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135-600: The River Brethren are a group of historically related Anabaptist Christian denominations originating in 1770, during the Radical Pietist movement among German colonists in Pennsylvania . In the 17th century, Mennonite refugees from Switzerland had settled their homes near the Susquehanna River in the northeastern United States. Their religious guides, Jacob and John Engle, joined with
270-528: A New Jerusalem , and their pacifist brethren, later broadly known as Mennonites. Radical Anabaptist groups included the Münsterites and the Batenburgers , who persisted in various guises as late as the 1570s. Amish The Amish ( / ˈ ɑː m ɪ ʃ / , also / ˈ æ m ɪ ʃ / or / ˈ eɪ m ɪ ʃ / ; Pennsylvania German : Amisch ; German: Amische ), formally
405-589: A schism in Switzerland within a group of Swiss and Alsatian Mennonite Anabaptists in 1693 led by Jakob Ammann . Those who followed Ammann became known as Amish. In the second half of the 19th century, the Amish divided into Old Order Amish and Amish Mennonites ; the latter do not abstain from using motor cars, whereas the Old Order Amish retained much of their traditional culture. When people refer to
540-402: A 2017 report by Canadian Mennonite magazine: The customs of Old Order Mennonites, the Amish communities and Old Colony Mennonites have a number of similarities, but the cultural differences are significant enough so that members of one group would not feel comfortable moving to another group. The Old Order Mennonites and Amish have the same European roots and the language spoken in their homes
675-487: A competition for status goods, or photographs might cultivate personal vanity. Electric power lines would be going against the Bible, which says that you shall not be "conformed to the world" ( Romans 12:2 ). Amish church membership begins with baptism , usually between the ages of 16 and 23. It is a requirement for marriage within the Amish church. Once a person is baptized within the church, he or she may marry only within
810-434: A confession of faith that is freely chosen and so rejected baptism of infants. The New Testament teaches to repent and then be baptized, and infants are not able to repent and turn away from sin to a life of following Jesus. The early members of this movement did not accept the name Anabaptist, claiming that infant baptism was not part of scripture and was therefore null and void. They said that baptizing self-confessed believers
945-549: A danger to religious stability. The persecution of Anabaptists was condoned by the ancient laws of Theodosius I and Justinian I which were passed against the Donatists , and decreed the death penalty for anyone who practised rebaptism. Martyrs Mirror , by Thieleman J. van Braght, describes the persecution and execution of thousands of Anabaptists in various parts of Europe between 1525 and 1660. Continuing persecution in Europe
1080-555: A form of Bernese German (Adams County, IN and daughter settlements) or a Low Alemannic Alsatian dialect (Allen County, IN and daughter settlements). Contrary to popular belief, the word "Dutch" in "Pennsylvania Dutch" is not a mistranslation, but rather a corruption of the Pennsylvania German endonym Deitsch , which means "Pennsylvania Dutch / German" or "German". Ultimately, the terms Deitsch, Dutch , Diets and Deutsch are all cognates and descend from
1215-507: A greater extent, and were perhaps more likely to maintain a separate Amish identity. There are a number of Amish Mennonite church groups that had never in their history been associated with the Old Order Amish because they split from the Amish mainstream in the time when the Old Orders formed in the 1860s and 1870s. The former Western Ontario Mennonite Conference (WOMC) was made up almost entirely of former Amish Mennonites who reunited with
1350-507: A heavy emphasis is placed on church and family relationships. The Old Order Amish typically operate their own one-room schools and discontinue formal education after grade eight (age 13 – 14). Most Amish do not buy commercial insurance or participate in Social Security . As present-day Anabaptists , Amish church members practice nonresistance and will not perform any type of military service. The Anabaptist movement, from which
1485-533: A horse and buggy. The Amish are known for their plain attire. Men wear solid colored shirts, broad-brimmed hats, and suits that signify similarity amongst one another. Amish men grow beards to symbolize manhood and marital status, as well as to promote humility. They are forbidden from growing mustaches because mustaches are seen by the Amish as being affiliated with the military, to which they are strongly opposed, due to their pacifist beliefs. Women have similar guidelines on how to dress, which are also expressed in
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#17327726692731620-584: A leader among the Emmentalers) argued that fallen believers should only be withheld from communion , and not regular meals. The Amish argued that those who had been banned should be avoided even in common meals. The Reistian side eventually formed the basis of the Swiss Mennonite Conference . Because of this common heritage, Amish and conservative Mennonites from southern Germany and Switzerland retain many similarities. Those who leave
1755-474: A letter to Thomas Müntzer in 1524: "True Christian believers are sheep among wolves, sheep for the slaughter ... Neither do they use worldly sword or war, since all killing has ceased with them." Anabaptists are considered to have begun with the Radical Reformation in the 16th century, but historians classify certain people and groups as their forerunners because of a similar approach to
1890-585: A literal interpretation of the Sermon on the Mount share in common the following affirmations: On December 27, 1521, three "prophets" from Zwickau appeared in Wittenberg who were influenced by (and, in turn, influencing) Thomas Müntzer – Thomas Dreschel, Nicholas Storch , and Mark Thomas Stübner. They preached an apocalyptic, radical alternative to Lutheranism . Their preaching helped to stir
2025-735: A lot of contact with more progressive Mennonites and the outside world, had the result that many of these men never joined the Amish church. In the 1950s, the Beachy Amish laid heavy emphasis on the New Birth , personal holiness and Sunday School education. The ones who wanted to preserve the old way of the Beachy became the Old Beachy Amish . In 1966, the New Order Amish were formed after certain congregations left
2160-671: A member has a conversion experience , he or she begins taking part in the experience meeting and then requests baptism . The Old Order River Brethren continue the practice of plain dress . Several factions of the River Brethren withdrew in the middle of the 19th century, including the Yorker Brethren and the United Zion Church, while the main body took the name Brethren in Christ, by which a group of Mennonites
2295-452: A part of Anabaptist Christianity. The Amish are known for simple living , plain dress , Christian pacifism , and slowness to adopt many conveniences of modern technology, with a view neither to interrupt family time, nor replace face-to-face conversations whenever possible, and a view to maintain self-sufficiency. The Amish value rural life, manual labor, humility and Gelassenheit (submission to God's will). The Amish church began with
2430-494: A related but distinct group. According to one scholar, "today, almost all Amish are functionally bilingual in Pennsylvania Dutch and English; however, domains of usage are sharply separated. Pennsylvania Dutch dominates in most in-group settings, such as the dinner table and preaching in church services. In contrast, English is used for most reading and writing. English is also the medium of instruction in schools and
