104-856: Commius, the Atrebatian : 51 - 35 BC Commius the Younger : 35 - 20 BC Tincomaros : 30 BC - 7 AD Eppillus : 30 BC - 15 AD Verica : 15 - 41 AD The Regni (also the Regini or the Regnenses ) were a Celtic tribe or group of tribes living in Britain prior to the Roman Conquest , and later a civitas or canton of Roman Britain . They lived in what is now Sussex, as well as small parts of Hampshire, Surrey and Kent, with their tribal heartland at Noviomagus Reginorum (modern Chichester ). It
208-810: A confederation of tribes . It has been suggested that, after the first phase of the conquest, the Romans maintained the Atrebates as a nominally independent client kingdom , acting as a buffer between the Roman province in the east and the unconquered tribes to the west. The ruler of the kingdom was Tiberius Claudius Cogidubnus or Cogidumnus: Tacitus says " quaedam civitates Cogidumno regi donatae " ('certain civitates were given to King Cogidumnus') and remarks on his loyalty. A first century inscription found in Chichester supplies his Latin names , indicating he
312-460: A Belgic elite and adopted aspects of their culture as early as 100 - 80 BC. The distribution of Aylesford-Swarling pottery in south-eastern Britain has also been associated with the Belgae; however, recent studies proposed that migration might not have played as significant a role as once thought, with increased trade connections being more important, although this remains uncertain. The Regni entered
416-472: A Brittonic language of northern Britain. Celtic regions of mainland Europe are those whose residents claim a Celtic heritage, but where no Celtic language survives; these include western Iberia, i.e. Portugal and north-central Spain ( Galicia , Asturias , Cantabria , Castile and León , Extremadura ). Continental Celts are the Celtic-speaking people of mainland Europe and Insular Celts are
520-653: A Celtic language are the Lepontic inscriptions of Cisalpine Gaul (Northern Italy), the oldest of which pre-date the La Tène period . Other early inscriptions, appearing from the early La Tène period in the area of Massilia , are in Gaulish , which was written in the Greek alphabet until the Roman conquest. Celtiberian inscriptions, using their own Iberian script, appear later, after about 200 BC. Evidence of Insular Celtic
624-707: A Roman trading post and a small Roman influence even prior to the Roman conquest in AD 43. The Romans' significant utilization of Chichester Harbour within the Regni's lands right after AD 43 indicates that the Regni's supportive ties with Rome allowed the Romans an avenue to provide resources to the Roman legions operating in the south-west of Britain. Excavations in North Bersted, Oldplace Farm, and Copse Farm uncovered remnants of late Iron Age farmsteads and complex field systems, indicating widespread agricultural activities along
728-503: A Roman. Antony granted his petition. A 1st century AD source, Sextus Julius Frontinus 's Strategemata , tells how Commius fled to Britain with a group of followers with Caesar in pursuit. When he reached the English Channel the wind was in his favour but the tide was out, leaving the ships stranded on the flats. Commius ordered the sails raised anyway. Caesar, following from a distance, assumed they were afloat and called off
832-717: A Triple-tailed horse with a linear mane galloping with a boar below, associated with Moccus, the boar god of the Lingones tribe. Boar meat was sacred to the ancient Celts, reflecting in Celtic feasts. Lingones were a Gaulish tribe based near the Seine and Marne rivers in northeastern France, neighboring the Celto-Germanic Treveri tribe. Another Lingones tribe in north eastern Italy specialized in agriculture, weaving, and metalworking. [REDACTED] The Regini transformed
936-568: A borrowing from Frankish * Walholant , 'Roman-land' (see Gaul: Name ) , the root of which is Proto-Germanic * walha- , 'foreigner, Roman, Celt', whence the English word Welsh ( Old English wælisċ ). Proto-Germanic * walha comes from the name of the Volcae , a Celtic tribe who lived first in southern Germany and central Europe, then migrated to Gaul. This means that English Gaul , despite its superficial similarity,
1040-777: A collection of Indo-European peoples in Europe and Anatolia , identified by their use of Celtic languages and other cultural similarities. Major Celtic groups included the Gauls ; the Celtiberians and Gallaeci of Iberia; the Britons , Picts , and Gaels of Britain and Ireland; the Boii ; and the Galatians . The interrelationships of ethnicity, language and culture in the Celtic world are unclear and debated; for example over
1144-760: A common cultural and linguistic heritage more than a genetic one. Celtic cultures seem to have been diverse, with the use of a Celtic language being the main thing they had in common. Today, the term 'Celtic' generally refers to the languages and cultures of Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Cornwall , the Isle of Man , and Brittany ; also called the Celtic nations . These are the regions where Celtic languages are still spoken to some extent. The four are Irish , Scottish Gaelic , Welsh , and Breton ; plus two recent revivals, Cornish (a Brittonic language ) and Manx (a Goidelic language ). There are also attempts to reconstruct Cumbric ,
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#17327731962501248-646: A flower is positioned in front of her, as though she is either smelling it or whispering to it. The symbols surrounding the Goddess hold unknown meanings. Rotating the coin reveals a clear image of a Snake. This intricate design combines a lunar goddess with a horned serpent, likely Cernunnos , depicting the Great Queen of the Atrebates and Regni alongside the horned serpent. This fusion symbolizes her diverse identity and authoritative position. [REDACTED] The Selsey Diadem gold quarter stater (55-50 BC) features
