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51-683: The first righteous armies emerged during the Khitan invasions of Korea and the Mongol invasions of Korea . They subsequently rose up during the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) , the first and second Manchu invasions, and during the Japanese occupation and preceding events. During the long period of Japanese intervention and annexation from 1890 to 1945, the disbanded imperial guard, and Confucian scholars, as well as farmers, formed over 60 successive righteous armies to fight for Korean freedom on

102-661: A French cruiser in September 1908, resupplied Korean Catholic armies in payment for gold at exorbitant prices. Smugglers from Japan as well supplied Murada weapons, with links to anti-Meiji forces who hoped to see Ito and his clan toppled in the wake of disasters in the Japanese economy. After the Russian revolution, some weaponry was diverted from the White forces into what is now North Korea, and supporters built there, however this

153-564: A brutal regime throughout the Korean peninsula and pursued repressive policies against the Korean people. The Japanese colonial authorities fought with rifles, state-of-the-art cannons, machine guns, repeaters, mounted cavalry reconnaissance units in the mountains, and an entrenched class of informers and criminals developed over the previous decade before the battles began. Koreans fought with antique muzzle-loaders, staves, iron bars, and their hands. There were rare instances of modern weapons, and

204-473: A coup against King Mokjong , killing him and establishing military rule. The Liao dynasty attacked with 400,000 troops in 1010, claiming to avenge the murdered Mokjong. Kang Cho blocked the Liao's first attack, but he was defeated in the second attack and was executed. King Hyeonjong of Goryeo was forced to flee the capital, which was sacked and burnt by the Liao, to Naju temporarily. Unable to establish

255-492: A fellow Korean kingdom in what was once Goguryeo territory). In 942, the Khitan sent 50 camels to Goryeo as a gift. However, due to cold relations, Goryeo declined the gift, banished the envoy to an island, and had the camels die from starvation under a bridge. Hyeonjong ordered preparations in case of an upcoming conflict with the Liao. In 993, the Liao dynasty launched an invasion against the northwestern frontier of Goryeo with

306-564: A few enemy weapons captured. For at least thirteen years after 1905, small irregular forces, often led by regular army commanders, fought skirmishes and battles throughout Korea against Japanese police, armies, and underworld mercenaries who functioned to support Japanese corporations in Korea, and as well-armed Japanese settlers who seized Korean farms and land. In one period, according to Japanese records in Boto Tobatsu-shi (Annals of

357-634: A fight and the Jin army crossed the Taedong River . By this time, news of the invasion had reached the Ming court, which immediately dispatched a relief contingent to Joseon, slowing the Jurchen advance into Hwangju . King Injo then dispatched an envoy to negotiate a peace treaty, but by the time the messenger returned, Injo had already fled from Hanseong ( Seoul ) to Ganghwa Island in panic. Despite

408-506: A foothold and to avoid a counterattack by the regrouped Goryeo armies, the Liao forces withdrew. Afterward, the Goryeo king sued for peace, but the Liao emperor demanded that he come in person and also cede key border areas to him; the Goryeo court refused the demands, resulting in a decade of hostility between the two nations during which both sides fortified their borders in preparation of war. Liao attacked Goryeo in 1015, 1016, and 1017, but

459-463: A force that the Liao commander alleged to be 800,000 strong. After a military stalemate, negotiations began between the two states, producing the following concessions: first, Goryeo formally ended all relations with the Song dynasty , agreed to pay tribute to Liao and to adopt Liao's calendar; second, after negotiations led by the Goryeo diplomat Sŏ Hŭi , Goryeo formally incorporated the land between

510-553: The Jeolla Province in the southwestern area of Korea. Righteous armies included peasants, scholars, former government officials, as well as Buddhist warrior monks. Righteous armies were important during the war as a significant portion of the expected government organized resistance had been destroyed in Gyeongsang and Chungcheong Provinces by the Japanese forces at the outset. The natural defenders had been defeated and