2565-437: A reluctance to be forward, to be self-promoting, or to assert oneself. The Amish's willingness to submit to the "Will of Jesus ", expressed through group norms, is at odds with the individualism so central to the wider American culture. The Amish anti-individualist orientation is the motive for rejecting labor-saving technologies that might make one less dependent on the community. Modern innovations such as electricity might spark
2700-449: A request and desire, Conrad baptized him, since at that time there was no ordained minister to perform such work. Afterwards Blaurock was baptized, and he in turn baptized others at the meeting. Even though some had rejected infant baptism before this date, these baptisms marked the first re-baptisms of those who had been baptized as infants and thus Swiss Anabaptism was born on that day. Anabaptism appears to have come to Tyrol through
2835-531: A role in the Old Order division of the second half of the 19th century. Telephones were the first important technology that was rejected, soon followed by the rejection of cars, tractors, radios, and many other technological inventions of the 20th century. Old Order Mennonites, Old Colony Mennonites and the Amish are often grouped together in North America's popular press. This is incorrect, according to
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#17327726692732970-563: A year by all members of the church. Only if all members give their consent to it, Lord's supper is held. The Ordnung must be observed by every member and covers many aspects of day-to-day living, including prohibitions or limitations on the use of power-line electricity , telephones , and automobiles , as well as regulations on clothing . As present-day Anabaptists , Amish church members practice nonresistance and will not perform any type of military service. The Amish value rural life, manual labor, humility, and Gelassenheit , all under
3105-583: Is 'one of a handful of minority languages in the United States that is neither endangered nor supported by continual arrivals of immigrants.'" The Amish largely share a German or Swiss -German ancestry. They generally use the term "Amish" only for members of their faith community and not as an ethnic designation. However some Amish descendants recognize their cultural background knowing that their genetic and cultural traits are uniquely different from other ethnicities. Those who choose to affiliate with
3240-596: Is agreed upon – or changed – within the whole community of baptized members prior to Communion which takes place two times a year. The meeting where the Ordnung is discussed is called Ordnungsgemeine in Standard German and Ordningsgmee in Pennsylvania Dutch. The Ordnung include matters such as dress, permissible uses of technology, religious duties, and rules regarding interaction with outsiders. In these meetings, women also vote in questions concerning
3375-502: Is also known. There were about 11,000 members in the United States and Canada in 1992. They carry out missionary work in Asia and Africa. Anabaptist Anabaptism (from Neo-Latin anabaptista , from the Greek ἀναβαπτισμός : ἀνά 're-' and βαπτισμός ' baptism '; German : Täufer , earlier also Wiedertäufer ) is a Christian movement which traces its origins to
3510-493: Is important because women are not allowed to wear jewelry, such as wedding rings, as it is seen as drawing attention to the body which can induce pride in the individual. All clothing is sewn by hand, but the way to fasten the garment widely depends on whether the Amish person is a part of the New Order or Old Order Amish. The Old Order Amish seldom, if ever, use buttons because they are seen as too flashy; instead, they use
3645-452: Is said to have brought more people into early Anabaptism than all the other Anabaptist evangelists of his time put together. However, there may have been confusion about what his baptism (at least some of the times it was done by making the sign of the Tau on the forehead) may have meant to the recipient. Some seem to have taken it as a sign by which they would escape the apocalyptical revenge of
3780-422: Is seen as a forerunner of South German Anabaptism because of his reforming theology that rejected many Catholic practices, including infant baptism. However, Karlstadt is not known to have been "rebaptized", nor to have taught it. Hans Denck and Hans Hut, both with German mystical background (in connection with Thomas Müntzer) both accepted "rebaptism", but Denck eventually backed off from the idea under pressure. Hut
3915-472: Is similar to the American average though they tend to eat more preserved meat. Amish cuisine is often mistaken for the similar cuisine of the Pennsylvania Dutch with some ethnographic and regional variances, as well as differences in what cookbook writers and food historians emphasize about the traditional foodways and intertwined religious culture and celebrations of Amish communities. While myths about
4050-426: Is the same German dialect. Old Colony Mennonites use Low German, a different German dialect. Two key concepts for understanding Amish practices are their rejection of Hochmut (pride, arrogance, haughtiness) and the high value they place on Demut (humility) and Gelassenheit (calmness, composure, placidity), often translated as "submission" or "letting be". Gelassenheit is perhaps better understood as
4185-535: Is the theory that the Anabaptists are of Waldensian origin. Some hold the idea that the Waldensians are part of the apostolic succession, while others simply believe they were an independent group out of whom the Anabaptists arose. Ludwig Keller , Thomas M. Lindsay, Henry Clay Vedder , Delbert Grätz, John T. Christian and Thieleman J. van Braght (author of Martyrs Mirror ) all held, in varying degrees,
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4320-570: Is used in business transactions and often, out of politeness, in situations involving interactions with non-Amish. Finally, the Amish read prayers and sing in Standard German (which, in Pennsylvania Dutch, is called Hochdeitsch ) at church services. The distinctive use of three different languages serves as a powerful conveyor of Amish identity. "Although 'the English language is being used in more and more situations,' Pennsylvania Dutch
4455-488: The Ordnung , the Amish version of legislation. They are to wear calf-length dresses, muted colors along with bonnets and aprons . Prayer kapps and bonnets are worn by the women because they are a visual representation of their religious beliefs and promote unity through the tradition of every woman wearing one. The color of the bonnet signifies whether a woman is single or married. Single women wear black bonnets and married women wear white. The color coding of bonnets
4590-467: The Ordnung . Bearing children, raising them, and socializing with neighbors and relatives are the greatest functions of the Amish family. Amish typically believe that large families are a blessing from God. Farm families tend to be larger, because sons are needed to perform farm labor. Community is central to the Amish way of life. Working hard is considered godly, and some technological advancements have been considered undesirable because they reduce
4725-568: The Stäbler (staff-bearing). Wiedemann and those with him also promoted the practice of community of goods . With orders from the lords of Liechtenstein to leave Nikolsburg, about 200 Stäbler withdrew to Moravia to form a community at Austerlitz . Persecution in South Tyrol brought many refugees to Moravia, many of whom formed into communities that practised community of goods. Others came from Silesia , Switzerland, German lands, and
