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55-683: The Tectosagii were a group of the Volcae who moved through Macedonia into Anatolia c. 277 BC. Strabo says the Tectosagii came originally from the region near modern Toulouse , in France. They are mentioned as Volcis and Volcarum by Caesar (mid-1st c. BC), as Ou̓ólkai (Οὐόλκαι) by Strabo (early 1st c. AD) and Ptolemy (2nd c. AD), and as Volce on the Tabula Peutingeriana (4–5th c. AD). Most modern Celtologists regard

110-631: A Gaulish tribe which still remained in western Germany in his day ( Gallic War 6.24): And there was formerly a time when the Gauls excelled the Germans in prowess, and waged war on them offensively, and, on account of the great number of their people and the insufficiency of their land, sent colonies over the Rhine. Accordingly, the Volcae Tectosages, seized on those parts of Germany which are

165-455: A Proto-Celtic form * elko - ~ * olko -, which may be compared with Old Norse illr (from Proto-Germanic * elhja - < Pre-Germanic * elkyo -; cf. the Finnish loanword elkiä 'mean, malicious'); he proposes that reflexes of PIE * wḷkʷos ('wolf') include Old Irish foilc (from a 9th-century poem) and Old Welsh gueilc[h] (from the poem Y Gododdin ). After Volcae Tectosages settled in

220-596: A century ago, "The Tectosages reported by Caesar as still being around the Hercynian forest were in fact living in the old homes of their race, whence a portion of them set out on their great expedition against Greece, and eventually settled in Galatia , in Asia Minor, where one of the tribes was called Tectosages." The Volcae Arecomici ( Οὐόλκαι Ἀρικόμιοι of Ptolemy's Geography ii), according to Strabo, dwelt on

275-685: A grand scale and the concentration of skilled craftsmen under the patronage of strong and wealthy chieftains. This culture flourished from the mid second to the mid-1st century BCE, until it buckled under the combined pressure of the Germanic peoples from the North and the Dacians from the East. Allowance must be made for Julius Caesar's usual equation of primitive poverty with admirable hardihood and military prowess and his connection of luxurious imports and

330-529: A latinized form of Gaulish * Textosagioi ( sing. Textosagios ), where the voiceless velar fricative ⟨x⟩, unknown in Latin, was replaced with the sound ⟨k⟩. It can be translated as 'those who seek a dwelling', or 'those who seek possessions', from the Celtic stem *texto- ('goods, property, possessions'; cf. Old Irish techt 'possession') attached to sagi- ('who is seeking'). The name can be compared with

385-782: A major role in dismembering what was left of the Western Roman Empire . Large parts of Germania, including all of Roman Germania, were eventually incorporated into the Frankish Empire . From the 1st to the 4th century AD, Magna Germania corresponds archaeologically to the Roman Iron Age . In recent years, progress in archaeology has contributed greatly to the understanding of Germania. Areas of Magna Germania were largely agrarian , and display archaeological commonalities with each other, while being strongly differentiated from that of Roman Germania, largely due to

440-790: A mixed Celtic, Germanic and Roman population, which became progressively Romanized . By the mid 1st century AD, between eight and ten Roman legions were stationed in Roman Germania to protect the frontiers. From AD 69 to AD 70, Roman Germania was heavily affected by the Revolt of the Batavi . Tacitus writes that the leader of the revolt, Gaius Julius Civilis , recruited a vast amount of warriors from his self-described "kinsmen" all over Germania, and hailed Arminius for having liberated Germania from slavery. Civilis' rebels seized Colonia (modern-day Cologne ), capital of Roman Germania and home of

495-694: A result, Tolosa was sacked, and thereafter the town and its territory were absorbed into Gallia Narbonensis, thereby establishing firm control over the western Gallic trade corridor along the Carcassonne Gap and the Garonne. The Volcae were highly influential in Moravia, and together with the Boii and the Cotini and other Danubian tribes, they controlled a highly active network of trade routes connected to

550-596: A stem * ǵhwol-k -, itself based on the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) root * ǵʷhel- ('bend, curve'). In this view, the animal may have been named after the shape of his beak, just like the Ancient Greek harpē designates both a sickle and a bird of prey. Alternatively, the name Uolcae has been derived by some scholars from the PIE name of the wolf, * wḷkʷos . According to Ranko Matasović , however, this