1352-668: A goddess in a helmet with horns and boar-bristled crest, along with a large lentoid eye similar to the bronze helmet discovered near Waterloo Bridge in the Thames. It seems that the Romas Greco-Roman Attic helmet, which had a gryphon crest, has been replaced by a local style helmet. The delicate bronze Waterloo Bridge helmet was probably not suited for combat but rather for ceremonial purposes, much like ancient bronze shields mainly used for display rather than protection. Some believe its small size indicates it may have decorated
1456-466: A goddess with a diadem adorned with a moon symbol and two twisted locks of hair by her ears. The coin also depicts a horse and foal, along with a wheel and quatrefoil flower on the front. Moon-crowns were not exclusive to the Regini tribe. Roman Republican denarii depict female heads with crescent diadems, similar to modern tiaras. A denarius from 56BC with a diadem and a small moon above it may have inspired
1560-466: A growing division of labour before the Roman period, alongside a developing hierarchy among tribal leaders who adopted somewhat Roman lifestyles while establishing a relative peace in their territories. Textile production preceded leatherwork as the primary industry, supported by the presence of salt producers along the Selsey coast, indicating a thriving trading economy that raised the standard of living for
1664-403: A horsehair or boar-bristle crest. Some coins also omitted the wings or substituted them with different designs. It is important to note that all the coins shown were produced prior to 50 BC by affluent and well-organized allies of the Roman state. The Aedui, Sequani, and Lingones underwent political transformations early in the 1st century BC, implementing oligarchic structures similar to those of
1768-803: A large Iron Age population center, with substantial enclosures at Rewell Wood nearby, which during the late Bronze Age, was one of the largest settlements in Europe. There was a Romano-Belgic Villa at Bignor, and at Coldharbour, south of Stoke, a small quantity of silver Celtic coins was found. Various settlement enclosures at Warningcamp may be linked to the Rewell Wood tribes, while the Burpham vicinity yielded Iron Age artifacts along with bone fragments from burials and signs of earthworks. The trade inlet at Nutbourne and Bosham, located at Chichester Harbour, also produced gold and silver Celtic coins. Wittering, which
1872-799: A legend Frontinus heard while governor of Britain (75 to 78 AD). Creighton argues that Commius was in fact set up as a friendly king in Britain by Caesar, and his reputation was rehabilitated by blaming his betrayal on Labienus (who deserted Caesar for Pompey in the civil war of 49 - 45 BC). Commius's name appears on coins of post-conquest date in Gaul, paired with either Garmanos or Carsicios . This suggests he continued to have some power in Gaul in his absence, perhaps ruling through regents . Alternatively, Garmanos and Carsicios may have been Commius's sons who noted their father's name on their own coins. By about 30 BC Commius had established himself as king of
1976-430: A legionary legate at the time, ordered Volusenus to pursue him with cavalry, something Volusenus was more than happy to do. When the two groups of horsemen met Volusenus was victorious, but sustained a spear-wound to the thigh. Commius escaped and sued for peace through intermediaries. He offered hostages and promised he would live where he was told and no longer resist Caesar, on the condition that he never again had to meet
2080-501: A period of historical documentation around 75 B.C., with the emergence of written records and the rise of a literate society, accompanied by a more complex economic system. Various groups' movements were no longer tracked solely through pottery artifacts but also through the identification of coins, marking a level of literacy, the aggregation of core cultures in specific regions, and the introduction of monetary transactions for trading surplus goods. Driven by pressures from tribal factions on
2184-465: A place called Regno at the end of Roman Road 7, perhaps referring to a site along the coast of the Solent . Some scholars reject Regnenses in favour of Ptolemy's Regni or a Brythonic name Regini . The Regni were probably a group of native tribes influenced by the Belgae. The sudden appearance of new coin designs hints that some tribes in south-eastern Britain might have been under the control of
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#17327731962502288-604: A prototype Roma due to the rarity of such portrayals. Within the British setting, depictions of Roma likely combined with local religious symbols, highlighting distinct characteristics. The god worshipped by the Regini community might be tied to the Roman goddess Minerva, as hinted by an inscription on a stone found at a shrine dedicated to Neptune and Minerva in Noviomagus Reginorum, now Chichester. [REDACTED] The Ashdown Forest Helmet Silver unit (50-40 BC) shows
2392-754: A result, these items quickly became associated with the Celts, so much so that by the 1870s scholars began to regard finds of the La Tène as 'the archaeological expression of the Celts'". This cultural network was overrun by the Roman Empire, though traces of La Tène style were still seen in Gallo-Roman artifacts . In Britain and Ireland, the La Tène style survived precariously to re-emerge in Insular art . The Urnfield-Hallstatt theory began to be challenged in
2496-633: A rethinking of the meaning of "Celtic". John T. Koch and Barry Cunliffe have developed this 'Celtic from the West' theory. It proposes that the proto-Celtic language arose along the Atlantic coast and was the lingua franca of the Atlantic Bronze Age cultural network, later spreading inland and eastward. More recently, Cunliffe proposes that proto-Celtic had arisen in the Atlantic zone even earlier, by 3000 BC, and spread eastwards with
2600-535: A revival. The first recorded use of the name 'Celts' – as Κελτοί ( Keltoi ) in Ancient Greek – was by Greek geographer Hecataeus of Miletus in 517 BC, when writing about a people living near Massilia (modern Marseille ), southern Gaul . In the fifth century BC, Herodotus referred to Keltoi living around the source of the Danube and in the far west of Europe. The etymology of Keltoi
