets the 250-year-old Puthen dam. The river runs through the Kalkulam and Vilavancode taluks and covers 37 kilometres before joining the Kodayar near Thiruvattar , forming the western Thamirabarani River . Valliyar
SECTION 60
#17327646729638866-445: The Sinhalese kingdom of Anuradhapura experienced a significant military revolt around the year 982 AD, primarily as a consequence of the monarch's economic policies. The armed forces of the Anuradhapura capital predominantly consisted of Tamil mercenaries recruited from coastal regions. By 882 CE, tensions escalated into a full-fledged uprising led by these mercenaries, resulting in a protracted civil conflict. The ensuing turmoil compelled
9009-401: The Tamil speaking majority people (about 70% of the population), who feels that their feelings were suppressed by the erstwhile Travancore Kingdom which has Malayalam-majority population. The four taluks were made the part of then Madras State under recommendations from the States Reorganisation Commission in 1956. The Madras State was later renamed Tamil Nadu in 1969 and Kanniyakumari, today,
9152-410: The Thanjavur temple is spurious and of recent origin. During 1010 CE, Rajaraja built the Brihadisvara Temple in Thanjavur and dedicated it to Lord Shiva . The temple, also known as Periya Kovil , RajaRajeswara Temple and Rajarajeswaram , and the capital were centres of both religious and economic activity. The temple, which turned 1000 years old in 2010, is one of the largest temples in India and
9295-458: The Western Ghats, experiences heavy rainfall during the summer monsoon from June to September. In contrast, the southeastern coast, starting from Kanyakumari , has a semi-arid climate due to the limited impact of the summer monsoon. However, the retreating monsoon from October to December brings more rain, though its effects are somewhat reduced by the proximity of Sri Lanka . Unlike other districts in Tamil Nadu , it receives rainfall both from
9438-437: The aid of monkeys, a causeway across the sea, and then with great difficulties defeated the king of Lanka using sharp-edged arrows. But Rama was excelled by this king whose powerful army crossed the ocean by ships and burnt up the king of Lanka." In 1017 CE, Rajaraja's successor, Rajendra I, finalized the Chola conquest of Sri Lanka. The Chola reign over Sri Lanka persisted until 1070, the occupation ended in Chola withdrawal after
9581-437: The annual rainfall is estimated to be 1006 mm. The driest month is February and the greatest amount of precipitation occurs in November. Humidity levels are relatively high, especially during the monsoon seasons, contributing to a humid and warm atmosphere. June has the highest relative humidity, while February has the lowest. November experiences the most rainy days, whereas January has the fewest. Overall, Kanyakumari’s climate
9724-448: The area and the English East India company's army under Col. Leger broke through the fortifications and entered Travancore in 1810. In the year 1949, the area became a part of the reestablished Travancore Cochin state. The people of Agasteeswarem, Thovalai, Kalkulam and Vilavancode taluks, which formed the southern divisions of the former district of Trivandrum , were predominantly Tamil speaking people. The present Kanniyakumari district
9867-463: The area. The Tiruppalanam inscription from 999 CE records the king's offering of an idol obtained as spoils from Malainadu. "A naval campaign led to the conquest of the Maldive Islands, the Malabar Coast, and northern Sri Lanka, all of which were essential to the Chola control over trade with Southeast Asia and with Arabia and eastern Africa. These were the transit areas, ports of call for the Arab traders and ships to Southeast Asia and China, which were
10010-484: The area. The Indian pond heron is abundant in paddy fields and ponds. Flamingos including Greater flamingos could be spotted across the Rajakkamangalam and Manakudi estuary throughout the year. The region’s reptiles include crocodiles , tortoises , turtles , lizards , and snakes . There are two species of crocodiles , nine species of chelonians , 33 of lizards , and 74 of snakes . The King Cobra frequents rivers and streams in shola forests. The Viper and
10153-429: The authority to give gifts or construct temples as they saw fit. Rajaraja's earliest inscriptions commemorate a significant triumph at Kandalur Salai, located in present-day Kerala, around 988 CE. He is acclaimed as "Kāndalūr śālai Kalam-arutta," which translates to 'the one who destroyed Kandalur Salai.'. He is hailed as "Kāndalūr śālai Kalam-arutta," meaning 'the one who destroyed Kandalur Salai.' Originally, this area
10296-423: The coast showcases notable projections toward the sea at locations such as Kanniyakumari, Muttam , and Erayanthurai. Additionally, there are a few minor sea ports. The ancient port of Colachel stands as the sole natural port on the west coast of Tamil Nadu while Kanyakumari serves as another minor port, primarily catering to tourists. Another minor port at is situated along the edge of Manakudi Estaury. Kanyakumari