605-584: Is thus considered one of the most important events in European history . The Rhine eventually became the border between the Roman Empire and Magna Germania. Areas of northeast Gaul bordering the Rhine remained under Roman control, and are often referred to as "Roman Germania". Four Roman legions were stationed there, and a Roman fleet, the Classis Germanica , was also established. The area

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660-622: Is unlikely since the Gaulish form would have preserved the o-grade * wolkʷo -; he argues that descendants of Proto-Celtic * ulkʷos ('bad, evil' < PIE * wḷkʷos 'wolf') rather include Lepontic Ulkos and Old Irish olc ('bad, evil'). Delamarre finds it doubtful since * wḷkʷos would have given ** flech (rather than olc ) in Old Irish and ** ulipos in Gaulish (after the P-Celtic sound shift). John T. Koch derives Old Irish olc from

715-775: The Limes Germanicus . The 3rd century AD saw the emergence of several powerful Germanic confederations in Magna Germania, such as the Alemanni and Franks . The Crisis of the Third Century included raids on Roman Germania by Alemanni and Franks, and the area briefly became part of the Gallic Empire established by the usurper Postumus . Around 280 AD, the Agri Decumates were evacuated by

770-600: The Balkans forced the Romans to withdraw troops from Roman Germania. In 406, a large number of people fleeing the Huns crossed the Rhine from Magna Germania into Roman Germania and Gaul, leading to the eventual collapse of Roman rule there, and the emigration of large numbers of Romans, particularly Roman elites. Roman Germania was subsequently occupied by Alemanni and Franks. During subsequent centuries, peoples of Germania played

825-555: The Bosporus instead. As a result, Tectosages was also the name of one of the three great communities of Gauls who invaded and settled in Anatolia in the country called after them " Galatia ". Venceslas Kruta suggests that their movement into this region was probably motivated by a Carthaginian recruiting post situated close by, a main attraction of the region for Celtic mercenaries eager for more campaigning. Indeed, after crossing

880-526: The Hercynian forest (Central Europe), neighbouring Germanic tribes designated them by the name * walhaz , a loanword from Gaulish uolcos that came to refer more generally to Celtic and Romance speakers in medieval Germanic languages (e.g. Welsh , Waals , Vlachs ). Julius Caesar was convinced that the Volcae had originally been settled east of the Rhine , for he mentioned the Volcae Tectosages as

935-558: The Rhine in the west to beyond the Vistula river in the east, and from the Danube in the south and northwards along the North and Baltic seas, including Scandinavia . Germania Superior encompassed parts of modern-day Switzerland, southwest Germany and eastern France, while Germania Inferior encompassed much of modern-day Belgium and Netherlands. In his Geography (AD 150),

990-750: The Roman Iron Age of those regions. The Latin name Germania means "land of the Germani ", but the etymology of the name Germani itself is uncertain. During the Gallic Wars of the 1st century BC, the Roman general Julius Caesar encountered Germani originating from beyond the Rhine . He referred to their lands beyond the Rhine as "Germania". West of the Rhine, the prosperous Roman provinces of Germania Superior and Germania Inferior, sometimes collectively referred to as "Roman Germania", were established in northeast Roman Gaul , while territories east of

1045-691: The Roman Republic in 121 BC. They occupied the district between the Garonne ( Garumna ), the Cévennes ( Cebenna mons ), and the Rhône. This area covered most of the western part of the Roman province of Gallia Narbonensis . They held their assemblies in the sacred wood of Nemausus , the site of modern Nîmes . In Gaul they were divided into two tribes in widely separated regions, the Arecomici on

1100-586: The Elbe and the Rhine the Roman rods, axes, and toga... If you prefer your fatherland, your ancestors, your ancient life to tyrants and to new colonies, follow as your leader Arminius to glory and to freedom..." — Arminius In the late 1st century BC, the Roman emperor Augustus launched campaigns across the Rhine, and incorporated areas of Germania as far east as the Elbe into the Roman Empire , creating

1155-527: The Germani. He also writes that Germani had once crossed the Rhine into northeast Gaul and driven away its Gallic inhabitants, and that the Belgae claimed to be largely descended from these Germanic invaders. "There are still to be seen in the groves of Germany the Roman standards which I hung up to our country's gods... [O]ne thing there is which Germans will never thoroughly excuse, their having seen between