4860-557: The Dunkard Brethren Church , Conservative Mennonites and Beachy Amish have retained traditional religious practices and theology, while allowing for judicious use of modern conveniences and advanced technology. Emphasizing an adherence to the beliefs of early Christianity , as a whole Anabaptists are distinguished by their keeping of practices that often include nonconformity to the world, "the love feast with feet washing, laying on of hands, anointing with oil, and
4995-530: The Low Countries . Hoffman had picked up Lutheran and Reformed ideas, but on April 23, 1530, he was "re-baptized" at Strasbourg and within two months had gone to Emden and baptized about 300 persons. For several years Hoffman preached in the Low Countries until he was arrested and imprisoned at Strasbourg, where he died about 10 years later. Hoffman's apocalyptic ideas were indirectly related to
5130-543: The Münster rebellion , even though he was "of a different spirit". Obbe and Dirk Philips had been baptized by disciples of Jan Matthijs but were opposed to the violence that occurred at Münster. Obbe later became disillusioned with Anabaptism and withdrew from the movement in about 1540, but not before ordaining David Joris , his brother Dirk, and Menno Simons. Joris and Simons parted ways, with Joris placing more emphasis on "spirit and prophecy", while Menno emphasized
5265-407: The New Birth . Anabaptists heavily emphasize the importance of obedience in the salvation journey of a believer. As a whole, Anabaptists emphasize an adherence to the beliefs of early Christianity and are thus distinguished by their keeping of practices that often include the observance of feetwashing , the holy kiss , and communion (with these three ordinances being practiced collectively in
5400-525: The New Order Amish , and the Beachy Amish —all of whom wear plain dress and live their life according to the Bible as codified in their church's Ordnung . The Old Order Amish and New Order Amish conduct their worship in German, speak Pennsylvania German , and use buggies for transportation, in contrast to the Beachy Amish who use modern technology (inclusive of motor cars) and conduct worship in
5535-507: The Old Beachy Amish speak Pennsylvania Dutch , but Indiana's Swiss Amish also speak Alemannic dialects . As of 2024 , the Amish population passed the milestone of 400,000, with about 395,000 Old Order Amish living in the United States, and over 6,000 in Canada: a population that is rapidly growing. Amish church groups seek to maintain a degree of separation from the non-Amish world. Non-Amish people are generally referred to as "English" by
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5670-566: The Old Order Amish , are a group of traditionalist Anabaptist Christian church fellowships with Swiss and Alsatian origins. As they maintain a degree of separation from surrounding populations, and hold their faith in common, the Amish have been described by certain scholars as an ethnoreligious group , combining features of an ethnicity and a Christian denomination. The Amish are closely related to Old Order Mennonites and Conservative Mennonites , denominations that are also
5805-537: The Proto-Germanic word *þiudiskaz meaning "popular" or "of the people". The continued use of "Pennsylvania Dutch" was strengthened by the Pennsylvania Dutch in the 19th century as a way of distinguishing themselves from later (post 1830) waves of German immigrants to the United States, with the Pennsylvania Dutch referring to themselves as Deitsche and to Germans as Deitschlenner (literally "Germany-ers", compare Deutschländ-er ) whom they saw as
5940-414: The Radical Reformation in the 16th century. Anabaptists believe that baptism is valid only when candidates freely confess their faith in Christ and request to be baptized. Commonly referred to as believer's baptism , it is opposed to baptism of infants , who are not able to make a conscious decision to be baptized. The early Anabaptists formulated their beliefs in a confession of faith in 1527 called
6075-572: The Schleitheim Confession . Its author Michael Sattler was arrested and executed shortly afterward. Anabaptist groups varied widely in their specific beliefs, but the Schleitheim Confession represents foundational Anabaptist beliefs as well as any single document can. Other Christian groups with different roots also practice believer's baptism, such as Baptists , but these groups are not Anabaptist, even though
6210-466: The Vistula delta Mennonites integrating some other Mennonites mainly from northern Germany. In the late 18th century, several thousand of them migrated from there to Ukraine (which at the time was part of Russia) forming the so-called Russian Mennonites . Beginning in 1874, many of them emigrated to the prairie states and provinces of the United States and Canada. In the 1920s, the conservative faction of
6345-593: The hook and eye approach to fashion clothing or metal snaps. The New Order Amish are slightly more progressive and allow the usage of buttons to help attire clothing. Amish cuisine is noted for its simplicity and traditional qualities. Food plays an important part in Amish social life and is served at potlucks , weddings, fundraisers, farewells, and other events. Many Amish foods are sold at markets including pies, preserves, bread mixes, pickled produce, desserts, and canned goods. Many Amish communities have also established restaurants for visitors. Amish meat consumption
6480-620: The interpretation and application of the Bible. For instance, Petr Chelčický , a 15th-century Bohemian reformer, taught most of the beliefs considered integral to Anabaptist theology. Medieval antecedents may include the Brethren of the Common Life , the Hussites , Dutch Sacramentists, and some forms of monasticism . The Waldensians also represent a faith similar to the Anabaptists. Medieval dissenters and Anabaptists who held to
6615-435: The kingdom of God , not of earthly governments. As committed followers of Jesus, they seek to pattern their life after his. Some former groups who practiced rebaptism, now extinct, believed otherwise and complied with these requirements of civil society. They were thus technically Anabaptists, even though conservative Amish, Mennonites, Hutterites, and many historians consider them outside Anabaptism. Conrad Grebel wrote in
6750-625: The lovefeast in the Schwarzenau Brethren and River Brethren traditions), Christian headcovering , nonconformity to the world , nonresistance , forgiveness, and sharing possessions, which in certain communities (as with the Bruderhof) takes on the form of communal living . Different types exist among the Anabaptists, although the categorizations tend to vary with the scholar's viewpoint on origins. Estep claims that in order to understand Anabaptism, one must "distinguish between
6885-464: The suppression of the German language in the US that eventually led to language shift of most Pennsylvania German speakers, leaving the Amish and other Old Orders as almost the only speakers by the end of the 20th century. This created a language barrier around the Amish that did not exist before in that form. In the late 1920s, the more change-minded faction of the Old Order Amish, that wanted to adopt
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#17327726692737020-411: The "Old Order" Amish, a conservative faction that separated from other Amish in the 1860s, are those who have most emphasized traditional practices and beliefs. The New Order Amish are a group of Amish whom some scholars see best described as a subgroup of Old Order Amish, despite the name. As of 2011, about 40 different Old Order Amish affiliations were known to exist. The eight major affiliations of