2704-668: A single culture or ethnic group. A new theory suggested that Celtic languages arose earlier, along the Atlantic coast (including Britain, Ireland, Armorica and Iberia ), long before evidence of 'Celtic' culture is found in archaeology. Myles Dillon and Nora Kershaw Chadwick argued that "Celtic settlement of the British Isles" might date to the Bell Beaker culture of the Copper and Bronze Age (from c. 2750 BC). Martín Almagro Gorbea (2001) also proposed that Celtic arose in
2808-809: A substantial population, featuring structures reminiscent of Gaul, and abundant livestock. The coastal territories of the Manhood Peninsula fit this description well, supported by Numismatics and Belgic influences. This central area likely served as the heart of the Belgic-influenced Regni tribe, stretching from the boundaries of Hampshire to the Trisantona Fluvius (the River Arun ), meeting the English Channel at Littlehampton. The tribes outside this core area in
2912-540: A tribal surname, which epigraphic findings have confirmed. A Latin name for the Gauls, Galli ( pl. ), may come from a Celtic ethnic name, perhaps borrowed into Latin during the Celtic expansion into Italy from the early fifth century BC. Its root may be Proto-Celtic *galno , meaning "power, strength" (whence Old Irish gal "boldness, ferocity", Welsh gallu "to be able, power"). The Greek name Γαλάται ( Galatai , Latinized Galatae ) most likely has
3016-416: A unique Goddess with distinct features including an oval eye, long pointed nose, thin lips, round prominent chin, slender curved neck, and flowing hair locks. She wears a honeycomb diadem and a duck visor helmet with a duck head and serpent-like creature. Ducks in Celtic mythology symbolize femininity, divinity, and otherworldly powers, linked to the goddess Sequana and the river Seine. The obverse side portrays
3120-694: A version of the geographical term comb or kame, from PIE “gembh”. The Latin Commeo “to move back and forth” would be very appropriate for the shuttle diplomacy attributed to Commius, but that would imply he was remarkably Romanised for that early date. The name Commius (British *Combios 'cutter, smiter, killer') is thought to derive from the Celtic verb *kom·binati 'to cut, smite, kill' (Welsh cymynu , Old Irish com·ben ). Chris Rudd in his "Ancient British kings and other significant Britons" suggested Com- meaning “friend” or perhaps literally ‘one who lives with? Commios (Comios, Com, Carmanos, Carsisios, Comanvs)
3224-548: A wooden statue of a Celtic deity. [REDACTED] Dating back to 55-45 BC, the Sussex Lyre silver unit features a portrayal of a Diademed goddess head with a distinctive pointed nose, wearing a neck torc and curly hair, possibly representing Trisantona, linked to the River Arun. On the reverse side, a horse with a zigzag tail, spoked wheel, and a unique lyre is depicted. While ancient Celtic lyre details are limited, it
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3328-444: A ‘Civitas’ Capital, indicating it was a minor capital city governing a small tribal region. While maps typically indicate the Atrebates as the tribe occupying Chichester, the name of the city suggests the Regini actually controlled the area. Chichester's Roman name, 'Noviomagus Reginorum,' is widely accepted to translate as ‘New Market,’ but the meaning of 'Reginorum' has been a subject of debate. Originally interpreted as ‘The People of
3432-477: Is a Gallo-Belgic title meaning an "elective monarch”, a title which can be considered to be the same as the more ancient Gallic title Comanus. The title is illustrated on Gaulish numismatics of the Morini (Mvrinos), Andecavi (Ande-com-bos) Carmanum (Comios Carmastos) Sessui (Comios Cajrsicios) Eburones (Eburovi-com) Viducasses (Vde-com). The Commius of Caesar was the confederate head of one or more states in which there
3536-507: Is generally accepted that the Regni broadly occupied the region that later became Sussex. Surrey is sometimes included within Regni territory and sometimes within the territory of the Atrebates to the north. However the archeological record north of the Weald shows significant differences to the south and so it would appear Surrey was not normally included in the Regni tribal area. The tribe
3640-510: Is not actually derived from Latin Gallia (which should have produced * Jaille in French), though it does refer to the same ancient region. Celtic refers to a language family and, more generally, means 'of the Celts' or 'in the style of the Celts'. Several archaeological cultures are considered Celtic, based on unique sets of artefacts. The link between language and artefact is aided by
3744-543: Is now submerged, served as a trade center at the Chichester Harbour inlet, while Tournerbury hill fort is positioned approximately 91 meters from the Solent shoreline on Hayling Island, where Iron Age and Roman pottery have been discovered. Rowlands Castle has shown evidence of Romano-British pottery, bricks, and tiles, benefiting from the nearby availability of suitable clay. Goosehill Camp features multiple enclosure hillforts situated on sloping grounds just below
3848-534: Is primarily a linguistic label. In his 'Celtic from the Centre' theory, he argues that the proto-Celtic language did not originate in central Europe nor the Atlantic, but in-between these two regions. He suggests that it "emerged as a distinct Indo-European dialect around the second millennium BC , probably somewhere in Gaul [centered in modern France] ... whence it spread in various directions and at various speeds in
3952-764: Is the Major Oppidum (City) located in Chichester, along with the Selsey/ Mixton rocks. It's believed that the Cymenshore/Mixton rocks were submerged around the 7th or 8th century AD, Large iron age shrine/votive site, also of significance is the Romano-Belgic Palace found at Fishbourne, which included a coin mint and shrine at Ratham, alongside ironworks at Boxgrove. The discovery of the Mystery Atrebate Warrior and
