122-554: World Brain is a collection of essays and addresses by the English science fiction pioneer, social reformer , evolutionary biologist and historian H. G. Wells , dating from the period of 1936–1938. Throughout the book, Wells describes his vision of the World Brain: a new, free, synthetic, authoritative, permanent "World Encyclopaedia " that could help world citizens make the best use of universal information resources and make
244-516: A Nobel Prize in Physics (which he shared with Karl Braun ) in 1909. In 1900, Reginald Fessenden was able to wirelessly transmit a human voice. Millimetre wave communication was first investigated by Bengali physicist Jagadish Chandra Bose during 1894–1896, when he reached an extremely high frequency of up to 60 GHz in his experiments. He also introduced the use of semiconductor junctions to detect radio waves, when he patented
366-505: A reform of the Poor Laws , free trade , educational reform , prison reform , and public sanitation . Originally this movement sought to replace the exclusive political power of the aristocracy with a more democratic system empowering urban areas and the middle and working classes . The energy of reform emerged from the religious fervour of the evangelical element in the established Church of England, and Evangelical workers in
488-414: A secret ballot to prevent voter coercion, trickery and bribery. By 1885, Gladstone had readjusted the parliamentary district lines by making each district equal in population, preventing one MP from having greater influence than another. The Mexican Liberal Party, led by Benito Juárez and Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada , guided the emergence of Mexico, as a nation state , from colonialism . It envisioned
610-607: A World Brain, was delivered as a lecture at the Royal Institution of Great Britain , Weekly Evening Meeting, Friday, 20 November 1936. Wells begins the lecture with a statement on his preference for cohesive worldviews rather than isolated facts. Correspondingly, he wishes the world to be such a whole "as coherent and consistent as possible". He mentions The Work, Wealth and Happiness of Mankind (1931), one of his own attempts at providing intellectual synthesis, and calls it disappointingly unmatched. He expresses dismay at
732-492: A centralized computer or mainframe with remote dumb terminals remained popular throughout the 1950s. However, it was not until the 1960s that researchers started to investigate packet switching a technology that would allow chunks of data to be sent to different computers without first passing through a centralized mainframe. A four-node network emerged on December 5, 1969, between the University of California, Los Angeles ,
854-592: A connection was established using radio. However no cable connection existed until TAT-1 was inaugurated on September 25, 1956, providing 36 telephone circuits. In 1880, Bell and co-inventor Charles Sumner Tainter conducted the world's first wireless telephone call via modulated lightbeams projected by photophones . The scientific principles of their invention would not be utilized for several decades, when they were first deployed in military and fiber-optic communications . The first transatlantic telephone cable (which incorporated hundreds of electronic amplifiers )
976-588: A constant danger that some of the early promoters may feel and attempt to realise a sort of proprietorship in the organisation, to make a group or a gang of it. But to recognise that danger is half-way to averting it. The language of the World Encyclopedia would be English because of its greater range, precision, and subtlety. Intellectual workers across the world would be increasingly bound together through their participation. Wells wishes that wise world citizens would ensure world peace. He suggests that
1098-530: A contemporary of Wells and information science pioneer, revived this movement in the twentieth century. Otlet wrote in 1935, "Man would no longer need documentation if he were assimilated into a being that has become omniscient, in the manner of God himself." Otlet, like Wells, supported the internationalist efforts of the League of Nations and its International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation . For his part, Wells had advocated world government for at least
1220-495: A decade, arguing in such books as The Open Conspiracy for control of education by a scientific elite. In the wake of the first World War, Wells believed that people needed to become more educated and conversant with events and knowledge that surrounded them. In order to do this he offered the idea of the knowledge system of the World Brain that all humans could access. This section, Wells's first expression of his dream of
1342-478: A few kilometers (in von Sömmerring's design), with each of the telegraph receiver's wires immersed in a separate glass tube of acid. An electric current was sequentially applied by the sender through the various wires representing each digit of a message; at the recipient's end the currents electrolysed the acid in the tubes in sequence, releasing streams of hydrogen bubbles next to each associated letter or numeral. The telegraph receiver's operator would visually observe
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#17327911585931464-576: A five-needle, six-wire system, which entered commercial use in 1838. It used the deflection of needles to represent messages and started operating over twenty-one kilometres (thirteen miles) of the Great Western Railway on 9 April 1839. Both Wheatstone and Cooke viewed their device as "an improvement to the [existing] electromagnetic telegraph" not as a new device. On the other side of the Atlantic Ocean , Samuel Morse developed