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1210-528: The Germanic Ubii, who according to Tacitus were considered traitors by other Germani for having "forsworn its native country". After initially seeking to raze all of Colonia to the ground, the forces of Civilis declared the city returned "into the unity of the German nation and name" and "an open city for all Germans". Although initially declaring the rebels and "other Germans" their "kinsmen by blood",

1265-766: The Hérault ( Arauris ) or a line between the Hérault River and the Orb ( Orbis ). Strabo says the Volcae Tectosages came originally from the region near modern Toulouse and were part of the Volcae. The territory of the Volcae Tectosages (Οὐόλκαι Τεκτόσαγες of Ptolemy's Geography ii) in Gaul lay outside the Roman Republic, to the southwest of the Volcae Arecomici. From the 3rd century BC, the capital city of

1320-524: The Mediterranean and the German lands. [REDACTED] Media related to Volcae at Wikimedia Commons Tectosagii The Tectosages or Tectosagii ( Gaulish : * Textosagioi , 'Dwelling-Seekers', or 'Possessions-Seekers') were one of the three ancient Gallic tribes of Galatia in central Asia Minor , together with the Tolistobogii and Trocmii . The ethnonym Tectosagii is

1375-675: The Old Irish legal term techtaigidir , meaning 'to seek to establish (or reestablish) legal claim to land'. According to Strabo , the Tectosages came originally from the region around Tolosa in Gaul , where they had been part of the tribal confederation of the Volcae . During the Gallic invasion of the Balkans , c. 280 BC, a branch of the Volcae Tectosages, returning from Delphi , split from

1430-696: The Pyrenees in 218 BC, Hannibal in travelling through southern Gaul was greeted by warlike tribes: the Volcae, the Arverni , the Allobroges , and the Gaesatae of the Rhône Valley, who rose to prominence around the middle of the 3rd century BC. From around that time, this part of Gaul underwent a process of stabilization buttressed by the formation of new and powerful tribal confederations as well as

1485-520: The Rhine remained independent of Roman control. The Roman emperors also sought to expand east of the Rhine to the Elbe , but these efforts were hampered by the victory of Arminius at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD. From the 3rd century AD, Germanic peoples moving out of Magna Germania began encroaching upon and occupying parts of Roman Germania. This contributed to the fall of

1540-428: The Rhine, but it became an "artificial name" ( invento nomine ) for supposedly-related peoples east of the Rhine. Many modern scholars consider Tacitus's story to be plausible, but they are unsure whether the name was commonly used by Germani to refer to themselves. The boundaries of Germania are not clearly defined, particularly at its northern and eastern fringes. Magna Germania stretched approximately from

1595-436: The Roman geographer Ptolemy provides descriptions of the geography of Germania. Modern scholars have been able to localize many of the place names mentioned by Ptolemy, and associated them with place names of the present day. Germania was inhabited by a large number of peoples, and there was not much unity among them. It appears that Germania was not entirely inhabited by Germanic peoples . Hydronymy provides evidence for

1650-459: The Romans and occupied by Alemanni. Under Diocletian (3rd century AD), Germania Superior was renamed Germania Secunda , while Germania Inferior was renamed Maxima Sequanorum . Both provinces were under the Diocese of Gaul . The provinces of Roman Germania continued to be subjected to repeated Alemannic and Frankish attacks. In the late 4th century AD and early 5th century AD, Gothic Wars in

1705-546: The Tolistobogii in the west and the Trocmii to the east. Germania Germania ( / dʒ ər ˈ m eɪ n i . ə / jər- MAY -nee-ə ; Latin: [ɡɛrˈmaːni.a] ), also more specifically called Magna Germania (English: Great Germania ), Germania Libera (English: Free Germania ), or Germanic Barbaricum to distinguish it from the Roman provinces of Germania Inferior and Germania Superior ,

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1760-634: The Ubii, a Germanic Tribe eventually assisted the Romans in recapturing the Colonia. In the late 1st century AD, under the leadership of the Flavian dynasty , the provinces of Germania Inferior (headquartered at Colonia) and Germania Superior (headquartered at Mogontiacum ) were created out of Roman Germania and other eastern parts of Roman Gaul . They hosted a large military force and carried out lucrative trade with Magna Germania, which greatly contributed to