10439-698: The coast. The basement rocks are covered by a sequence of soil types, including red soil , lateritic soil , clay , river alluvium , coastal alluvium, and black and red sandy soils . These soil layers have thicknesses ranging from 1 metre to 1.5 meters in most locations. The underlying geological terrain belongs to the Peninsular Gneiss . The coastal belt around Kanyakumari, Kovalam , and Vattakottai contains recent-age formations, including Calcareous sandstones , limeshells , and Kankary Limestone . Lateral deposits, including sand, zircon , rutile , ilmenite , and garnet , are commonly found along
10582-615: The construction of the Rajarajeshwaram Temple in the Chola capital of Thanjavur , which is revered as one of the most prominent examples of medieval South Indian architectural style. Additionally, during his reign, important Tamil literary works by poets such as Appar, Sambandar, and Sundarar were gathered and compiled into a single collection known as the Thirumurai. This earned him the title of 'Thirumurai Kanda Cholar,' meaning The One Who Found Thirumurai. He initiated
10725-541: The destruction of the Pandya capital, Madurai, as well as the conquest of several regions. These include defeating the formidable rulers of Kollam (Venad), Kolla-desham (Mushika), and Kodungallur (the Chera Perumals of Makotai).Certain triumphs in the region of Malainadu were possibly achieved by Prince Rajendra Chola I on behalf of his father, Rajaraja Chola. Following his victory over the Pandyas, Rajaraja assumed
10868-466: The district and state, which associate sages such as Agastya , Vyasa , Tolkappiyar , Avvaiyar and Valluvar with the district. The area that comprises the current Kanniyakumari district was a part of the old Ay kingdom of the first and second Sangam ages. Following the decline of the Ay kingdoms, the area became Venad, with its capital Padmanabhapuram located North, North West of Nagercoil. The wealth of
11011-888: The district are lush and virgin and is 75 million years old. The forest of this region comes under Boothapandy Mahendra-giri Reserve forest and is managed by the District Forest Officer with Headquarters at Nagercoil . The jungles host around 600 species of gigantic timber trees and 3,500 other plants, many of which hold significant economic value. Notable timber trees include teak , rosewood (blackwood), Jungle Jack , Malabar ebony , Adina cordifolia , Karumaruthu , and Vengai . Softwood varieties like Bombax ceiba and glossy-leaved jack are also abundant, along with reeds , bamboos , and sandalwood . Plantations of cardamom and tea thrive at higher elevations, while pepper , rubber , ginger , and turmeric flourish in lower areas. Due to various local geological factors,
11154-533: The district is Mahendragiri (1654 meters) in Thovalai taluk , situated on the border between Kanniyakumari and Tirunelveli districts. Kalmalai (900 meters), Moliyadi (700 meters) located at the head of old Kulasekaram reserved forest area and Tadakai malai (960 meters) are some of the notable hills in the district. The mountainous terrain in the northern and eastern portions of the district contains an extensive plateau amidst elevated hilltops. While most of
11297-461: The district. Elephants are abundant in the upper reaches of Asambu and Veerapuli reserves and are occasionally spotted around Kodayar, Perunchani and Balamore areas. Deer are seen throughout the hilly forests, with three species present: The Spotted Deer , Sambur , and the Barking Deer . The Muthukuzhi valley and the entire Asambu region are favoured by Sambur deer. The Gaur
11440-592: The district. These species belong to 251 genera within 110 families. Among them, 12 are categorised as rare, endemic , and threatened . One out of every seven species found in the groves of the region are rare. Notably, Alpinia galanga , Gloriosa superba , Nymphaea pubescens , Hemidesmus indicus , Kaempferia galanga , and Rauvolfia serpentina are endangered while Justicia beddomei , Leea indica , and Petiveria alliacea are considered rare. Furthermore, species such as Indigofera uniflora , Naregamia alata , Ochlandra scriptoria , and Osbeckia aspera are endemic to
11583-543: The district. Ticks of the genus Ixodes are commonly found in grasslands. Among arthropods , insects such as Ranatra , Cybister , Earwigs , Prodasineura , Hydrometra , Cockroaches , leaf insects , Grasshoppers , and Crickets are notable. Kanyakumari District was officially formed on 1 November 1956, as a result of the States Reorganisation Act, 1956 , which aimed to reorganise state boundaries based on linguistic lines. The District Collector