7155-401: The 20th century, almost all Amish children attended Amish schools. In the last quarter of the 20th century, a growing number of Amish men left farm work and started small businesses because of increasing pressure on small-scale farming. Though a wide variety of small businesses exists among the Amish, construction work and woodworking are quite widespread. In many Amish settlements, especially
7290-458: The 300,000 figure from 2015, at the same time the total number of settlements grew from 501 to 675 (+35%), and the number of districts from 2,193 to 3,039 (+39%). The United States is the home to the overwhelming majority (over 98 percent) of the Amish people. In 2024, Old Order communities were present in 32 U.S. states. The total Amish population in the United States as of June 2024 has stood at 394,720 up 17,445 or 4.6 percent, compared to
7425-517: The Amish are usually baptized no earlier than 18 and children are not counted in local congregation numbers, estimating their numbers is difficult. Rough estimates from various studies placed their numbers at 125,000 in 1992, 166,000 in 2000, and 221,000 in 2008. Thus, from 1992 to 2008, population growth among the Amish in North America was 84 percent (3.6 percent per year). During that time, they established 184 new settlements and moved into six new states. In 2000, about 165,620 Old Order Amish resided in
7560-460: The Amish fold tend to join various congregations of Conservative Mennonites . Amish began migrating to Pennsylvania, then-regarded favorably due to the lack of religious persecution and attractive land offers, in the early 18th century as part of a larger migration from the Palatinate and neighboring areas. Between 1717 and 1750, approximately 500 Amish migrated to North America, mainly to
7695-610: The Amish later emerged, started in circles around Huldrych Zwingli (1484–1531) who led the early Reformation in Switzerland . In Zürich on January 21, 1525, Conrad Grebel and George Blaurock practiced believer's baptism to each other and then to others. This Swiss movement, part of the Radical Reformation , later became known as Swiss Brethren . The term Amish was first used as a Schandename (a term of disgrace) in 1710 by opponents of Jakob Amman , an Anabaptist leader. The first informal division between Swiss Brethren
7830-400: The Amish should deal with the tensions caused by the pressures of modern society. The meetings themselves were a progressive idea; for bishops to assemble to discuss uniformity was an unprecedented notion in the Amish church. By the first several meetings, the more traditionally minded bishops agreed to boycott the conferences. The more progressive members, comprising roughly two-thirds of
7965-488: The Amish today, they normally refer to the Old Order Amish, though there are other subgroups of Amish . The Amish fall into three main subgroups—the Old Order Amish, the New Order Amish , and the Beachy Amish —all of whom wear plain dress and live their life according to the Bible as codified in their church's Ordnung . The Old Order Amish and New Order Amish conduct their worship in German, speak Pennsylvania Dutch , and use buggies for transportation, in contrast to
8100-399: The Amish, and outside influences are often described as "worldly". Amish church membership begins with adult baptism , usually between the ages of 16 and 23. Church districts have between 20 and 40 families, and Old Order Amish and New Order Amish worship services are held every other Sunday in a member's home or barn, while the Beachy Amish worship every Sunday in churches. The rules of
8235-792: The Anabaptist movement to have developed from the Swiss Brethren movement. They generally argue that Anabaptism had its origins in Zürich and that the Anabaptism of the Swiss Brethren was transmitted to southern Germany, Austria, the Netherlands, and northern Germany, where it developed into its various branches. The monogenesis theory usually rejects the Münsterites and other radicals from the category of true Anabaptists. In
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#17327726692738370-489: The Anabaptists, inspirationists, and rationalists". He classes the likes of Blaurock, Grebel, Hubmaier, Manz, Marpeck, and Simons as Anabaptists. He groups Müntzer and Storch as inspirationists, and anti-trinitarians such as Michael Servetus , Juan de Valdés , Sebastian Castellio , and Faustus Socinus as rationalists . Mark S. Ritchie follows this line of thought, saying, "The Anabaptists were one of several branches of 'Radical' reformers (i.e. reformers that went further than
8505-480: The Anabaptists, with Manz becoming the first Anabaptist martyr in 1527. On May 20 or 21, 1527, Roman Catholic authorities executed Michael Sattler . King Ferdinand declared drowning (called the third baptism ) "the best antidote to Anabaptism". The Tudor regime, even the Protestant monarchs ( Edward VI of England and Elizabeth I of England), persecuted Anabaptists as they were deemed too radical and therefore
8640-606: The Baptist tradition was influenced by the Anabaptist view of Baptism. The Amish , Hutterites , and Mennonites are direct descendants of the early Anabaptist movement. Schwarzenau Brethren , River Brethren , Bruderhof , and the Apostolic Christian Church are Anabaptist denominations that developed well after the Radical Reformation, following their example. Though all Anabaptists share
8775-493: The Beachy Amish who use modern technology (inclusive of motor cars) and conduct worship in the local language of the area in which they reside. Both the New Order Amish and the Beachy Amish emphasize the New Birth , evangelize to seek converts, and have Sunday Schools . In the early 18th century, many Amish and Mennonites immigrated to Pennsylvania for a variety of reasons. Most Old Order Amish, New Order Amish and
8910-639: The Canadian settlers went to Mexico and Paraguay. Beginning in the 1950s, the most conservative of them started to migrate to Bolivia. In 1958, Mexican Mennonites migrated to Belize. Since the 1980s, traditional Russian Mennonites migrated to Argentina. Smaller groups went to Brazil and Uruguay. In 2015, some Mennonites from Bolivia settled in Peru. In 2018, there are more than 200,000 of them living in colonies in Central and South America. Although Moravian Anabaptism
9045-577: The Dunker movement. Jacob Engle is one of the early leaders who promoted trine immersion. The first confessional statement of this group was formulated around 1780. As of 2010 there are four bodies of River Brethren in about 300 congregations: Common to the Radical Piestic tradition, the River Brethren hold experience meetings, in which "members [are seen] testifying of God's work in their lives in bringing them to salvation and daily living." When
9180-462: The German language. The members of these groups are largely of Amish origin, but they are not in fellowship with other Amish groups because they adhere to theological doctrines (e.g., assurance of salvation ) or practices ( community of goods ) that are normally not accepted among mainstream Amish. The Bergholz Community is a different case; it is not seen as Amish anymore because the community has shifted away from many core Amish principles. Because