561-483: The period of Japanese rule . Of the sixty righteous armies, the list and descriptions below follow what is known of the names of the more well-known armies and their sequential appearance in combat; individual generals and named figures are given larger biographies on separate articles which cite more historical background. Goryeo-Khitan War First conflict : Approximately 800,000 The Goryeo–Khitan War ( Chinese : 遼麗戰爭 ; Korean :  고려-거란 전쟁 )

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612-460: The Horan period, the righteous army rose early not only in the invaded area but also in the rear area. The righteous army activity in the invaded area was to directly fight the enemy and cause losses. The creativity in the rear area was to gather the recruited righteous army in one place and go to the battlefield to overcome the helplessness of the government army . However, overall, the activities of

663-747: The Japanese army head-on, the Righteous Army split into small bands of partisans to carry on the War of Liberation in China, Siberia, and the Baekdu Mountains in Korea. The Japanese troops first quashed the Peasant Army and then disbanded what remained of the government army. Many of the surviving guerrilla and anti-Japanese government troops fled to Manchuria and Primorsky Krai to carry on their fight. In 1910, Japan annexed Korea and started

714-406: The Japanese were shocked upon learning that the Korean people were forming organized resistance against them. Japanese strategies were based on the premise that the people of Korea would submit to them and assist their supply line by giving their food. However, this was not the case and righteous armies continued to interrupt the Japanese supply line. People's voluntary resistance movements were one of

765-471: The Jin invasion's success, Amin was willing to negotiate a peace. The following settlement was agreed upon on Ganghwa Island: While negotiations were taking place, the city of Pyongyang underwent several days of looting by the Jurchens before Amin was ordered by Hong Taji to sign the peace agreement. The Jin army then withdrew to Mukden , ending the three-month-long invasion. In the postwar negotiations,

816-509: The Jurchens from an island base off the Korean peninsula. The Westerners aided him by allowing him to station his troops in Uiju . The Later Jin had lost at the Battle of Ningyuan the previous year and their Khan, Nurhaci , died from his wounds afterwards. Peace negotiations with the Ming after the battle delayed an aggressive Ming response to the Jurchen loss, and the Ming general Yuan Chonghuan

867-570: The Jurchens, having only sent reinforcements to repay an obligation to Ming. In 1623, a faction at the Joseon court known as the Westerners deposed King Gwanghaegun ( Hangul : 광해군, Hanja : 光海君) and installed Injo as king. The following year Yi Gwal rebelled against King Injo, but failed in ousting him, and the rebellion was crushed. Its survivors fled to the Jin court where they recommended Hong Taiji to invade Joseon. General Gang Hong-rip

918-465: The Korean peninsula. These were preceded by the Donghak movement, and succeeded by various Korean independence movements in the 1920s and beyond, which declared Korean independence from Japanese occupation. The righteous armies were an irregular military that fought the Japanese army that twice invaded Korea during the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) . Righteous armies were most active in

969-570: The Later Jin forced Joseon to open markets near the borders because its conflicts with Ming had brought economic hardship and starvation to Jin subjects. Joseon was also forced to transfer suzerainty of the Warka tribe to Jin. Furthermore, a tribute of 100 horses, 100 tiger and leopard skins, 400 bolts of cotton, and 15,000 pieces of cloth was to be extracted and gifted to the Jin Khan. Injo's brother

1020-507: The Later Jin. It was followed by the Qing invasion of Joseon in 1636. The kingdom of Joseon had previously sent 10,069 musketeers and 3,000 archers to aid the Ming dynasty in attacking the Later Jin in 1619, which culminated in an allied defeat at the Battle of Sarhū . The Joseon general Gang Hong-rip surrendered with his remaining forces and insisted that Joseon did not hold anything against

1071-576: The Song until 1070, with the exception of an isolated embassy in 1030. The sole embassy was probably related to the rebellion of Balhae people in the Liao dynasty. The rebellion was quickly defeated by the Khitans, who returned to enforce Goryeo's tributary obligations. Goryeo adopted the reign title of the Liao in the fourth month of 1022. However according to Bielenstein, Goryeo maintained diplomatic relations with Song, Hyeonjong kept his own reign title, and