11726-532: The east, Rajaraja faced fierce opposition from the Telugu Chola king Jata Choda Bhima over control of Vengi . This region held significant strategic importance due to its access to resources and trade routes. The conflict between the two rulers intensified as they vied for dominance in the region, resulting in significant battles and shifting allegiances. Rajaraja I also left a significant mark through his architectural and cultural achievements. He commissioned
11869-600: The eastern areas. Several rose varieties flourish in well-tended gardens. Of the Spices , the Kanyakumari clove which accounts for 65% of India's clove production is produced around Maramalai , Karumparai and Velimalai areas above Veerapuli Reserve and Mahendragiri hills of the district. Cardamom , black pepper , ginger , turmeric and other spices too thrive here. Tuberous plants like sweet potato , arrow-root , and tapioca yield edible roots. The hedges in
12012-518: The entire sea coast of Kanyakumari. Kanyakumari district experiences a tropical climate , characterised by warm temperatures throughout the year as per the Köppen climate classification . The district generally has high temperatures year-round, with average highs ranging from 29°C to 33°C (84°F to 91°F) and average lows from 23°C to 26°C (73°F to 79°F). The Summer from March to May is typically hot, with temperatures often exceeding 34°C (93°F). The heat
12155-464: The entirety of South and South-East India. In multiple historical accounts, there are mentions of King Rajaraja's conquest of a place called "Kuda-malai-nadu" around the year 1000 CE. In certain inscriptions found in Karnataka, the term "Kudagu-malai-nadu" is used instead of "Kuda-malai-nadu." Scholars generally believe that this region corresponds to Coorg (Kudagu). The king's conquest of Malainadu
12298-496: The erstwhile Travancore Kingdom to form the new district of Kanniyakumari, and they were made the part of Madras Presidency under recommendations from the States Reorganisation Commission in 1956. The Presidency was later renamed Tamil Nadu and Kanniyakumari, today, is one of the 38 districts of Tamil Nadu state. The district is the birthplace of Ayyavazhi . Many historical assumptions persist in
12441-622: The ethical boundaries of warfare prescribed by the Dharmasastras. Historians such as James Heitzman and Wolfgang Schenkluhn interpret this confrontation as indicative of personal animosity between the rulers of the Chola and Chalukya kingdoms, akin to historical conflicts between the Chalukyas of Badami and the Pallavas of Kanchi. By the year 1004 CE, Rajaraja had successfully conquered the Gangavadi province. He established control over
12584-614: The first and second person plural pronouns with the ending kaḷ . It is in the Early Middle Tamil stage that kaḷ first appears: Indeed, most features of Malayalam morphology are derivable from a form of speech corresponding to early Middle Tamil. From the period of the Pallava dynasty onwards, a number of Sanskrit loan-words entered Tamil, particularly in relation to political, religious and philosophical concepts. Sanskrit also influenced Tamil grammar, in
12727-412: The first seven books. He included Manickavasagar's Tirukovayar and Tiruvacakam as the 8th book, and the hymns of nine other saints as the 9th book. The Tirumandiram of Tirumular was designated as the 10th book, while 40 hymns by 12 other poets constituted the 11th book. Additionally, Nambi added Tirutotanar Tiruvanthathi, the sacred anthathi of the labors of the 63 nayanar saints, along with his own hymns as
12870-722: The forested areas, each river basin— Kodayar and Pahrali —encompasses approximately 30 square miles of grasslands. Common grass species in this region include Chrysopogon orientalis , Eulalia phaeothrix , Themeda trimula , and Zenkeria sebastinei . Amidst the grasses and rocky crevices, one can find beautiful orchids and Impatiens flowering alongside ferns. Additionally, other herbaceous plants such as Acrotrema arnottianum , Centratherum rangacharii , Exacum travancoricum , Leucas vestita , Linum mysorense , Hedyotis purpurascens , Heracleum candeolleanum , and Senecio ludens thrive. On dripping rocks, Utricularia purpurea and Utricularia reticulata are commonly observed. The Hills of
13013-1022: The forests in the Kanyakumari division encompass 14 distinct types, based on the Champion and Seth's classification ranging from lush tropical wet evergreen forests to tropical thorn forests, all within a relatively small area. The region hosts a diverse array of plant species, with its natural vegetation encompassing southern thorn forests , dry deciduous forests, moist deciduous forests, semi-evergreen forests, and evergreen hill sholas interspersed with grassy downs . Dry deciduous forests : These forests, ranging from an altitude of 200 to 600 meters occur in regions like Keeriparai , Mangolamottai (lower Kodayar), Maruthaparai ( Kulasekaram ), Ulakkaruvi , and Kuttiyar. Tree and shrub species include Adina cordifolia , Cochlospermum religiosum , Dillenia pentagyna Hydnocarpus laurifolius , Lannea coromandelica and Terminalia chebula etc. Desmodium triangulare of