9315-650: The Low Countries. With the passing of time and persecution, all the other versions of Anabaptism would die out in Moravia leaving only the Hutterites. Even the Hutterites would be dissipated by persecution, with a remnant fleeing to Transylvania , then to Ukraine, and finally to North America in 1874. South German Anabaptism had its roots in German mysticism . Andreas Karlstadt, who first worked alongside Martin Luther,
9450-523: The Mennonite Church in Canada. Orland Gingerich's book The Amish of Canada devotes the vast majority of its pages not to the Beachy or Old Order Amish, but to congregations in the former WOMC. Several other groups, called " para-Amish " by G. C. Waldrep and others, share many characteristics with the Amish, such as horse and buggy transportation, plain dress , and the preservation of
9585-503: The Mennonites, teach "true faith entails a new birth, a spiritual regeneration by God's grace and power; 'believers' are those who have become the spiritual children of God." In Anabaptist theology, the pathway to salvation is "marked not by a forensic understanding of salvation by ' faith alone ', but by the entire process of repentance, self-denial, faith rebirth and obedience." Those who wish to tarry this path receive baptism after
9720-475: The Münster Uprising ) in 1855. Baptist historian Albert Henry Newman , who Harold S. Bender said occupied "first position in the field of American Anabaptist historiography", made a major contribution with his A History of Anti-Pedobaptism (1897). Three main theories on origins of the Anabaptists are the following: Some scholars (e.g. Harold S. Bender, William Estep, Robert Friedmann) consider
9855-495: The Old Order Amish are listed below, with Lancaster as the largest one in number of districts and population: The table below indicates the use of certain technologies by different Amish affiliations. The use of cars is not allowed by any Old and New Order Amish, nor are radio, television, or in most cases the use of the Internet. Three affiliations – "Lancaster", "Holmes Old Order" and "Elkhart-LaGrange" — are not only
9990-482: The Old Order Amish due to issues regarding salvation and "the use of modern agricultural methods." The Old Order Amish believe that they have a "hope for salvation", believing that "joining with other church members to live according to the Ordnung and the Bible will give them the strength to lives worthy of salvation". The New Order Amish, on the other hand, affirm that a believer can have assurance —"that one can know
10125-791: The Old Order in the 19th century in Mifflin County, Pennsylvania, a major split among the Old Orders took until World War I . At that time, two very conservative affiliations emerged – the Swartzentruber Amish in Holmes County, Ohio , and the Buchanan Amish in Iowa. The Buchanan Amish soon were joined by like-minded congregations all over the country. With Germany's aggression toward the US in World War I came
10260-719: The Swiss Brethren movement, mention has been made of how Pilgram Marpeck 's Vermanung of 1542 was deeply influenced by the Bekenntnisse of 1533 by Münster theologian Bernhard Rothmann . Hoffman influenced the Hutterites when they used his commentary on the Apocalypse shortly after he wrote it. Others who have written in support of polygenesis include Grete Mecenseffy [ de ] and Walter Klaassen, who established links between Müntzer and Hans Hut . In another work, Gottfried Seebaß and Werner Packull show
10395-470: The Swiss Brethren, and the Melchiorites ". According to their polygenesis theory, South German–Austrian Anabaptism "was a diluted form of Rhineland mysticism ", Swiss Anabaptism "arose out of Reformed congregationalism ", and Dutch Anabaptism was formed by "Social unrest and the apocalyptic visions of Melchior Hoffman ". As examples of how the Anabaptist movement was influenced from sources other than
10530-474: The Turks that Hut predicted. Hut even went so far as to predict a 1528 coming of the kingdom of God. When the prediction failed, some of his converts became discouraged and left the Anabaptist movement. The large congregation of Anabaptists at Augsburg fell apart (partly because of persecution) and those who stayed with Anabaptist ideas were absorbed into Swiss and Moravia Anabaptist congregations. Pilgram Marpeck
10665-652: The United Brethren movement. Influenced by the Schwarzenau Brethren (named Dunkers ), the River Brethren developed a conviction that trine (triple, in allusion to the Trinity ) immersion, foot washing, adherence to plain dress , the wearing of a headcovering by women and teetotalism was the scriptural form of religion . They oppose war , alcohol , tobacco , and worldly pleasures. Nevertheless, they maintained their identity and did not join
10800-722: The United States, of whom 73,609 were church members. The Amish are among the fastest-growing populations in the world, with an average of seven children per family in the 1970s and a total fertility rate of 5.3 in the 2010s. In 2010, a few religious bodies, including the Amish, changed the way their adherents were reported to better match the standards of the Association of Statisticians of American Religious Bodies. When looking at all Amish adherents and not solely Old Order Amish, about 241,000 Amish adherents were in 28 U.S. states in 2010. The Amish added 100,000 more adherents in just 9 years, reaching 401,000 in 2024 in comparison with
10935-488: The area. Another visit through the area in 1529 reinforced these ideas, but he was captured and burned at the stake in Klausen on September 6, 1529. Jacob Hutter was one of the early converts in South Tyrol and later became a leader among the Hutterites, who received their name from him. Hutter made several trips between Moravia and Tyrol, and most of the Anabaptists in South Tyrol ended up emigrating to Moravia because of
11070-490: The area. With the great influx of religious refugees from all over Europe, many variations of Anabaptism appeared in Moravia, with Jarold Zeman documenting at least ten slightly different versions. Jacob Wiedemann appeared at Nikolsburg and began to teach the pacifistic convictions of the Swiss Brethren, on which Hübmaier had been less authoritative. This would lead to a division between the Schwertler (sword-bearing) and
11205-659: The attempts of their enemies to slander them and by the attempts of their supporters to vindicate them. It was long popular to classify all Anabaptists as Munsterites and radicals associated with the Zwickau prophets, Jan Matthys , John of Leiden , and Müntzer. Those desiring to correct this error tended to over-correct and deny all connections between the larger Anabaptist movement and the most radical elements. The modern era of Anabaptist historiography arose with Roman Catholic scholar Carl Adolf Cornelius ' publication of Die Geschichte des Münsterischen Aufruhrs ( The History of
11340-650: The auspices of living what they interpret to be God's word. Members who do not conform to these community expectations and who cannot be convinced to repent face excommunication and shunning . The modes of shunning vary between different communities. On average, about 85 percent of Amish youth choose to be baptized and join the church. During an adolescent period of rumspringa ( lit. ' running around ' , from Pennsylvania German rumschpringe ' to run around; to gad; to be wild ' ; compare Standard German herum-, rumspringen ' to jump around ' ) in some communities, nonconforming behavior that would result in
11475-686: The authority of the Bible. For the Mennonite side, the emphasis on the "inner" and "spiritual" permitted compromise to "escape persecution", while to the Joris side, the Mennonites were under the "dead letter of the Scripture". Because of persecution and expansion, some of the Low Country Mennonites emigrated to Vistula delta, a region settled by Germans but under Polish rule until it became part of Prussia in 1772. There they formed