1586-530: A great network of railways, partly to develop the natural resources of the country, and partly to increase its power for defense and attack. Military reforms included universal conscription, introduced for all social classes on 1 January 1874. A new judicial administration (1864), based on the French model, introduced security of tenure. A new penal code and a greatly simplified system of civil and criminal procedure also came into operation. Reorganisation of
1708-495: A line from Strasbourg to Paris. In 1794, a Swedish engineer, Abraham Edelcrantz built a quite different system from Stockholm to Drottningholm . As opposed to Chappe's system which involved pulleys rotating beams of wood, Edelcrantz's system relied only upon shutters and was therefore faster. However, semaphore as a communication system suffered from the need for skilled operators and expensive towers often at intervals of only ten to thirty kilometers (six to nineteen miles). As
1830-532: A means of relaying a signal. Beacon chains suffered the drawback that they could only pass a single bit of information, so the meaning of the message such as "the enemy has been sighted" had to be agreed upon in advance. One notable instance of their use was during the Spanish Armada , when a beacon chain relayed a signal from Plymouth to London that signaled the arrival of the Spanish warships. In 1774,
1952-563: A modern civil society and capitalist economy . All citizens were equal before the law , and Mexico's 1829 abolition of slavery was reaffirmed. The Liberal program, documented in the 1857 Constitution of Mexico , was based on: The Tanzimat, meaning reorganization of the Ottoman Empire , was a period of reformation that began in 1839 and ended with the First Constitutional Era in 1876. The Tanzimat reform era
2074-643: A paper on the Ethernet protocol was published by Robert Metcalfe and David Boggs in the July 1976 issue of Communications of the ACM . The Ethernet protocol had been inspired by the ALOHAnet protocol which had been developed by electrical engineering researchers at the University of Hawaii . Internet access became widespread late in the century, using the old telephone and television networks. MOS technology
2196-443: A pioneer of colour television using cathode-ray tubes. After mid-century the spread of coaxial cable and microwave radio relay allowed television networks to spread across even large countries. The modern period of telecommunication history from 1950 onwards is referred to as the semiconductor era, due to the wide adoption of semiconductor devices in telecommunication technology. The development of transistor technology and
2318-400: A planar type of DMOS that was practical for audio power output stages. RF CMOS (radio frequency CMOS ) integrated circuit technology was later developed by Asad Abidi at UCLA in the late 1980s. By the 1990s, RF CMOS integrated circuits were widely adopted as RF circuits , while discrete MOSFET (power MOSFET and LDMOS) devices were widely adopted as RF power amplifiers , which led to
2440-791: A receiving satellite dish via a geostationary satellite in Earth orbit. Improvements in submarine communications cables , through the use of fiber-optics , caused some decline in the use of satellites for fixed telephony in the late 20th century, but they still exclusively service remote islands such as Ascension Island , Saint Helena , Diego Garcia , and Easter Island , where no submarine cables are in service. There are also some continents and some regions of countries where landline telecommunications are rare to nonexistent, for example Antarctica , plus large regions of Australia , South America , Africa , Northern Canada , China , Russia and Greenland . After commercial long-distance telephone service
2562-748: A result, the last commercial line was abandoned in 1880. Experiments on communication with electricity , initially unsuccessful, started in about 1726. Scientists including Laplace , Ampère , and Gauss were involved. An early experiment in electrical telegraphy was an 'electrochemical' telegraph created by the German physician, anatomist and inventor Samuel Thomas von Sömmerring in 1809, based on an earlier, less robust design of 1804 by Spanish polymath and scientist Francisco Salva Campillo . Both their designs employed multiple wires (up to 35) in order to visually represent almost all Latin letters and numerals. Thus, messages could be conveyed electrically up to
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#17327911585932684-746: A small production company. In 1934, he gave the first public demonstration of the television at Philadelphia's Franklin Institute and opened his own broadcasting station. Zworykin's camera, based on Tihanyi's Radioskop, which later would be known as the Iconoscope , had the backing of the influential Radio Corporation of America (RCA). In the United States, court action between Farnsworth and RCA would resolve in Farnsworth's favour. John Logie Baird switched from mechanical television and became
2806-506: A source of acute distress. The London Working Men's Association , under the guidance of Francis Place , found itself in the midst of a great unrest. In the northern textile districts the Chartists, led by Feargus O'Connor , a follower of Daniel O'Connell , denounced the inadequate Poor Laws. This was basically a hunger revolt, springing from unemployment and despair. In Birmingham, the older Birmingham Political Union sprang to life under