13156-405: The grasses, ephemeral annual herbs and herbaceous perennials emerge during favourable seasons. In the sheltered valleys, extensive paddy cultivation sustains the region. Paddy remains the staple food crop. Tapioca , the second most important food crop, thrives primarily in Kalkulam and Vilavancode taluks. Palmyrah and coconut groves dot the plains and coastal regions. The landscape
13299-453: The hills have steep slopes, some exhibit a more gradual spread. While the area is predominantly agricultural, numerous plantations and few handloom industries thrive in this region. The central area of the district, particularly Agastiswaram taluk, consists of vast plains. This includes the plains at Vellimalai , Mylaudy and Derisanamcope . The district features an extensive 68-kilometer coastline. Predominantly regular in its configuration,
13442-502: The history of Anuradhapura. In 993 CE, Rajaraja achieved the conquest of Anuradhapura, known as Pihiti rata in local context, situated in Sri Lanka. This territory was subsequently designated as Ila-mandalam in Chola historical records. The military campaign led to the sacking of Anuradhapura by the Chola army, resulting in the acquisition of the northern portion of Sri Lanka by the Chola empire. As part of their administrative efforts,
13585-527: The increased use of cases and in declined nouns becoming adjuncts of verbs, and phonology. The forms of writing in Tamil have developed through years. The Tamil script also changed in the period of Middle Tamil. Tamil Brahmi and Vaṭṭeḻuttu , into which it evolved, were the main scripts used in Old Tamil inscriptions. From the 8th century onwards, however, the Pallavas began using a new script, derived from
13728-475: The inscription as the son of Sembiyan-Madeviyar. Middle Tamil Middle Tamil is the form of the Tamil language that existed from the 8th to the 15th century. The development of Old Tamil into Middle Tamil, which is generally taken to have been completed by the 8th century, was characterised by a number of phonological and grammatical changes despite maintaining grammatical and structural continuity with
13871-505: The inscriptions are the Bana prince Narasimhavarman, a general Senapathi Krishnan Raman , the Samanta chief Vallavaraiyan Vandiyadevan , the revenue official Irayiravan Pallavarayan and Kuruvan Ulagalandan, who organised the country-wide land surveys. Rajaraja was a follower of Shaivism denomination of Hinduism but he also dedicated several temples to Vishnu . The Chudamani Vihara ,
14014-471: The inscriptions engraved on them should be copied in a book. The records were subsequently re-engraved on the walls from the book after the rebuilding was finished. Another inscription from the Gramardhanathesvara temple in the southern area of Arcot , dating back to the seventh year of the king, mentions the fifteenth year of his predecessor, Uttama Choladeva. Uttama Choladeva is described in
14157-873: The interior plains include Cassia siamea , Dichrostachys cinerea , Morinda pubescens , Thespesia populnea , Ficus bengalensis , Mangifera indica , Alstonia scholaris , Pongamia pinnata , and Calophyllum inophyllum . Shrubs and under shrubs like Crotalaria gigantea , Cassia auriculata , Vitex negundo , Crotalaria striata , and Dodonaea viscosa are abundant. Beneath the shade of these shrubs and trees, herbaceous plants such as Rhinacanthus nasutus , Asystasia gangetica and Vernonia cinerea thrive. Climbers like Pterolobium hexapetalum , Lantana camara , Cissus quadrangularis , Aganosma cymosa , Coccinia grandis , Pergularia daemia and Jasminum angustifolium are also frequently encountered in this ecosystem. The coastal areas face unique challenges due to factors like sandy soil, aridity , scanty rainfall, and strong winds. In
14300-459: The king exercising closer control over the different parts of the empire. Rajaraja strengthened the local self-governments and installed a system of audit and control by which the village assemblies and other public bodies were held to account while retaining their autonomy. To promote trade, he sent the first Chola mission to China . Furthermore, his elder sister Kundavai assisted him in the administration and management of temples. Rajendra Chola I
14443-477: The later stages of the language have their roots in features of Old Tamil. There is a famous saying திருவாசகத்துக்கு உருகார் ஒரு வாசகத்திற்கும் உருகார் ( tiruvācakattukku urukār ǒru vācakattiṛkum urukār ) translating to 'He whose heart is not melted by Thiruvasagam cannot be melted by any other vasagam [saying]'. The Thiruvasagam was composed by Manikkavasagar . Kanyakumari district Kanyakumari district , officially Kanniyakumari district ,