11610-559: The car, broke away from the mainstream and organized under the name Beachy Amish . During the Second World War , the old question of military service for the Amish came up again. Because Amish young men in general refused military service, they ended up in the Civilian Public Service (CPS), where they worked mainly in forestry and hospitals. The fact that many young men worked in hospitals, where they had
11745-422: The church, or young children raised in Amish homes, but too young to yet be church members, are considered to be Amish. Certain Mennonite churches have a high number of people who were formerly from Amish congregations. Although more Amish immigrated to North America in the 19th century than during the 18th century, most of today's Amish descend from 18th-century immigrants. The latter tended to emphasize tradition to
11880-456: The church, the Ordnung , which differs to some extent between different districts, are reviewed twice a year by all members of the church. The Ordnung must be observed by every member and covers many aspects of Old Order Amish day-to-day living, including prohibitions or limitations on the use of power-line electricity, telephones, and automobiles, as well as regulations on clothing. Generally,
12015-416: The council to find a solution, since he felt Zwingli was too hard to work with. The council then called a meeting for January 17, 1525. The council ruled in this meeting that all who continued to refuse to baptize their infants should be expelled from Zurich if they did not have them baptized within one week. Since Grebel had refused to baptize his daughter Rachel, born on January 5, 1525, the council decision
12150-465: The date for a single starting point: "Hillerbrand and Bender (like Holl and Troeltsch) were in agreement that there was a single dispersion of Anabaptism …, which certainly ran through Zurich. The only question was whether or not it went back further to Saxony." After criticizing the standard polygenetic history, the authors found six groups in early Anabaptism which could be collapsed into three originating "points of departure": "South German Anabaptism,
12285-685: The diffusion of shoofly pie are common subject matter for studies of American cuisine , food anthropologists point out that the culinary practices of Pennsylvania Dutch and Amish are innovative and dynamic, evolving across time and geographic spaces, and that not all the Pennsylvania Dutch are Amish, and not all Amish live in Pennsylvania. Distinguishing local myths from culinary fact is accomplished by dedicated anthropological field studies in combination with studies of literary sources, usually newspaper archives, diaries, and household records. The Amish fall into three main subgroups—the Old Order Amish,
12420-587: The division after 1862 formed the Conservative Amish Mennonite Conference in 1910, but dropped the word "Amish" from their name in 1957; in the year 2000 many congregations left to organize the Biblical Mennonite Alliance in order to continue the practice of traditional Anabaptist ordinances, such as headcovering . Because no division occurred in Europe, the Amish congregations remaining there took
12555-459: The early 16th century, including by Menno Simons in the Netherlands, Grebel in Switzerland, Müntzer in central Germany, Marpeck in the Tyrol, Peter Walpot in Moravia, and especially Balthasar Hubmaier in southern Germany, Switzerland, and Moravia. Baptist successionists have at times pointed to 16th-century Anabaptists as part of an apostolic succession of churches ("church perpetuity") from
12690-402: The exception of diet, and their per-person emissions has been estimated to be less than one quarter that of the wider society. Most Old Order Amish, New Order Amish and the Old Beachy Amish speak Pennsylvania Dutch, and refer to non-Amish people as "English", regardless of ethnicity. Two Amish subgroups – called Swiss Amish – whose ancestors migrated to the United States in the 1850s speak
12825-411: The faith. Church districts have between 20 and 40 families and worship services are held every other Sunday in a member's home or barn . The district is led by a bishop and several ministers and deacons who are chosen by a combination of election and cleromancy (lot). The rules of the church, the so-called Ordnung , which differs to some extent between different districts, is reviewed twice
12960-545: The feelings concerning the social crisis which erupted in the German Peasants' War in southern Germany in 1525 as a revolt against feudal oppression. Under the leadership of Müntzer, it became a war against all constituted authorities and an attempt to establish by revolution an ideal Christian commonwealth, with absolute equality among persons and the community of goods. The Zwickau prophets were not Anabaptists (that is, they did not practise "rebaptism"); nevertheless,
13095-404: The fierce persecution unleashed by Ferdinand I . In November 1535, Hutter was captured near Klausen and taken to Innsbruck where he was burned at the stake on February 25, 1536. By 1540 Anabaptism in South Tyrol was dying out, largely because of the emigration to Moravia of the converts because of incessant persecution. Melchior Hoffman is credited with the introduction of Anabaptist ideas into
13230-528: The group, became known by the name Amish Mennonite, and eventually united with the Mennonite Church , and other Mennonite denominations, mostly in the early 20th century. The more traditionally minded groups became known as the Old Order Amish. The Egli Amish had already started to withdraw from the Amish church in 1858. They soon drifted away from the old ways and changed their name to "Defenseless Mennonite" in 1908. Congregations who took no side in
13365-538: The holy kiss, as well as turning the other cheek, no oaths, going the second mile, giving a cup of cold water, reconciliation, repeated forgiveness, humility, non-violence, and sharing possessions." The name Anabaptist originated as an exonym meaning "one who baptizes again," referring to the practice of baptizing persons when they converted or declared their faith in Christ even if they had been baptized as infants, and many call themselves "Radical Reformers." Anabaptists require that baptismal candidates be able to make
13500-418: The idea of a single origin of Anabaptists in a 1975 essay entitled "From Monogenesis to Polygenesis", suggesting that February 24, 1527, at Schleitheim is the proper date of the origin of Anabaptism. On this date the Swiss Brethren wrote a declaration of belief called the Schleitheim Confession . The authors of the essay note the agreement among previous Anabaptist historians on polygenesis, even when disputing
13635-529: The influence of humanism on Radical Reformers in the three originating points of departure to account for how this brand of reform could develop independently from each other. Relatively recent research, begun in a more advanced and deliberate manner by Andrew P. Klager, also explores how the influence and a particular reading of the Church Fathers contributed to the development of distinctly Anabaptist beliefs and practices in separate regions of Europe in
13770-498: The influence of Müntzer on the formation of South German Anabaptism. Similarly, author Steven Ozment links Hut and Hans Denck with Müntzer, Sebastian Franck , and others. Author Calvin Pater shows how Andreas Karlstadt influenced Swiss Anabaptism in various areas, including his view of Scripture, doctrine of the church, and views on baptism. Several historians, including Thor Hall, Kenneth Davis, and Robert Kreider, have also noted