2928-525: A version of the electrical telegraph which he demonstrated on 2 September 1837. Alfred Vail saw this demonstration and joined Morse to develop the register—a telegraph terminal that integrated a logging device for recording messages to paper tape. This was demonstrated successfully over three miles (five kilometres) on 6 January 1838 and eventually over forty miles (sixty-four kilometres) between Washington, D.C. , and Baltimore on 24 May 1844. The patented invention proved lucrative and by 1851 telegraph lines in
3050-474: A world intellectual project will have more positive impact to this end than will any political movement such as communism, fascism, imperialism, pacifism, etc. He ended his lecture as follows: [W]hat I am saying ... is this, that without a World Encyclopaedia to hold men's minds together in something like a common interpretation of reality, there is no hope whatever of anything but an accidental and transitory alleviation of any of our world troubles. This section
3172-602: Is a modernized "World Knowledge Apparatus"—the World Encyclopedia—"a sort of mental clearing house for the mind, a depot where knowledge and ideas are received, sorted, summarized, digested, clarified and compared". Wells thought that technological advances such as microfilm could be used towards this end so that "any student, in any part of the world, will be able to sit with his projector in his own study at his or her convenience to examine any book, any document, in an exact replica". In this lecture Wells develops
3294-513: Is that the latter, as envisaged by Wells, is centrally controlled, while the former is fully decentralised and self-organizing . In 2001, Doug Schuler, a professor at Evergreen State University , proposed a worldwide civic intelligence network as the fulfillment of Wells's world brain. As examples he cited Sustainable Seattle and the "Technology Healthy City" project in Seattle. A number of commentators have suggested that Misplaced Pages represents
3416-723: Is the beginning of its effort. The world is a Phoenix. It perishes in flames and even as it dies it is born again. This synthesis of knowledge is the necessary beginning to the new world. This section was delivered as the Presidential Address to the Educational Science Section of the British Association for the Advancement of Science , 2 September 1937. Wells expresses his dismay at the general state of public ignorance, even among
3538-461: Is wrong. The sentence was rendered by professional judges. A host of new reforms followed in diverse areas. The tsar appointed Dmitry Milyutin to carry out significant reforms in the Russian armed forces. Further important changes were made concerning industry and commerce, and the new freedom thus afforded produced a large number of limited liability companies . Plans were formed for building
3660-629: The Bell Telephone Company in the United States, which later evolved into American Telephone & Telegraph (AT&T), at times the world's largest phone company. Telephone technology grew quickly after the first commercial services emerged, with inter-city lines being built and telephone exchanges in every major city of the United States by the mid-1880s. The first transcontinental telephone call occurred on January 25, 1915. Despite this, transatlantic voice communication remained impossible for customers until January 7, 1927, when
3782-515: The Israelites ), and the broad contours of world history . He suggests better education in geography , with an inventory of the world's natural resources , and a better curriculum in money and economics . He calls for a "modernised type of teacher", better paid, with better equipment, and continually updated training . One of the stated goals of this Congress, held in Paris, France, in 1937,
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3904-624: The Stanford Research Institute , the University of Utah and the University of California, Santa Barbara . This network would become ARPANET , which by 1981 would consist of 213 nodes. In June 1973, the first non-US node was added to the network belonging to Norway 's NORSAR project. This was shortly followed by a node in London. ARPANET's development centred on the Request for Comments process and on April 7, 1969, RFC 1
4026-657: The United States spanned over 20,000 miles (32,000 kilometres). Morse's most important technical contribution to this telegraph was the simple and highly efficient Morse Code , co-developed with Vail, which was an important advance over Wheatstone's more complicated and expensive system, and required just two wires. The communications efficiency of the Morse Code preceded that of the Huffman code in digital communications by over 100 years, but Morse and Vail developed
4148-556: The World Wide Web as an extension of Wells's "World Brain" that individuals can access using personal computers. In papers published in 1996 and 1997 (that did not cite Wells), Francis Heylighen and Ben Goertzel envisaged the further development of the World Wide Web into a global brain , i.e. an intelligent network of people and computers at the planetary level. The difference between "global brain" and "world brain"
4270-613: The abolition of slavery throughout the British Empire, and Poor Law reform . Peel was a Conservative , whose Ministry took an important step in the direction of tariff reform with the abolition of the Corn Laws . William Ewart Gladstone was a reformer. Among the reforms he helped Parliament pass was a system of public education in the Elementary Education Act 1870 . In 1872, he saw the institution of
4392-429: The digital-to-analog converter (DAC) chip, using MOSFETs and MOS capacitors for data conversion. This was followed by the analog-to-digital converter (ADC) chip, developed by Gray and J. McCreary in 1975. MOS SC circuits led to the development of PCM codec-filter chips in the late 1970s. The silicon-gate CMOS (complementary MOS) PCM codec-filter chip, developed by Hodges and W.C. Black in 1980, has since been