14586-433: The leadership of Marshal Nesamony took place for including Kanniyakumari within Tamil Nadu . Eventually the merger happened in 1956 based on language reorganisation of states . Historically, Nanjilnadu (Agastheeswaram and Thovalai taluks) and Eda Nadu (Vilavancode and Kalkulam taluks) which comprises the present Kanniyakumari district. The district were ruled by various dynasties: Venad Kingdom , Travancore Kingdom ,
14729-600: The low country and jungles. Jackals and foxes are also common. The South Indian Hedgehog is found throughout the district. Bats are very common, with four different species present. Among squirrels , the Palm Squirrel is most commonly found in the countryside, while the Malabar Squirrel inhabits the jungles. The Indian Porcupine is found throughout the forests. Rats , mice , and hares are very common, with Black rat and Mus booduga found across
14872-532: The major parts of the Kanyakumari district, occurred later—approximately 25 million years ago—during the early Miocene era . Subsequent transgressions and regressions of the sea led to the formation of various sedimentary layers. Over time, the sea receded, resulting in uplifted land masses. Evidence of this uplift includes deeply entrenched streams, waterfalls, high hanging valleys, alluvial flats, and marine sediment patches at higher elevations. Notably, shelly limestone formations in Kanyakumari further support
15015-437: The mercenaries, feeling aggrieved and disillusioned, turned their allegiance towards the Chola empire. This strategic shift left Anuradhapura vulnerable to the incursions of the Chola forces, who exploited the internal strife to mount invasions in the year 993. These events, documented in historical sources, underscore the intricate interplay of economic policies, military dynamics, and regional power struggles during this period in
15158-463: The mountains of the Western Ghats bordering the northern side. Geologically, the landmass of the district is much younger when compared to the rest of state – faulted as late as 2.5 million years during the Miocene , after which numerous transgression , as well as regression of sea, had shaped the western coast of the district. The district can be categorised into three natural divisions: Within
15301-503: The northern mountainous range of the district lies the scenic sanitarium of Muthukuzhivayal . South of Peermedu , this range stands out due to its significant breadth. The rugged landscape boasts bluff ridges and conical peaks, forming a continuation of the Western Ghats that stretches all the way to the Aralvaimozhi Pass. Notably, the perfectly detached Kattadimalai stands out as a prominent rocky mass. Continuing southward,
15444-457: The obverse side, while the reverse side depicted a seated goddess. The coins spread across much of southern India and were copied by Sri Lankan kings. Due to Rajaraja's desire to record his military achievements, he recorded the important events of his life in stone. An inscription in Tamil from Mulbagal in Karnataka shows his accomplishments as early as the 19th year. An excerpt from such
15587-781: The plains. Among game birds , the Jungle fowl is common around the Asambu forests in the Azhagiapandiapuram range. Francolinus is often seen in thorny scrubby areas . Two main varieties of owls are the Spotted owlet and the Barn owl , which occasionally stray into the countryside and perch on house tops. Other varieties include the Brown fish owl and the Indian great horned owl . Two important species of kites in this district are
15730-487: The presence of scripts, in the form of cadijam leaves half eaten by white ants in a chamber inside the second precinct in Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram . The brahmanas ( Dikshitars ) in the temple opposed the mission, but Rajaraja intervened by consecrating the images of the saint-poets through the streets of Chidambaram. Rajaraja thus became known as Tirumurai Kanda Cholan meaning one who saved
15873-610: The present-day Kanniyakumari district, were ruled by various Tamil and Malayalam dynasties: the Cheras , the Ay / Venad / Travancore dynasty, the Pandyans , the Chozhans and the Nayaks . A few artefacts have been unearthed by archaeological excavations. It was part of the princely state of Travancore during the colonial times prior to India's independence ; four of the eight tehsils of Thiruvananthapuram district were separated from
16016-482: The previous form of the language. In phonological terms, the most important shifts were the virtual disappearance of the aytam (ஃ), an old phoneme, the coalescence of the alveolar and dental nasals, and the transformation of the alveolar plosive into a rhotic . In grammar, the most important change was the emergence of the present tense. The present tense evolved out of the verb kil ( கில் ), meaning "to be possible" or "to befall". In Old Tamil, this verb