4056-502: Is unclear. Possible roots include Indo-European * kʲel 'to hide' (seen also in Old Irish ceilid , and Modern Welsh celu ), * kʲel 'to heat' or * kel 'to impel'. It may come from the Celtic language . Linguist Kim McCone supports this view and notes that Celt- is found in the names of several ancient Gauls such as Celtillus, father of Vercingetorix . He suggests it meant the people or descendants of "the hidden one", noting
4160-611: The Histories of Herodotus, which placed the Celts at the source of the Danube . However, Stephen Oppenheimer shows that Herodotus seemed to believe the Danube rose near the Pyrenees , which would place the Ancient Celts in a region which is more in agreement with later classical writers and historians (i.e. in Gaul and Iberia). The theory was also partly based on the abundance of inscriptions bearing Celtic personal names in
4264-530: The 3rd millennium BC , suggesting that the spread of the Bell Beaker culture explained the wide dispersion of the Celts throughout western Europe, as well as the variability of the Celtic peoples. Using a multidisciplinary approach, Alberto J. Lorrio and Gonzalo Ruiz Zapatero reviewed and built on Almagro Gorbea's work to present a model for the origin of Celtic archaeological groups in Iberia and proposing
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4368-475: The Atrebates , initially in Gaul , then in Britain , in the 1st century BC. When Julius Caesar conquered the Atrebates in Gaul in 57 BC, as recounted in his Commentarii de Bello Gallico , he appointed Commius as king of the tribe. Before Caesar's first expedition to Britain in 55 BC, Commius was sent as Caesar's envoy to persuade the Britons not to resist him, as Caesar believed he would have influence on
4472-649: The Gaels ( Irish , Scots and Manx ) and the Celtic Britons ( Welsh , Cornish , and Bretons ) of the medieval and modern periods. A modern Celtic identity was constructed as part of the Romanticist Celtic Revival in Britain, Ireland, and other European territories such as Galicia . Today, Irish , Scottish Gaelic , Welsh , and Breton are still spoken in parts of their former territories, while Cornish and Manx are undergoing
4576-541: The Iberian Peninsula , Ireland and Britain. The languages developed into Celtiberian , Goidelic and Brittonic branches, among others. The mainstream view during most of the twentieth century is that the Celts and the proto-Celtic language arose out of the Urnfield culture of central Europe around 1000 BC, spreading westward and southward over the following few hundred years. The Urnfield culture
4680-537: The Lepontic inscriptions from the 6th century BC. Continental Celtic languages are attested almost exclusively through inscriptions and place-names. Insular Celtic languages are attested from the 4th century AD in Ogham inscriptions , though they were being spoken much earlier. Celtic literary tradition begins with Old Irish texts around the 8th century AD. Elements of Celtic mythology are recorded in early Irish and early Welsh literature. Most written evidence of
4784-464: The first millennium BC ". Sims-Williams says this avoids the problematic idea "that Celtic was spoken over a vast area for a very long time yet somehow avoided major dialectal splits", and "it keeps Celtic fairly close to Italy, which suits the view that Italic and Celtic were in some way linked ". The Proto-Celtic language is usually dated to the Late Bronze Age. The earliest records of
4888-457: The Atrebates and maintaining some autonomy, their close ties to them were apparent, with Noviomagus serving as an early capital for the Atrebates, strategically positioned near a coastal area convenient for Celtic migrations from the mainland. Situated geographically along the southern coast of Britain, they likely assimilated more advanced practices and traded with Continental tribes until the Roman conquest of Gaul . The Regni, in conjunction with
4992-492: The Atrebates in Britain, and was issuing coins from Calleva Atrebatum ( Silchester ). It is possible that Commius and his followers founded this kingdom, although the fact that, when Caesar was unable to bring his cavalry to Britain in 55 BC, Commius was able to provide a small detachment of horsemen from his people, suggests that there were already Atrebates in Britain at this time. Coins marked with his name continued to be issued until about 20 BC, and some have suggested, based on
5096-458: The Atrebates, seemingly saw Rome as a chance to enhance their commerce in opulent textiles, hunting dogs, and Iron goods, thus encouraging a reciprocal exchange of concepts that enriched their culture and technology, potentially giving them an advantage over less developed neighbouring tribes. It is likely that the Regni were among the most assimilated British tribes to Roman culture. They had already developed trade relationships with Rome, maintaining
5200-989: The Atrebates," appears in France's historical fiction collection Clio and can be read in English translation online. Commius appeared in the 2001 French movie Vercingétorix. Caesar (Masters of Rome #5) by Colleen McCullough. A minor character in the series but portrayed accurately to history within a historical fiction novel. Celts Pontic Steppe Caucasus East Asia Eastern Europe Northern Europe Pontic Steppe Northern/Eastern Steppe Europe South Asia Steppe Europe Caucasus India Indo-Aryans Iranians East Asia Europe East Asia Europe Indo-Aryan Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Others European The Celts ( / k ɛ l t s / KELTS , see pronunciation for different usages) or Celtic peoples ( / ˈ k ɛ l t ɪ k / KEL -tik ) were
5304-473: The Bell Beaker culture over the following millennium. His theory is partly based on glottochronology , the spread of ancient Celtic-looking placenames, and thesis that the Tartessian language was Celtic. However, the proposal that Tartessian was Celtic is widely rejected by linguists, many of whom regard it as unclassified. Celticist Patrick Sims-Williams (2020) notes that in current scholarship, 'Celt'