13905-767: The inspirationists and rationalists as true Anabaptists. James M. Stayer used the term Anabaptist for those who rebaptized persons already "baptized" in infancy. Walter Klaassen was perhaps the first Mennonite scholar to define Anabaptists that way in his 1960 Oxford dissertation. This represents a rejection of the previous standard held by Mennonite scholars such as Bender and Friedmann. Another method of categorization acknowledges regional variations, such as Swiss Brethren (Grebel, Manz), Dutch and Frisian Anabaptism (Menno Simons, Dirk Philips ), and South German Anabaptism (Hübmaier, Marpeck). Historians and sociologists have made further distinctions between radical Anabaptists, who were prepared to use violence in their attempts to build
14040-525: The labors of Blaurock. Similar to the German Peasants' War, the Gaismair uprising set the stage by producing a hope for social justice. Michael Gaismair had tried to bring religious, political, and economical reform through a violent peasant uprising, but the movement was quashed. Although little evidence exists of a connection between Gaismair's uprising and Tyrolian Anabaptism, at least a few of
14175-405: The larger ones, farmers are now a minority. Approximately 12,000 of the 40,000 dairy farms in the United States are Amish-owned as of 2018. Until the early 20th century, Old Order Amish identity was not linked to the limited use of technologies, as the Old Order Amish and their rural neighbors used the same farm and household technologies. Questions about the use of technologies also did not play
14310-452: The local language of the area in which they reside (with exception of the Old Beachy Amish who continue to use Pennsylvania German). Both the New Order Amish and the Beachy Amish emphasize the New Birth , evangelize to seek converts, and have Sunday Schools . Over the years, the Amish churches have divided many times mostly over questions concerning the Ordnung, but also over doctrinal disputes, mainly about shunning. The largest group,
14445-580: The loss of identity of many Amish congregations occurred in the third quarter of the 19th century. The forming of factions worked its way out at different times at different places. The process was rather a "sorting out" than a split. Amish people are free to join another Amish congregation at another place that fits them best. In the years after 1850, tensions rose within individual Amish congregations and between different Amish congregations. Between 1862 and 1878, yearly Dienerversammlungen (ministerial conferences) were held at different places, concerning how
14580-527: The mainstream Reformers) to arise out of the Renaissance and Reformation . Two other branches were Spirituals or Inspirationists, who believed that they had received direct revelation from the Spirit, and rationalists or anti-Trinitarians, who rebelled against traditional Christian doctrine, like Michael Servetus." Those of the polygenesis viewpoint use Anabaptist to define the larger movement and include
14715-545: The martyr stories, compared to five to ten per cent in the other accounts." Anabaptists view themselves as a separate branch of Christianity, not being a part of Catholicism, Protestantism, Oriental Orthodoxy or Eastern Orthodoxy. Anabaptist beliefs were codified in the Schleitheim Confession in 1527, which best represents the beliefs of the various denominations of Anabaptism (inclusive of Mennonites, Amish, Hutterites, Bruderhof, Schwarzenau Brethren, River Brethren and Apostolic Christians). Anabaptist denominations, such as
14850-404: The mass?" Zwingli responded by saying the council would make that decision. At this point, Simon Stumpf, a radical priest from Höngg , answered saying, "The decision has already been made by the Spirit of God." This incident illustrated clearly that Zwingli and his more radical disciples had different expectations. To Zwingli, the reforms would only go as fast as the city council allowed them. To
14985-427: The monogenesis view the time of origin is January 21, 1525, when Conrad Grebel baptized George Blaurock , and Blaurock in turn baptized several others immediately. These baptisms were the first "re-baptisms" known in the movement. This continues to be the most widely accepted date posited for the establishment of Anabaptism. James M. Stayer , Werner O. Packull [ de ] , and Klaus Deppermann disputed
15120-567: The need for hard work. Machines such as automatic floor cleaners in barns have historically been rejected as this provides young farmhands with too much free time. Amish communities are known for traveling by horse and buggy because they feel horse-drawn vehicles promote a slow pace of life. Many Amish communities do also allow riding in motor vehicles , such as buses and cars. They also are allowed to travel by train . In recent years many Amish people have taken to using electric bicycles as they are faster than either walking or harnessing up
15255-413: The peasants involved in the uprising later became Anabaptists. The common link was the desire for a radical change in the prevailing social injustices. Disappointed with the failure of armed revolt, Anabaptist ideals of an alternative peaceful, just society probably resonated on the ears of the disappointed peasants. Before Anabaptism was introduced to South Tyrol , Protestant ideas had been propagated in
15390-467: The position that the Anabaptists were of Waldensian origin. Anabaptism in Switzerland began as an offshoot of the church reforms instigated by Ulrich Zwingli . As early as 1522, it became evident that Zwingli was on a path of reform preaching when he began to question or criticize such Catholic practices as tithes , the mass , and even infant baptism. Zwingli had gathered a group of reform-minded men around him, with whom he studied classical literature and
15525-434: The prevalent social inequities and the preaching of men such as these have been seen as laying the foundation for the Anabaptist movement. The social ideals of the Anabaptist movement coincided closely with those of leaders in the German Peasants' War. Studies have found a very low percentage of subsequent sectarians to have taken part in the peasant uprising. Research on the origins of the Anabaptists has been tainted both by
15660-544: The previous year. Pennsylvania has the largest population (92.7 thousand), followed by Ohio (86 thousand) and Indiana (65.5 thousand), as of June 2024 . The largest Amish settlements are in Lancaster County in southeastern Pennsylvania (43.6 thousand), Holmes County and adjacent counties in northeastern Ohio (40.4 thousand), and Elkhart and LaGrange counties in northeastern Indiana (29.2 thousand), as of June 2024 . The highest concentration of Amish in
15795-503: The radical group wrote letters to Martin Luther , Andreas Karlstadt , and Thomas Müntzer. Felix Manz began to publish some of Karlstadt's writings in Zurich in late 1524. By this time the question of infant baptism had become agitated, and the Zurich council had instructed Zwingli to meet weekly with those who rejected infant baptism "until the matter could be resolved". Zwingli broke off the meetings after two sessions, and Manz petitioned
15930-411: The radicals, the council had no right to make that decision, but rather the Bible was the final authority of church reform. Feeling frustrated, some of them began to meet on their own for Bible study. As early as 1523, William Reublin began to preach against infant baptism in villages surrounding Zurich, encouraging parents to not baptize their children. Seeking fellowship with other reform-minded people,