16159-445: The proceeds of the revenue from the village of Anaimangalam towards the upkeep of this Vihara. Rajaraja called himself Shivapada Shekhara ( IAST : Śivapāda Śekhara), literally, "the one who places his crown at the feet of Shiva ". Rajaraja embarked on a mission to recover the hymns after hearing short excerpts of Thevaram in his court. He sought the help of Nambi Andar Nambi . It is believed that by divine intervention Nambi found
16302-487: The region consist of a variety of thorny or succulent shrubs. Among them are the Screw-pine , Prickly-pear , Pineapple , Agave , and Euphorbia . Additional hedge plants include Jatropha , Pithecolobium , Casuarina , Sesbania , Erythrina , Pongu , and Lantana . Climbers , most of which have leafy growth, overgrow these hedges. Other than the xerophytic vegetation, the district also hosts hydrophytic flora. In
16445-544: The region features two main rock groups: the Khondalites , and Charnockites while a third group, Migmatites is also found. The Khondalites, composed of garnetiferous Sillimanite - Graphite Gneisses and Garnet - Biotite gneisses , dominate a significant portion of the district. The Charnockites are exposed in areas between Padmanabhapuram , Aralvaimozhi , Kulasekaram , Thuckalay , and Rajakkamangalam . The distinctive occurrence of feldspathic granites across
16588-439: The region harbour a unique xerophytic flora, adapted to arid conditions. At higher elevations, large grasses like Andropogon , Panicum , lemon grass , and fodder grass thrive, creating a verdant carpet. Closer to the base, shrubby forms—such as species of Phoenix , Cycas , and Inthai—find their niche. Abundant bamboo clumps (including Ochlandra ) and dense cane growths (both bamboo family members) abound. Sheltered beneath
16731-469: The ritual of kanakabhisheka, where gold is poured over the Chola king, symbolizing an act of royal anointment or coronation. Once Rajaraja had consolidated his authority in the southern regions, he took on the title of Mummudi Chola. This title, which means "three Crowned," symbolized his power over three important Tamil kingdoms: the Cholas, the Pandyas, and the Cheras. During the reign of King Mahinda V,
16874-516: The river Ponni, whose waters are full of waves. Rajaraja recorded all the grants made to the Thanjavur temple and his achievements. He also preserved the records of his predecessors. An inscription of his reign found at Tirumalavadi records an order of the king to the effect that the central shrine of the Vaidyanatha temple at the place should be rebuilt and that, before pulling down the walls,
17017-480: The river include Boothapandi , Thalakudi , Vadasseri, Nagercoil , and Suchindram . Kodayar originates east of Valia Malai peak within the southern part of the Muthukuzhivayal plateau and flows southwest through a wild tract. Two streams—one from Motavan Pothai and the other from Thacchamala hills—contribute to this river. The Pechiparai Dam intercepts the Kodayar, creating the Pachipparai lake. With
17160-649: The sacred groves along the south-west coast of the district. The vegetation in the cape area is typically xerophytic . Acacia planifrons groves characterise this region. Within the Acacia woods, cacti , agave , and aloe grow, accompanied by a ground cover of typical xerophytic herbs, including various grasses. Moving to the inland sandy areas, these regions are characterised by xerophytic plants such as Euphorbia tirucalli , Jatropha curcas , Jatropha gossypiifolia , Cleome aspera , Chorispora tenella , Aerva lanata , Phyla nodiflora , and Zornia diphylla . The district
17303-609: The sacred groves of the district. Around 60 species of medicinal plants thrive in the district. These include the medicinal weeds such as Abrus precatorius , Abutilon indicum , Acalypha indica , Achyranthes aspera , Acorus calamus , Aloe vera , Alternanthera sessilis , etc., and those found around the sacred groves include Atalantia monophylla , Atalantia racemosa , Mesua ferrea , Commelina benghalensis , and Sterculia urens . Showy or scented flowers—such as Kolunthu , Chempakam , henna , Ceylon Jasmine Nanthiarvattam , Asokam , and more—adorn gardens and natural spaces of
17446-408: The seas, along with flatfish , Prawns , Shrimp , and Crabs . Rock oysters form dense colonies at Kovalam , and a small octopus species is found under rocks at Cape Comorin. The sacred chank is found in large quantities here. At Cape Comorin, two species of top shells Trochus radiatus and Trochus costatus are abundant. Various poisonous insects, including Scorpions and Spiders , are found in
17589-607: The source of the valuable spices sold at a high profit to Europe." One of the last conquests of Rajaraja was the naval conquest of the islands of Maldives ("the Ancient Islands of the Sea Numbering 1200"). The naval campaign was a demonstration of the Chola naval power in the Indian Ocean. The Cholas controlled the area around Bay of Bengal with Nagapattinam as the main port. The Chola Navy also played