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#17327731962505408-424: The Britons resembled the Gauls in customs and religion. For at least 1,000 years the name Celt was not used at all, and nobody called themselves Celts or Celtic, until from about 1700, after the word 'Celtic' was rediscovered in classical texts, it was applied for the first time to the distinctive culture, history, traditions, language of the modern Celtic nations – Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Cornwall, Brittany, and
5512-511: The Celtic-speaking people of the British and Irish islands, and their descendants. The Celts of Brittany derive their language from migrating Insular Celts from Britain and so are grouped accordingly. The Celtic languages are a branch of the Indo-European languages . By the time Celts are first mentioned in written records around 400 BC, they were already split into several language groups, and spread over much of western mainland Europe,
5616-414: The Celts with the Iron Age Hallstatt culture which followed it ( c. 1200 –500 BC), named for the rich grave finds in Hallstatt , Austria, and with the following La Tène culture ( c. 450 BC onward), named after the La Tène site in Switzerland. It proposes that Celtic culture spread westward and southward from these areas by diffusion or migration . A newer theory, " Celtic from
5720-450: The Continent and the Romans' continued conquests in Gaul, rebellious groups set out across the sea in search of unoccupied lands, especially where local chieftains resisted Roman rule. This likely marked the initial 'invasion' of Sussex, although detailed accounts of battles and conquests are scarce. The Gallo-Belgic tribes, also known as Celts , integrated their dominance into the existing social structure rather than replacing it; even during
5824-437: The Eastern Hallstatt region ( Noricum ). However, Patrick Sims-Williams notes that these date to the later Roman era, and says they suggest "relatively late settlement by a Celtic-speaking elite". In the late 20th century, the Urnfield-Hallstatt theory began to fall out of favour with some scholars, which was influenced by new archaeological finds. 'Celtic' began to refer primarily to 'speakers of Celtic languages' rather than to
5928-455: The Gaulish revolts of 54 BC, and in return Caesar allowed the Atrebates to remain independent and exempt from tax, and in addition appointed Commius to rule the Morini . However this loyalty was not to last, as related by Aulus Hirtius in the final book of the De Bello Gallico , written after Caesar's death. While Caesar was in Cisalpine Gaul in the winter of 53, the legate Titus Labienus believed that Commius had been conspiring against
6032-447: The Gauls claimed descent from an underworld god (according to Commentarii de Bello Gallico ), and linking it with the Germanic Hel . Others view it as a name coined by Greeks; among them linguist Patrizia de Bernardo Stempel , who suggests it meant "the tall ones". In the first century BC, Roman leader Julius Caesar reported that the Gauls called themselves 'Celts', Latin : Celtae , in their own tongue . Thus whether it
6136-405: The Greeks to apply this name for the type of Keltoi that they usually encountered". Because Classical writers did not call the inhabitants of Britain and Ireland Κελτοί ( Keltoi ) or Celtae , some scholars prefer not to use the term for the Iron Age inhabitants of those islands. However, they spoke Celtic languages, shared other cultural traits, and Roman historian Tacitus says
6240-425: The Isle of Man. 'Celt' is a modern English word, first attested in 1707 in the writing of Edward Lhuyd , whose work, along with that of other late 17th-century scholars, brought academic attention to the languages and history of the early Celtic inhabitants of Great Britain. The English words Gaul , Gauls ( pl. ) and Gaulish (first recorded in the 16–17th centuries) come from French Gaule and Gaulois ,
6344-492: The Kingdom,' a comparison with other capitals reveals a different meaning. For instance, the tribal capital of the Durotriges tribe in Dorset (Dorchester) is 'Durotrigium,' corresponding to the land of the Duro(triges). This naming convention is also seen in other regional capitals like Atrebatum (Silchester) within Atrebates territory and Belgarum (Winchester) in Belgae territory. Applying this pattern to Chichester suggests that ‘Reginorum’ should be understood as ‘New Market, Land of
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#17327731962506448-433: The Lavant River, along with earthworks, cross dykes, a camp, and a field system, while a small quantity of gold and silver Celtic coins was discovered. Keynor was identified as an inland trade point that has since become silted. The Regni expanded into the Weald, engaging not only in agriculture but also in exploiting iron resources crucial for their weaponry and tools. Archaeological remains of these industrial sites indicate
6552-414: The Regini Selsey Diadem. Epona, a Gallo-Roman deity associated with horses, was believed to guide souls in the afterlife, resembling the depiction of Rhiannon in the Mabinogion. Rhiannon, like Epona, is often shown with her son Pryderi as a mare and foal, linking her to the Gaulish horse deity Epona. [REDACTED] The Sussex Helmet silver unit dating from 60-20 BC shows a Goddess with a helmet, possibly
6656-420: The Regini.’ The name of this people is not entirely certain. Ptolemy refers to the Ρηγνοι , in Latin Regni , whose only city was Νοιομαγος , Noiomagus . This appears to be the same place as Navimago Regentium or Noviomagus Regionorum , from which Regnenses , occurring in some modern sources, appears to be derived. The location is generally supposed to be Chichester . The Antonine Itinerary refers to
6760-433: The Regni tribe in Britain incorporates regional elements, akin to the similarity observed between Roma in Rome and the goddesses Diana and Minerva. The Commios Ladder head silver units (30 - 45 B.C) depict a Celtic fertility Goddess with unique features like a lentoid eye, swollen cheeks, and a bulbous chin. Her long flowing hair resembles moons, possibly representing a Luna deity. Circular Goat Horns hover above her head, and