16065-497: The region by men such as Hans Vischer, a former Dominican. Some of those who participated in conventicles where Protestant ideas were presented later became Anabaptists. The population in general seemed to have a favorable attitude towards reform, be it Protestant or Anabaptist. Blaurock appears to have preached itinerantly in the Puster Valley region in 1527, which most likely was the first introduction of Anabaptist ideas in
16200-685: The region that became Berks County, Pennsylvania , but later moved, motivated by land issues and by security concerns tied to the French and Indian War . Many eventually settled in Lancaster County . A second wave of around 1,500 arrived around the mid-19th century and settled mostly in Ohio, Illinois, Iowa and southern Ontario. Most of these late immigrants eventually did not join the Old Order Amish but more liberal groups. Most Amish communities that were established in North America did not ultimately retain their Amish identity. The major division that resulted in
16335-650: The revival, and their followers were often known by their locality: a group of brethren from north of Marietta, Pennsylvania , on the east side of the Susquehanna River came to be known as the River Brethren . The initial spiritual leader of the brethren was Martin Boehm , evangelical preacher, who was excluded from the Mennonite Church. He later became bishop of the Church of the United Brethren in Christ . The River Brethren distanced themselves from Boehm and
16470-673: The same core theological beliefs, there are differences in the way of life among them; Old Order Anabaptist groups include the Old Order Amish , the Old Order Mennonites , Old Order River Brethren , and the Old Order German Baptist Brethren . In between the assimilated mainline denominations (such as Mennonite Church USA and the Church of the Brethren ) and Old Order groups are Conservative Anabaptist groups. Conservative Anabaptists such as
16605-627: The same way as the change-minded Amish Mennonites in North America and slowly merged with the Mennonites . The last Amish congregation in Germany to merge was the Ixheim Amish congregation, which merged with the neighboring Mennonite Church in 1937. Some Mennonite congregations, including most in Alsace , are descended directly from former Amish congregations. Although splits happened among
16740-400: The scriptures. However, some of these young men began to feel that Zwingli was not moving fast enough in his reform. The division between Zwingli and his more radical disciples became apparent in an October 1523 disputation held in Zurich. When the discussion of the mass was about to be ended without making any actual change in practice, Conrad Grebel stood up and asked "what should be done about
16875-516: The shunning of an adult who had made the permanent commitment of baptism, may be met with a degree of forbearance. Amish lifestyle is regulated by the Ordnung ("rules") which differs slightly from community to community and from district to district within a community. There is no central Amish governing authority . Each Amish community makes its own decisions, and what is acceptable in one community may be unacceptable in another. The Ordnung
17010-485: The state of his soul while on earth". Until about 1950, almost all Amish children attended small, rural, non-Amish schools, but then school consolidation and mandatory schooling beyond eighth grade caused Amish opposition. Amish communities opened their own Amish schools. In 1972, the United States Supreme Court exempted Amish pupils from compulsory education past eighth grade . By the end of
17145-451: The three largest affiliations but also represent the mainstream among the Old Order Amish. The most conservative affiliations are at the top, the most modern ones at the bottom. Technologies used by very few are on the left; the ones used by most are on the right. The percentage of all Amish who use a technology is also indicated approximately. The Old Order Amish culture involves lower greenhouse gas emissions in all sectors and activities with
17280-425: The time of Christ. This view is held by some Baptists, some Mennonites, and some "true church" movements. The opponents of the Baptist successionism theory emphasize that these non-Catholic groups clearly differed from each other, that they held some heretical views, or that the groups had no connection with one another and had origins that were separate both in time and in place. A different strain of successionism
17415-439: Was a transplant from other areas of Europe, Moravia soon became a center for the growing movement, largely because of the greater religious tolerance found there. Hans Hut was an early evangelist in the area, with one historian crediting him with baptizing more converts in two years than all the other Anabaptist evangelists put together. The coming of Balthasar Hübmaier to Nikolsburg was a definite boost for Anabaptist ideas to
17550-402: Was another notable leader in early South German Anabaptism who attempted to steer between the two extremes of Denck's inner Holiness and the legalistic standards of the other Anabaptists. Roman Catholics and Protestants alike persecuted the Anabaptists, resorting to torture and execution in attempts to curb the growth of the movement. The Protestants under Zwingli were the first to persecute
17685-499: Was largely responsible for the mass emigrations to North America by the Amish, Hutterites, and Mennonites. Unlike Calvinists , Anabaptists failed to gain recognition in the Peace of Westphalia of 1648, and as a result they continued to be persecuted in Europe long after that treaty was signed. Anabaptism stands out among other groups of martyrs, in that Anabaptist martyrologies feature women more prominently, "making up thirty per cent of
17820-510: Was never established by any state and therefore never enjoyed any associated privileges. Most Anabaptists adhere to a literal interpretation of the Sermon on the Mount in Matthew 5–7, which teaches against hate, killing, violence, taking oaths, participating in use of force or any military actions, and against participation in civil government. Anabaptists view themselves as primarily citizens of
17955-477: Was personal to him and others who had not baptized their children. Thus, when 16 of the radicals met on January 21, the situation seemed particularly dark. The Hutterian Chronicle records the event: After prayer, George of the House of Jacob (George Blaurock) stood up and besought Conrad Grebel for God's sake to baptize him with the true Christian baptism upon his faith and knowledge. And when he knelt down with such
18090-542: Was recorded in the 17th century between Oberländer s ( those living in the hills ) and Emmentalers (those living in the Emmental ). The Oberländer s were a more extreme congregation; their zeal pushed them into more remote areas. Swiss Anabaptism developed, from this point, in two parallel streams, most clearly marked by disagreement over the preferred treatment of "fallen" believers. The Emmentalers (sometimes referred to as Reistians, after bishop Hans Reist ,
18225-569: Was their first true baptism: I have never taught Anabaptism. …But the right baptism of Christ, which is preceded by teaching and oral confession of faith, I teach, and say that infant baptism is a robbery of the right baptism of Christ. Anabaptists were heavily persecuted by state churches , both Magisterial Protestants and Roman Catholics , beginning in the 16th century and continuing thereafter, largely because of their interpretation of scripture which put them at odds with official state church interpretations and local government control. Anabaptism
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