17732-616: The specific identity of this individual—whether he was a prince of the Pandya dynasty, a general serving the Pandya king, or a prince of the Kongu Chera dynasty—remains a matter of debate and has not been conclusively resolved. According to the Kongu Desa Rajakkal, a historical record of the Kongu Nadu region, it is suggested that this general eventually changed his loyalty to Rajaraja. He is said to have participated in
17875-587: The strong state of Travancore . He had also bought some portions of Kanniyakumari from the then viceroy making it the southern boundary. Under his rule, the district improved in a social context as well as economically. The famous battle of Colachel took place in the district. Later, the Maharajas of Travancore built the forts at Aramboly (Aralvaimozhy) to prevent any invasion from the Carnatic Kings. Key elements of Velu Thampi Dalawa's revolt occurred in
18018-654: The theory of land uplift in this area. The uplift likely occurred in stages, rejuvenating older streams. The wind gap at Mekkode resulted from river piracy, where the Paraliyar was captured by the Kodayar , possibly during the Tertiary period . The straight west coastline, uninterrupted by breaks, suggests faulting during the Pliocene epoch . Similarly, changes in the Kodayar river's course—from northward to northeast to southwest indicate faulting along its path. Geologically,
18161-516: The throne with the title Uttama Chola. Following Uttama Chola’s death, Rajaraja ascended the throne in mid-985. He was known as Arulmoḷi Varman until this point, after which he adopted the regnal name Rajaraja, meaning “King among Kings.” When Rajaraja came into power, he inherited a kingdom that was only centered around the Thanjavur-Tiruchirappalli region, which was the heart of traditional Chola territory. However, this kingdom
18304-610: The title of Pandya Kulashani, which translates to 'Thunderbolt to the Race of the Pandyas.' As a result of his conquest, the territory of the Pandyas became recognized as "Rajaraja Mandalam" or "Rajaraja Pandinadu." When recounting Rajaraja's military expedition in Trisanku Kastha (the southern region), the Thiruvalangadu Grant of Rajendra I mentions the capture of a certain royal figure named Amarabhujanga. However,
18447-436: The total land area of 168,356.216 hectares, approximately 48,423 hectares are covered by forests. Reserved forests account for 44,799 hectares, while 3,605 hectares are unclassed forests. Additionally, there are 19 hectares of reserved lands. Most of the forests in the district are situated on slopes of hills and plateaus, benefiting from high rainfall and serving as catchment areas for numerous streams and rivers. The forests in
18590-803: The valor displayed by Manya, a Kongalva leader, the estate of Malambi (Coorg) was granted to them, along with the title of Kshatriyasikhamani. Meanwhile, the Vengi kingdom was under the rule of Jata Choda Bhima, a member of the Eastern Chalukyas Dynasty. However, Rajaraja emerged victorious in battle against Bhima, and Saktivarman was appointed as a viceroy under the Chola Dynasty. Despite a brief period of Bhima's recapture of Kanchi in 1001 CE, Rajaraja swiftly restored Saktivarman to power, even expelling and eliminating an Andhra king named Bhima. Notably, Rajaraja cemented an alliance between
18733-465: The vulnerable Sinhala ruler to seek refuge in the Rohana principality, thereby plunging the capital city of Anuradhapura into an extended period of civil unrest lasting approximately eleven years, marked by widespread disorder and lawlessness. The disruption of central governance exacerbated the financial strain on the kingdom, particularly in meeting the obligations to the Tamil mercenaries. Consequently,
18876-581: The western Tambraparani near Thikkurichi. The district features diverse topography with its northern and western regions consist of hilly terrain and forests, while the southeastern and central parts are characterised by agricultural lands. Along the southern border lies an extensive sea-shore interspersed by valleys and plains. The coastal uplands of the district are characterised by rocky outcrops and rugged coastlines, with notable Teri sand dune complexes. The coastlines of Kanyakumari , Theerthakkarai , Muttom , and Kadiyapattanam are especially rocky. In Muttom,
19019-585: The western part of Gangavadi, ruled by the Changalvas, and over Kodagu, governed by the Kongalvas, who were then made vassals of the Chola Empire. Panchavan Maraya, a Chola general, played a significant role in defeating the Changalvas in the battle of Ponnasoge and was duly rewarded with the territory of Arkalgud Yelusuvira-7000 and the esteemed title of Kshatriyasikhamani. Similarly, in recognition of