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1122-600: The Subjugation of the Insurgent), between October 1907 and April 1908, over 1,908 attacks were made by the Korean people against the invaders. While most attacks were done using available weapons, and bare hands, international arms dealers profited. Arms dealers and governments who supplied the Korean resistance included Chinese arms dealers from across the Yalu and in coastal waters; German arms dealers provided Mausers, and

1173-611: The area where the enemy invaded. Mock activities were carried out in the rear areas of Honam and Yeongnam, but they were disbanded when Injo gave in to the Qing dynasty while heading to the northern battlefield. For example, In Yean-hyeon, the seonbi clans of Yean-hyeon, centered on the Gwangsan Kim clan, were active in Hyanggyo. When the Jeongmyo-Horan broke out, the seonbi clans of Yean-hyeon organized and divided

1224-500: The border of Liao and Goryeo up to the Yalu River , which was at the time occupied by Jurchen tribes, citing that in the past the land belonged to Goguryeo . With this agreement, the Liao forces withdrew. However, in spite of the settlement, Goryeo continued to communicate with the Song, having strengthened its defenses by building fortresses in the newly gained northern territories. In 1009, General Kang Cho of Goryeo led

1275-548: The border towns but Joseon border garrisons were quickly defeated. On 14 January, the Jurchen army advanced into Uiju where Mao Wenlong was stationed, and Mao quickly fled with his men into the Bohai Sea . The Neunghan Fortress fell on the 21 January. Next the Jurchens attacked Anju . When it became clear that defeat was inevitable, the Anju garrisons committed suicide by blowing up their gunpowder storehouse. Pyongyang fell without

1326-411: The capital, but were met with stiff resistance and constant attacks, and were forced to retreat back north. During the retreat, 10,000 Liao army troops were annihilated by the Goryeo army under Kang Min-cheom of Goryeo. Kang Kam-ch'an and his troops waited at Gwiju and engaged the approaching Liao army, annihilating most of them. Barely a few thousand Liao troops survived after the Battle of Gwiju . In

1377-508: The command of Yi In-yeong amassed 10,000 troops to liberate Seoul and defeat the Japanese. The Army came within 12 km of Seoul but could not withstand the Japanese counter-offensive. The Righteous Army was no match for two infantry divisions of 20,000 Japanese soldiers backed by warships moored near Incheon. The Righteous Army retreated from Seoul and the war went on for two more years. Over 17,000 Righteous Army soldiers were killed and more than 37,000 were wounded in combat. Unable to fight

1428-525: The creativity of the righteous army, the number of participants in the righteous army of the general public continued. During the Jeongmyo-Horan and Byeongja-Horan , righteous army rose up in each region. At this time, the motivation for the righteous army to occur was to overcome the difficulty that was difficult to solve due to the defeat of the government army. In other words, most of them were Geunwangbyeong (근왕병: Royal Provincial Army). During

1479-415: The defense of the local people and their relatives, and furthermore, it was the manifestation of national sentiment for Japan's barbarity. Joseon, which regarded Confucian ethics as a thorough social norm, considered the Japanese as aggressors because of the continuous looting of Japanese pirates from the end of Goryeo, and culturally despised them and called them Wae or Seom Orang-ke. When invaded by Japan, it

1530-535: The demand. This led to the Qing invasion of Joseon in 1636. The Ming general Yuan Chonghuan was impeached for having been duped by the Jin into entering peace negotiations, and court officials accused him of lack of agency. This was the last time Ming would openly engage in peace negotiations with the Jurchens. Mao Wenlong was reported to Ming authorities by Joseon for cowardice and treachery. Mao began acting independently and minted his own coins in 1628, while conducting illicit trading in contravention of Ming law. He