6864-411: The Roma goddess by the Regini and Iceni resembles a cult image, possibly representing a British equivalent to deities like Diana/Artemis or Minerva/Pallas Athene. The use of Roman symbolism on Gaulish and British coins reflects a desire to project themselves as autonomous political entities equal to the Roman state. Coin design often coincided with political transformations and administrative reforms, and
6968-427: The Roman administration. Julius Caesar and his successors referred to the Gallic tribes as civitates, the Latin term for organized political entities or states. Similarly, the helmeted head on Roman coins symbolized the civitas Romana, the Roman state. Like the Gauls, the creators of British coin images made a clear distinction between abstract state symbols and depictions of powerful protective goddesses. The depiction of
7072-413: The Romans with other Gaulish tribes. Labienus sent a tribune , Gaius Volusenus Quadratus , and some centurions to summon Commius to a sham meeting at which they would execute him for his treachery, but Commius escaped with a severe head wound. He vowed never again to associate with Romans. In 52 BC the Atrebates joined the pan-Gaulish revolt led by Vercingetorix , and Commius was one of the leaders of
7176-438: The Sussex Weald were likely predominantly indigenous Brythonic communities who interacted with the Belgic-influenced Britons along the West Sussex coast. Regini, appearing to have been predominantly influenced by the Atrebates, could have been either a branch of the Belgic Atrebates or part of a confederation of smaller tribes predating the Atrebates' presence in Sussex and Hampshire. Despite seemingly avoiding complete submission to
7280-493: The West ", suggests proto-Celtic arose earlier, was a lingua franca in the Atlantic Bronze Age coastal zone, and spread eastward. Another newer theory, "Celtic from the Centre", suggests proto-Celtic arose between these two zones, in Bronze Age Gaul, then spread in various directions. After the Celtic settlement of Southeast Europe in the 3rd century BC, Celtic culture reached as far east as central Anatolia , Turkey . The earliest undisputed examples of Celtic language are
7384-481: The abstraction of a civitas personification into a concrete and symbolic entity. This transition highlights how a personified civitas could take on ceremonial and narrative significance. British Brigantia represents one instance of this type of development, while the Icenian personification could be another. In a parallel vein, even the Romans sanctioned a similar evolution by erecting an altar to Roma and Augustus in Lugdunum (Lyons) in 10 BC during Augustus’ reign to act as
7488-486: The accuracy of this claim is ambiguous. Julius Caesar's depiction of the Britons aligns well with the idea of the Regini tribe influenced by Belgic culture. The inland areas of Britain were inhabited by people claiming native heritage, while coastal regions were populated by migrants from Belgium who arrived to engage in warfare. These individuals often took names from their states of origin and settled after conflicts, integrating into agricultural practices. The island sustained
7592-449: The adoption of Roman imagery suggests the emergence of tribal leagues, larger kingdoms, and oligarchic states. The coins produced during this period indicate that groups like the Regini, Belgae, East Wiltshire groups, and Iceni may have viewed themselves as a confederation with shared ceremonial institutions, united by a collective identity and legal system. The word for a People or tribal state in Gaul and Britain at that time, Teuta or Touta,
7696-532: The army that attempted to relieve Vercingetorix at the Siege of Alesia . After Vercingetorix was defeated Commius joined a revolt by the Bellovaci and persuaded some 500 Germans to support them, but this too was defeated and Commius sought refuge with his German allies. In 51 BC he returned to his homeland with a small mounted war-band for a campaign of agitation and guerrilla warfare . That winter Mark Antony ,
7800-647: The burial of the North Bersted Man at Bersted contribute to the historical narrative or the Regini. Trade and fishing activities were prevalent at a small enclosure in Pagham, while Climping was recognized as a major trade center. Coldharbour at the mouth of the Arun yielded a Roman hoard along with gold and silver Celtic coins. The Romano-Belgic Villa at Bognor and another trade center at Tortington also produced gold and silver Celtic numismatics. Arundel served as
7904-679: The burials "dated to roughly the time when Celts are mentioned near the Danube by Herodotus , Ramsauer concluded that the graves were Celtic". Similar sites and artifacts were found over a wide area, which were named the 'Hallstatt culture'. In 1857, the archaeological site of La Tène was discovered in Switzerland. The huge collection of artifacts had a distinctive style. Artifacts of this 'La Tène style' were found elsewhere in Europe, "particularly in places where people called Celts were known to have lived and early Celtic languages are attested. As
8008-447: The case of replacing it with a horsehair or boar-bristle crest in Britain. Additionally, explicit wings might be absent or substituted with a different linear design. In the 1st century BC, various Gallic leaders minted silver quinarius coins featuring a depiction of Roma. These local adaptations of Roma's image included unique elements such as the addition of a Gallic torc necklace and the replacement of Romas gryphon crest with symbols like
8112-590: The city, state, citizenship, origin, and the essence of Roman expansion. Categorized differently from conventional goddesses such as Diana or Minerva , Roma was not associated with sacred tales or ancient Indo-European gods. The helmeted Roman figure of Roma was inspired by Diana and Minerva but stands out due to its distinctive attributes like the Attic helmet adorned with a gryphon crest and tendrils extending to wings. Engravers in Gaul and Britain selectively integrated these specific features. The depiction of "Roma" by