19162-615: Was Arun Mozhi Varman, meaning “The Word of Sun Clan.” He was born around 947 CE during the Tamil month of Aipassi , under the Sadhayam star. The Government of Tamil Nadu recognizes his birthdate as 3 November 947. Rajaraja had an elder brother, Aditha II , and an elder sister, Kundavai . Rajaraja's accession marked the end of a period of competing claims to the Chola throne, following his great-grandfather Parantaka I ’s reign. After Parantaka I, his elder son Gandaraditya became king. However, upon Gandaraditya's death, his son Madhurantakan
19305-485: Was appointed as a co-regent towards the end of Rajaraja's reign. He held the position of supreme commander over the northern and northwestern territories. Under Raja Chola's rule, there was a notable expansion of the administrative system, resulting in a greater number of offices and officials documented in Chola records compared to previous eras. Villavan Muvendavelan, one of the top officials of Rajaraja figures in many of his inscriptions. The names of other officials found in
19448-403: Was born to Thiripuvāna Mādēviyār. The younger son was named Araiyan Rajarajan, and the identiey of his mother is unknown. He had his first daughter Kundavai with Lokamadev who eventually married Chalukya prince Vimaladithan. Rajaraja had two other daughters.. Rajaraja died in 1014 CE in the Tamil month of Maka and was succeeded by Rajendra Chola I. Before the reign of Rajaraja I, portions of
19591-484: Was historically part of the erstwhile Travancore State. Four Tamil-speaking taluks viz., Vilavancode, Kalkulam, Thovala and Agastheeswaram which now form the Kanniyakumari district was transferred to Madras State on 1 November 1956. The changes that were effected between the taluks and the villages as on 1 October 1956 are furnished in the fly-leaf to Table A-I. An extreme agitation by Tamil speaking residents under
19734-580: Was not very large, and it was still recovering from attacks by the Rashtrakutas in previous years. Rajaraja changed this by transforming the kingdom into a well-organized empire with a powerful army and navy. Under his rule, the northern kingdom of Vengi became closely allied with the Cholas, and their influence expanded along the eastern coast all the way up to Kalinga in the north. In the Thanjavur inscriptions, various regiments are noted. These regiments were organized into units of elephants, cavalry, and infantry. Each of these units operated independently and had
19877-411: Was renamed Rajarajapura in commemoration of the Chola monarch's conquest and establishment of authority in the region. To commemorate their victory, the Chola administrator Tali Kumaran supervised the construction of a notable Shiva temple named Rajarajeshwara, signifying "Lord of Rajaraja," within the precincts of Mahatirtha. Presently acknowledged as modern Mantota, this temple assumed a pivotal role as
20020-607: Was still a minor, so the throne passed to Parantaka I’s younger son, Arinjaya . Arinjaya soon died, and his son Parantaka II (Sundara Chola) succeeded him. It was decided that Sundara Chola would be succeeded by Madhurantakan , likely due to Sundara's preference. However, according to the Thiruvalangadu inscription of Rajaraja’s son, Rajendra I , the succession plan may have been made by Rajaraja himself. Aditha II died under mysterious circumstances, with inscriptions suggesting he may have been assassinated. Shortly afterward, Sundara Chola also passed away, enabling Madhurantakan to assume
20163-516: Was under the control of the Ay chief, who served as a vassal to the Pandya king of Madurai. However, it remains uncertain whether warriors from the Chera or Pandya dynasties were involved in this conflict. The Thiruvalangadu inscription suggests that Rajaraja's general captured Vizhinjam (Viḷinam), which could have been part of the Kandalur Salai campaign. It appears that this engagement involved
20306-572: Was used as an aspect marker to indicate that an action was micro-durative, non-sustained or non-lasting, usually in combination with a time marker such as ṉ ( ன் ). In Middle Tamil, this usage evolved into a present tense marker – kiṉṟa ( கின்ற ) – which combined the old aspect and time markers. Early Middle Tamil is the ancestor of both the Modern Tamil and Malayalam languages. Both languages share multiple common innovations dating to this period. For example, Old Tamil lacks
20449-475: Was victorious in great battles, Vengai-nadu, Ganga-padi, Nulamba-padi, Tadigai-padi, Kudamalai-nadu, Kollam, Kalingam and Ira-mandalam, which is famed in the eight directions; who, while his beauty was increasing, and while he was resplendent (to such an extent) that he was always worthy to be worshipped, deprived the Seriyas of their splendour, and (in words) in the twenty-first year of Chola Arumoli, who possesses
#962037