1815-464: The Volcae Tectosages was Tolosa (Toulouse). When the Cimbri and Teutones invaded Gaul, the Tectosages allied themselves with them, and their town Tolosa was sacked in retribution by Quintus Servilius Caepio in 106 BC. Tolosa was incorporated into the Roman Republic as part of the province of Gallia Aquitania with the conquest of Gaul by Julius Caesar in 52 BC. The Roman conquest of Tolosa ended

1870-559: The Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD, after which territories of Roman Germania were captured and settled by migrating Germanic people. Large parts of Germania subsequently became part of the Frankish Empire and later East Francia . The name of Germany in English and many other languages is derived from the name Germania . "The name Germany , on the other hand, they say, is modern and newly introduced, from

1925-483: The absence of cities and independent coinage . Archaeological discoveries testify to flourishing trade between Magna Germania and the Roman Empire. Amber was a primary export out of Magna Germania, while Roman luxury goods were imported on a large scale. Such goods have been found as far as Scandinavia and Western Russia . The name Germania is attested in Old English translations of Bede and Orosius . Since

1980-470: The cultural identity of the Volcae Tectosages. According to Ptolemy's Geography , their inland towns were Illiberis , Ruscino , Tolosa colonia , Cessero , Carcaso , Baetirae , and Narbo colonia . The Volcae Tectosages were among the successful raiders of the Delphi expedition and were said to have transported their booty to Tolosa. A significant part of these raiders however did not return and crossed

2035-404: The development of new-style settlements, such as Tolosa and Nemausus (Nîmes), resembling the urban centers of the Mediterranean world. In 107, the Volcae, allies of the Tigurini , a branch of the Helvetii who belonged to a coalition that formed around the Cimbri and the Teutons, defeated a Roman army at Tolosa. In 106-5, Q. Servilius Caepio was sent with an army to put down the revolt, and as

2090-419: The east, living among the Ligures , and the Tectosages (whose territory included that of the Tolosates) on the west, living among the Aquitani ; the territories were separated by the Hérault ( Arauris ) or a line between the Hérault and the Orb ( Orbis ). West of the Arecomici the Volcae Tectosages (whose territory included that of the Tolosates) lived among the Aquitani; the territories were separated by

2145-399: The etymology of the name Germani . Celtic , Germanic , Illyrian and Latin etymologies have been suggested. The main source on the origin of the names Germania and Germani is the book Germania (98 AD) by Tacitus . Tacitus writes that the name Germania was "modern and newly introduced". According to Tacitus, the name Germani had once been applied only to the Tungri , west of

2200-473: The fact that the tribes which first crossed the Rhine and drove out the Gauls, and are now called Tungrians, were then called Germans. Thus what was the name of a tribe, and not of a race, gradually prevailed, till all called themselves by this self-invented name of Germans, which the conquerors had first employed to inspire terror." — Tacitus In Latin , the name Germania means "lands where people called Germani live". Modern scholars do not agree on

2255-449: The main group and joined two other tribes, the Tolistobogii and the Trocmi. Around 278 BC, they were hired as mercenaries by Nicomedes I of Bithynia and crossed the Bosporus . After leaving Bithynia, they raided in Asia Minor and finally settled in eastern Phrygia , where they established a new Celtic confederate identity as the Galatians . The Tectosages occupied the centre of the Galatian territory, round their capital Ancyra , with

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2310-410: The most fruitful [and lie] around the Hercynian forest , (which, I perceive, was known by report to Eratosthenes and some other Greeks, and which they call Orcynia), and settled there. Which nation to this time retains its position in those settlements, and has a very high character for justice and military merit; now also they continue in the same scarcity, indigence, hardihood, as the Germans, and use

2365-430: The name from the Gauls . Having defeated the Germanic chieftain Ariovistus in Gaul , Caesar built bridges across the Rhine and conducted punitive expeditions in Germania. He writes the area was composed of numerous Germanic states, which were not entirely united. According to Caesar, the Gallic Volcae Tectosages had once crossed the Rhine and colonized parts of Germania, but had since become militarily inferior to

2420-444: The personal names Uolcius , Uolcenius , Uolcenia , Uolcinius , Uolcacius , Uolciani , and Uolcanus . The Old English wealc - ('hawk'), which has no known cognate in other Germanic languages, was most likely borrowed from Old Brittonic *wealkos . The etymology of those forms remains obscure. Xavier Delamarre has proposed to derive Gaulish uolcos – alongside Latin falcō ('falcon') and falx , falcis ('hook, sickle') – from