1581-496: The major reasons why Japanese invasion was not successful. Righteous army was organized and led by seonbi , who were Confucian philosopher and mostly trained archers. Political positions, social status, and economic interests were not consistent between the righteous army commander who created the righteous army during the Japanese Invasion of Korea in 1592, but there was a factor that made them combine. First, most of

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1632-408: The next year the Liao assembled another large army in order to launch another invasion but it became clear that neither side could gain a decisive victory. In 1020 King Hyeonjong resumed sending tribute, and in 1022 the Khitans officially recognized the legitimacy of King Hyeonjong's reign. In 1022, a Khitan envoy was sent to invest Hyeongjong as king, and when he died in 1031, his successor Wang Heum

1683-420: The other hand, the people wanted a well-known and reliable righteous army commander to fight under the command of an incompetent general who was forced to serve by the government. In addition, it was advantageous to go to the righteous army rather than the government army to protect parents and wives and children around the local area. Since the royal court also recognized the righteous army as a public army to urge

1734-470: The provinces of Gangwon , Chungcheong , Jeolla and Gyeongsang . Choe Ik-hyeon was captured by the Japanese and taken to Tsushima Island where he went on hunger strike and finally died in 1906. Shin Dol-seok , an uneducated peasant commanded over 3,000 troops. Among the troops were former government soldiers, poor peasants, fishermen, tiger hunters, miners, merchants, and laborers. The Korean army

1785-442: The residue had been called north to help protect the fleeing king. Many of the district officers had obtained their commissions through bribery or influence, and were essentially incompetent or cowards, evidence in their own performance and of their units in the early days of the conflict. This kind of resistance was totally unexpected by the Japanese. In Japanese warfare, civilians would simply submit where their leaders fell. However,

1836-529: The results were indecisive. In 1018, Liao assembled an army of 100,000 troops to invade Goryeo. In preparation, General Kang Kam-ch'an ordered a stream to the east of Heunghwajin to be dammed. When the Liao troops crossed the Yalu River, Kang Kam-ch'an opened the dam and attacked the enemy troops with 12,000 mounted troops, catching them by surprise, inflicting severe losses, and cutting off their line of retreat. The Liao troops soldiered on and headed toward

1887-451: The righteous army around the righteous army office (兵廳廳소) by mission, and most of them focused on mobilizing the supplies rather than mobilizing the military. Therefore, the righteous army was disbanded as reinforcement was promoted with little actual military activities. Late Joseon dynasty period Korean nationalism outgrew the unplanned, spontaneous, and disorganized Donghak movement , and became more violent as Japanese colonizers began

1938-405: The righteous army chiefs were former civil servants among the aristocrats, but most of them were former officials. The spirit of Geunwang spread among local Confucian scholars in order to practice Confucian Taoism, which was usually learned as a local giant, and they were enraged by the incompetence and cowardice of the local leader and armed men. Second, the creativity of the righteous army was for

1989-519: The righteous army during the Horan were incomparably weaker than those of the righteous army during the Imjin War . The reason was that after the Imjin War, political turmoil, economic collapse, and social unrest continued, resulting in no sense of unity between the authorities and the people centered on the dynasty. In fact, during the invasion, the righteous army did not see much clear activity in

2040-475: The ruling Silla nobility. In 926, the Khitan-led Liao dynasty conquered Balhae , leading its last crown prince and the survivors to flee southward and seek refuge in Goryeo. This event marked the unification of the two successor states of Goguryeo . Taejo of Goryeo embraced the refugees from Balhae as his fellow kin and pursued a policy of northern expansion (possibly enabled by the absence of

2091-583: The two states concluded peace as equals in 1022. Later Jin invasion of Joseon The Later Jin invasion of Joseon occurred in early 1627 when the Later Jin prince Amin led an invasion of the Joseon dynasty . The war ended after three months with the Later Jin establishing itself as sovereign tributary overlord over Joseon. However Joseon continued its relationship with the Ming dynasty and showed defiance in solidifying its tributary relationship with