8216-486: The coastal plains. Archaeological investigations on Selsey Island revealed minimal late Iron Age or Roman remains, suggesting that while the area may have been inundated during that period, it was not a main settlement area. The presence of numerous Iron Age gold coins at Selsey Bill may suggest ritual offerings in the marshlands and even into the sea. In the south-eastern part of Britain, we can find original coin designs that skilfully combine Roman official symbols, featuring
8320-684: The early Celts comes from Greco-Roman writers, who often grouped the Celts as barbarian tribes. They followed an ancient Celtic religion overseen by druids . The Celts were often in conflict with the Romans , such as in the Roman–Gallic wars , the Celtiberian Wars , the conquest of Gaul and conquest of Britain . By the 1st century AD, most Celtic territories had become part of the Roman Empire . By c. 500, due to Romanisation and
8424-461: The focal point of the imperial cult for the three Gallic provinces. Throughout the 1st century BC, several Gaulish authorities minted silver quinarius coins featuring the head of Roma. Subtle variations differentiate these local depictions from the original image, suggesting their adoption to convey regional significance. For instance, a Gallic torc necklace might be added, the gryphon crest on Roma's helm could be altered or removed entirely, such as in
8528-508: The island. However he was arrested as soon as he arrived. When the Britons failed to prevent Caesar from landing, Commius was handed over as part of the negotiations. Commius was able to provide a small detachment of cavalry from his tribe to help Caesar defeat further British attacks. During Caesar's second expedition to Britain Commius negotiated the surrender of the British leader Cassivellaunus . He remained Caesar's loyal client through
8632-655: The large developed hill-forts at the Trundle and Cissbury in favour of sophisticated urban centres on the coastal plain. This was particularly in the Selsey-Chichester area, which has since succumbed to coastal erosion. The settlements of the Regni tribe are mapped out in the West Sussex region, particularly situated around the Lavant River and between the river systems of the Arun and Adur. Noteworthy
8736-452: The later Roman era, indigenous Neolithic inhabitants coexisted with Iron Age urban residents in Sussex. Significant newcomers like Commius of the Atrebates, who sought sanctuary in Britain around 52 B.C., brought and promoted a level of civilization influenced by Rome. The Atrebates settled across a wide area encompassing Hampshire, Wiltshire, and parts of eastern Sussex, with some falling under
8840-408: The latter 20th century, when it was accepted that the oldest known Celtic-language inscriptions were those of Lepontic from the 6th century BC and Celtiberian from the 2nd century BC. These were found in northern Italy and Iberia, neither of which were part of the 'Hallstatt' nor 'La Tène' cultures at the time. The Urnfield-Hallstatt theory was partly based on ancient Greco-Roman writings, such as
8944-587: The length of his floruit , that there may have been two kings, father and son, of the same name. However, if Commius was a young man when appointed by Caesar he could very well have lived until 20 BC. Some coins of this period are stamped "COM COMMIOS", which, if interpreted as "Commius son of Commius", would seem to support the two kings theory. Three later kings, Tincomarus , Eppillus and Verica , are named on their coins as sons of Commius. From about 25 BC Commius appears to have ruled in collaboration with Tincomarus. After his death Tincomarus appears to have ruled
9048-410: The likeness of the goddess Roma on the coins issued by the Regni tribe in West Sussex. These symbols reveal the self-perception of the Regni rulers, shedding light on historical political occurrences of the past. The representation of Roma we are examining is a blend influenced by Hellenistic artistic styles, crafted for the Roman denarius in 211 BC. It encapsulates Rome as a political entity, comprising
9152-445: The migration of Germanic tribes, Celtic culture had mostly become restricted to Ireland, western and northern Britain, and Brittany . Between the 5th and 8th centuries, the Celtic-speaking communities in these Atlantic regions emerged as a reasonably cohesive cultural entity. They had a common linguistic, religious and artistic heritage that distinguished them from surrounding cultures. Insular Celtic culture diversified into that of
9256-665: The northern part of the kingdom from Calleva, while Eppillus ruled the southern part from Noviomagus ( Chichester ). Eppillus became sole ruler ca. AD 7. Verica succeeded him about 15, and ruled until shortly before the Roman conquest of 43. Commius (Commios, Comius, Comnios) has no obvious meaning in Celtic, though ‘friend’ or “ally” has been suggested by many etymologists because Com- tends to mean ‘with’ or “together” from archaic form of classical Latin Cum, translated into Germanic means Ge-. Commios might mean something like ‘hill’ In Germanic, as
9360-462: The presence of inscriptions. The modern idea of a Celtic cultural identity or "Celticity" focuses on similarities among languages, works of art, and classical texts, and sometimes also among material artefacts, social organisation , homeland and mythology . Earlier theories held that these similarities suggest a common "racial" ( race is now a contested concept) origin for the various Celtic peoples, but more recent theories hold that they reflect
9464-411: The pursuit. This suggests that the truce negotiated with Antony broke down and hostilities resumed between Commius and Caesar. However John Creighton suggests that Commius was sent to Britain as a condition of his truce with Antony - where better to ensure that he never again met a Roman? - and that Frontinus's anecdote either refers to an escape prior to the truce, or is historically unreliable, perhaps