2475-417: The presence of another Indo-European group, which probably lived under Germanic domination. During the Gallic Wars of the 1st century BC, the Roman general Julius Caesar came into contact with peoples originating east of the Rhine. In his Commentarii de Bello Gallico , Caesar refers to these peoples as the Germani, and the lands from where they originated as Germania. The Romans appear to have borrowed

2530-424: The proximity of "civilization", meaning his own, with softness and decadence. In fact, long-established trading connections furnished Gaulish elites with Baltic amber and Greek and Etruscan wares. Caesar took it as a given that the Celts in the Hercynian Forest were emigrant settlers from Gaul who had "seized" the land, but modern archeology identifies the region as part of the La Tène homeland. As Henry Howarth noted

2585-407: The renown attributed to the Volcae "in peace and in war" resulted from their metallurgical skills and the quality of their weapons, both attracting the attention of their northern neighbors. Together with the Boii in the upper basin of the Elbe river to the west and the Cotini in Slovakia to the east, this area of Celtic settlement in oppida led to the exploitation of natural resources on

2640-412: The same food and dress; but their proximity to the Province and knowledge of commodities from countries beyond the sea supplies to the Gauls many things tending to luxury as well as civilization. Accustomed by degrees to be overmatched and worsted in many engagements, they do not now even compare themselves to the Germans in prowess. Caesar related a tradition associating the Celtic tribe of the Volcae to

2695-404: The short-lived Roman province of Germania Antiqua in 7 BC, with further aims of establishing a greater province of Magna Germania, with headquarters at Colonia (modern-day Cologne ). The Roman campaign was severely hampered by the victory of Arminius at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in AD 9. The outcome of this battle dissuaded the Romans from their ambition of conquering Germania, and

2750-446: The tribal name Uolcae ( sing. Uolcos ) as stemming from a Gaulish noun uolcos , uolca ('hawk, falcon'), which can be compared with the Welsh gwalch ('hawk, rascal' > 'fighter'). In particular, the Gaulish personal name Catu-uolcos has an exact parallel in the Welsh cadwalch ('hero, champion, warrior'), itself from an earlier Old Brittonic * katu-wealkos ('battle-hawk'). The Gaulish stem uolc - can also be found in

2805-403: The vast Hercynian Forest, although they were possibly located in the eastern range of the České Středohoří ; yet, Volcae of his time were settled in Moravia , east of the Boii . Their apparent movement may indicate that the Volcae were newcomers to the region. Caesar's remark about the wealth of this region may have referred not only to agriculture but also to the mineral deposits there, while

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2860-440: The wealth of Roman Gaul. Germania (98 AD) by Tacitus provided vivid descriptions of the peoples of Magna Germania. In the late 1st and early 2nd century AD, the Romans reoccupied areas lying between the Rhine, Main, and Danube rivers. This area became known as the Agri Decumates . Additional numbers of Germani were settled by the Romans within this area. The Roman fortifications on the border with Magna Germania were known as

2915-454: The western side of the lower Rhône , with their metropolis at Narbo ( Narbonne ): "Narbo is spoken of as the naval-station of these people alone, though it would be fairer to add 'and of the rest of Celtica', so greatly has it surpassed the others in the number of people who use it as a trade-centre." They were not alone in occupying their territory, with its capital at Nemausus ( Nîmes ). The Volcae Arecomici of their own accord surrendered to

2970-414: Was a historical region in north-central Europe during the Roman era , which was associated by Roman authors with the Germanic peoples . According to Roman geographers, this region stretched roughly from the Rhine in the west to the Vistula in the east, and to the Upper Danube in the south, and the known parts of southern Scandinavia in the north. Archaeologically, these people correspond roughly to

3025-490: Was effectively governed as Roman provinces . Areas of Germania independent of Roman control were referred to as "Magna Germania". Modern scholars sometimes refer to the Magna Germania as "Free Germania" (Latin: Germania Libera ) or Germanic Barbaricum . As parts of Roman social engineering efforts, large numbers of Germani, including Ubii and Sicambri , were settled within Roman Germania in order to prevent revolts by resident Gauls. Roman Germania became characterized by

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