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2142-559: Was a series of 10th- and 11th-century conflicts between the Goryeo dynasty of Korea and the Khitan -led Liao dynasty of China. Silla experienced a period of decline starting in the latter half of the 9th century that continued until it was ultimately succeeded by Goryeo . This transition followed a time known as the Later Three Kingdoms , marked by conflict between the resurgent aristocracies of Goguryeo , Baekje , and

2193-592: Was also invested by the Liao court as king. Goryeo broke off relations with Song and the Liao ceded territory around the Yalu to Goryeo. The relationship between Liao and Goryeo would remain peaceful until the end of the Liao dynasty. In the Goryeo-Liao peace treaty formalized in 1022, the only terms stipulated were that the Goryeo king acknowledge their vassalage to the Liao and to release detained Liao envoys. After 1022, Goryeo did not have diplomatic relations with

2244-468: Was also led to believe by the survivors that his family had died in the coup, so he pushed for the invasion out of a desire for revenge. Meanwhile the Westerners took on an explicitly pro-Ming and anti-Jurchen stance in their relations with the two states. Injo severed relations with the Later Jin on the advice of his advisers. The Ming general Mao Wenlong 's army of 26,000 men engaged in raids against

2295-472: Was bitterly resented by Joseon's statesmen and Confucian scholars, who believed that it was treacherous and unfilial for Joseon to abandon Ming considering the assistance it had provided against Japan in the past. This resentment was inflamed in 1636 when the Manchus demanded changing the terms of diplomatic relationship from equality to sovereign-vassal. The Joseon court, dominated by anti-Manchu hawks, rejected

2346-482: Was busy fortifying the border garrisons and training new musketeers. The new Khan, Hong Taiji, was eager for a quick victory to consolidate his position. By invading Joseon he also hoped to extract much needed resources for his army and subjects, who had suffered in the war against Ming. In 1627, Hong Taiji dispatched Amin , Jirgalang , Ajige and Yoto to Joseon with 30,000 troops under the guidance of Gang Hong-rip and Li Yongfang. The Jurchens met sharp resistance at

2397-403: Was caught by Yuan Chonghuan in 1629 and executed for smuggling on 24 July 1629. Yuan reported the death of Mao Wenlong to the Joseon court, stating that it had been done to "properly establish the emperor's awesomeness." Prior to his execution, Yuan Chonghuan addressed him thus: You were given the authority of a general. But now you, Mao Wenlong, have treacherously raised yourself to the level of

2448-602: Was disbanded on August 1, 1907. The Army was led by 1st Battalion Commander Major Park Seung-hwan , who later committed suicide, which occurred after the disbandment and was led by former soldiers of the Korean Army against Japan in Namdaemun Gate . The disbanded army joined the Righteous Armies and together they solidified the foundation for the Righteous Armies battle. In 1907, the Righteous Army under

2499-588: Was sent to deliver this tribute. However in later letters to the Joseon king, Hong Taiji would complain that the Koreans did not behave as if they had lost, and were not abiding by the terms of the agreement. Joseon merchants and markets continued to trade with Ming and actively aided Ming subjects by providing them with grain and rations. Hong Taiji rebuked them, saying that the food of Joseon should only be fed to Joseon subjects. The relationship between Joseon and Later Jin remained uncomfortable and bleak. The invasion

2550-686: Was sparse and while white Russian mercenaries fought against the Japanese, this was a minor element. The Righteous Army was formed by Yu In-seok and other Confucian scholars during the Peasant Wars. Its ranks swelled after the Queen's murder by the Japanese Samurais. Under the leadership of Min Jeong-sik , Choe Ik-hyeon and Shin Dol-seok , the Righteous Army attacked the Japanese army, Japanese merchants and pro-Japanese bureaucrats in

2601-451: Was the creativity of the righteous army that occurred as a national resistance movement. During the Japanese Invasion of Korea in 1592, the righteous army chiefs were at the top of society in the provinces and served as spiritual leaders, and economically, they were small and medium-sized landowners and had an organic connection with farmers through land. The Japanese invasion of the country destroyed their social and economic foundations. On

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