9568-671: The ridge summit of the Sussex Downs. The Apple Down/Kingley Vale Ancient Forest is known as one of the oldest forests in Europe, containing yew trees that are up to 2,000 years old—some of the oldest living organisms in Great Britain. The Trundle hillfort is found on the notable St. Roche's Hill, recognized as one of the prominent hills along the southern edge of the Sussex Downs. In Chilgrove, Bronze Age and Roman earthworks, cross dykes, and an ancient field system were established. Funtington features Coldharbour trade activities along
9672-515: The rule of the Catuvellauni by 25 B.C. Following the initial 'conquest' and subsequent power shifts, Sussex stabilised into a new order. The influence of the Atrebates extended toward the Ouse and partially into the Weald, while tribes in the northeast and Kent maintained a more defensive stance, with Mount Caburn being a strongly fortified boundary town. The new ruling class notably abandoned
9776-573: The ruling elite. They introduced cremation practices and organized burial sites to replace earlier native burial customs, though their involvement with the powerful Druidic cults of the late Iron Age remains uncertain. Information on the social customs of the Atrebates is limited and subject to potential biases from certain Roman chroniclers. Descriptions by Tacitus portray the south-eastern Britons as having similarities with their Gaulish counterparts: valiant yet hesitant in battle, fond of adorning themselves with woad, and possibly open to polyandry, though
9880-600: The same origin, referring to the Gauls who invaded southeast Europe and settled in Galatia . The suffix -atai might be a Greek inflection. Linguist Kim McCone suggests it comes from Proto-Celtic *galatis ("ferocious, furious"), and was not originally an ethnic name but a name for young warrior bands . He says "If the Gauls' initial impact on the Mediterranean world was primarily a military one typically involving fierce young *galatīs , it would have been natural for
9984-638: The ways in which the Iron Age people of Britain and Ireland should be called Celts. In current scholarship, 'Celt' primarily refers to 'speakers of Celtic languages' rather than to a single ethnic group. The history of pre-Celtic Europe and Celtic origins is debated. The traditional "Celtic from the East" theory, says the proto-Celtic language arose in the late Bronze Age Urnfield culture of central Europe, named after grave sites in southern Germany, which flourished from around 1200 BC. This theory links
10088-539: Was a feminine noun, similar to the Latin Civitas, allowing for personification as a female deity. Just as Roma personified the Roman Civitas, the adapted image of Roma on Gallic and British coins likely represented the existence of a comparable citizen body, Civitas or Teuta. Before the Roman conquest , their land and capital appear to have been part of the territory of the Atrebates , possibly as part of
10192-519: Was created legatus , a rank only ever given to senators , is based on reconstructing the damaged Chichester inscription to read as Cogidubni regis legati Augusti in Britannia ('king and imperial legate in Britain'). It more probably reads Cogidubni regis magni Britanniae ('great king of Britain'). Commius Commius ( Commios , Comius , Comnios ) was a king of the Belgic nation of
10296-406: Was given Roman citizenship by Claudius or Nero . Cogidubnus may have been a relative of Verica , the Atrebatian king whose overthrow was the excuse for the conquest. After Cogidubnus's death, the kingdom would have been incorporated into the directly ruled Roman province and divided into several civitates , including the Atrebates, Belgae , and Regni. Likewise, the theory that Cogidubnus
10400-596: Was given to them by others or not, it was used by the Celts themselves. Greek geographer Strabo , writing about Gaul towards the end of the first century BC, refers to the "race which is now called both Gallic and Galatic ", though he also uses Celtica as another name for Gaul. He reports Celtic peoples in Iberia too, calling them Celtiberi and Celtici . Pliny the Elder noted the use of Celtici in Lusitania as
10504-594: Was no king at the time, and in which he held the highest title Commios. There are no coins extant of this Commius that we know of, so we cannot get at his real name and having afterwards been made king of the Atrebates by Caesar and subsequently of the Morini. French Nobel laureate Anatole France wrote a lengthy short story about the Romanization of Belgic Gaul from the point of view of Commius, whose name he recasts in Germanic form as Komm. The story, "Komm of
10608-664: Was preeminent in central Europe during the late Bronze Age , circa 1200 BC to 700 BC. The spread of iron-working led to the Hallstatt culture (c. 800 to 500 BC) developing out of the Urnfield culture in a wide region north of the Alps. The Hallstatt culture developed into the La Tène culture from about 450 BC, which came to be identified with Celtic art . In 1846, Johann Georg Ramsauer unearthed an ancient grave field with distinctive grave goods at Hallstatt , Austria. Because
10712-717: Was surrounded on the west by the Belgae , on the north by the Atrebates , and on the east by the Cantiaci . To the south and east across the Oceanus Britannicus or Oceanus Gallicus (the present day English Channel ) lay Gaul and the tribal areas of the Caletes , Veliocasses , Catuslugi , Ambiani and the Morini . The tribe’s existence is traced to the city of Chichester. During the Roman era, Chichester served as
10816-605: Was used by Celtic bards from the 8th century BC and was later called the lyra during the Roman period. Made largely of wood with bone elements, the lyre had animal intestine strings in its resonator. Despite probably adopting it from the Greeks, the Gauls and other Celtic groups valued the crwth (Lyra) as a symbol of their musical heritage. The Gauls and Britons associated the instrument with their religious customs, using it in rituals and hymns for their tribal deities. [REDACTED] The Chichester Goddess Silver unit (50-30 BC) depicts
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