4514-526: The mechanical television . In October 1925, Baird was successful in obtaining moving pictures with halftone shades, which were by most accounts the first true television pictures. This led to a public demonstration of the improved device on 26 January 1926 again at Selfridges . His invention formed the basis of semi-experimental broadcasts done by the British Broadcasting Corporation beginning September 30, 1929. For most of
4636-435: The radio crystal detector in 1901. In 1924, Japanese engineer Kenjiro Takayanagi began a research program on electronic television . In 1925, he demonstrated a CRT television with thermal electron emission. In 1926, he demonstrated a CRT television with 40-line resolution , the first working example of a fully electronic television receiver. In 1927, he increased the television resolution to 100 lines, which
4758-443: The semiconductor industry enabled significant advances in telecommunication technology, led to the price of telecommunications services declining significantly, and led to a transition away from state-owned narrowband circuit-switched networks to private broadband packet-switched networks . In turn, this led to a significant increase in the total number of telephone subscribers, reaching nearly 1 billion users worldwide by
4880-473: The "World Brain" as a subsection of it. He suggested that this supercomputer should be installed in the former war rooms of the United States and the Soviet Union once the superpowers had matured enough to agree to co-operate rather than conflict with each other. Clarke predicted the construction of the "World Brain" would be completed by the year 2100. In 1964, Eugene Garfield published an article in
5002-455: The "irreducible minimum of knowledge" can be imparted to all people within ten years of education—realistically, he says, amounting to 2400 hours of classroom instruction. He suggests minimizing the teaching of names and dates in British history and focusing instead on newly available information about prehistory , early civilisation (without the traditionally heavy emphasis on Palestine and
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5124-423: The 18th-century pattern, organisation and scale. "Our contemporary encyclopedias are still in the coach-and-horse phase of development," he argued, "rather than in the phase of the automobile and the aeroplane". Wells saw the potential for world-altering impacts this technology could bring. He felt that the creation of the encyclopaedia could bring about the peaceful days of the past, "with a common understanding and
5246-461: The 4th century BC. The hydraulic semaphores, which worked with water filled vessels and visual signals, functioned as optical telegraphs . However, they could only utilize a very limited range of pre-determined messages, and as with all such optical telegraphs could only be deployed during good visibility conditions. During the Middle Ages, chains of beacons were commonly used on hilltops as
5368-575: The Atlantic in the cities of New Haven , Connecticut in the US and London , England in the UK . Alexander Graham Bell held the master patent for the telephone that was needed for such services in both countries. All other patents for electric telephone devices and features flowed from this master patent. Credit for the invention of the electric telephone has been frequently disputed, and new controversies over
5490-475: The Empire's population of 74 million. They belonged to the state, to monasteries and to 104,000 rich gentry landowners. ` The emancipation reform of 1861 that freed the 23 million serfs was the single most important event in 19th-century Russia and the beginning of the end for the landed aristocracy's monopoly of power. Emancipation brought a supply of free labour to the cities, stimulating industry, and allowed
5612-426: The Empire. Peasants often opposed the reforms because they upset traditional relationships. The Russian Empire in the 19th century was characterized by very conservative and reactionary policies issued by the autocratic tsars. The great exception came during the reign of Alexander II (1855–1881), especially the 1860s. By far the greatest and most unexpected was the abolition of serfdom, which affected 23 million of
5734-655: The Nonconformist churches, especially the Methodists. Reformers also used the scientific methodology of Jeremy Bentham and the utilitarians to design specific reforms, and especially to provide for government inspection to guarantee their successful operation. The greatest success of the Reformers was the Reform Act 1832 . It gave the rising urban middle classes more political power, while sharply reducing
5856-451: The Swiss physicist Georges Lesage built an electrostatic telegraph consisting of a set of 24 conductive wires a few meters long connected to 24 elder balls suspended from a silk thread (each wire corresponds to a letter). The electrification of a wire by means of an electrostatic generator causes the corresponding elder ball to deflect and designate a letter to the operator located at the end of
5978-554: The World Brain as described by Wells. Joseph Reagle has compared Wells's warning about the need to defend the World Encyclopedia from propaganda with Misplaced Pages's "Neutral Point of View" norm: In keeping with the universal vision, and anticipating a key Misplaced Pages norm, H. G. Wells was concerned that his World Brain be an "encyclopedia appealing to all mankind", and therefore it must remain open to corrective criticism, be skeptical of myths (no matter how "venerated") and guard against "narrowing propaganda". This strikes me as similar to
6100-715: The World Brain would take place in two stages. He identified the first stage as the construction of the World Library , which is basically Wells's concept of a universal encyclopaedia accessible to everyone from their home on computer terminals . He predicted this phase would be established (at least in the developed countries ) by the year 2000. The second stage, the World Brain , would be a superintelligent artificially intelligent supercomputer that humans would be able to mutually interact with to solve various world problems. The "World Library" would be incorporated into
6222-425: The World Encyclopedia will provide valuable coordination with other intellectuals working in similar areas. Wells calls for the formation of an Encyclopaedia Society to promote the project and defend it from exploitation (e.g. by an "enterprising publisher" trying to profit from it). This society would also organize departments for production. Of course, the existence of a society has its own risks: And there will be
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#17327911585936344-504: The advent of digital wireless networks leading to a social revolution, and a paradigm shift from wired to wireless technology, including the proliferation of commercial wireless technologies such as cell phones , mobile telephony , pagers , wireless computer networks , cellular networks , the wireless Internet , and laptop and handheld computers with wireless connections. The wireless revolution has been driven by advances in radio frequency (RF) and microwave engineering , and
6466-477: The age of 30 who were householders, the wives of householders, occupiers of the property with an annual rent of £5, and graduates of British universities. There was also Warner's suffrage movement. Earl Grey , Lord Melbourne and Robert Peel were leaders of Parliament during the earlier years of the British reform movement. Grey and Melbourne were of the Whig party, and their governments saw parliamentary reform ,
6588-481: The analogy of the encyclopedia to a brain, saying, "it would be a clearing house for universities and research institutions; it would play the role of a cerebral cortex to these essential ganglia". He mentions the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation , an advisory branch of the League of Nations , and the 1937 World Congress of Universal Documentation as contemporary forerunners of
6710-442: The basic sciences to permit its very earliest trials would take nearly a half century to be discovered. This was first embodied in the device which came to be known as the video telephone , or videophone, and it evolved from intensive research and experimentation in several telecommunication fields, notably electrical telegraphy , telephony , radio , and television . The development of the crucial video technology first started in
6832-432: The best contribution to world peace . Plans for creating a global knowledge network long predate Wells. Andrew Michael Ramsay described, c. 1737, an objective of freemasonry as follows: ... to furnish the materials for a Universal Dictionary ... By this means the lights of all nations will be united in one single work, which will be a universal library of all that is beautiful, great, luminous, solid, and useful in all
6954-484: The bubbles and could then record the transmitted message, albeit at a very low baud rate. The principal disadvantage to the system was its prohibitive cost, due to having to manufacture and string-up the multiple wire circuits it employed, as opposed to the single wire (with ground return) used by later telegraphs. The first working telegraph was built by Francis Ronalds in 1816 and used static electricity. Charles Wheatstone and William Fothergill Cooke patented
7076-481: The code purely empirically , with shorter codes for more frequent letters. The submarine cable across the English Channel , wire coated in gutta percha , was laid in 1851. Transatlantic cables installed in 1857 and 1858 only operated for a few days or weeks (carried messages of greeting back and forth between James Buchanan and Queen Victoria ) before they failed. The project to lay a replacement line
7198-441: The conception of a common purpose, and of a commonwealth such as now we hardly dream of". Wells anticipated the effect and contribution that his World Brain would have on the university system as well. He wanted to see universities contributing to it, helping it grow, and feeding its search for holistic information. "Every university and research institution should be feeding it" (p. 14). Elsewhere Wells wrote: "It would become
7320-561: The country from invasion by foreign forces. History of telecommunication The history of telecommunication began with the use of smoke signals and drums in Africa , Asia , and the Americas . In the 1790s, the first fixed semaphore systems emerged in Europe . However, it was not until the 1830s that electrical telecommunication systems started to appear. This article details
7442-421: The development of low-cost, very large-scale integration (VLSI) RF CMOS (radio-frequency complementary MOS ) technology. The development of videotelephony involved the historical development of several technologies which enabled the use of live video in addition to voice telecommunications. The concept of videotelephony was first popularized in the late 1870s in both the United States and Europe, although
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#17327911585937564-579: The doctrine of New Encyclopaedism as a framework for integrating intellectuals into an organic whole. For the ordinary man, who will necessarily be an educated citizen in the modern state: From his point of view the World Encyclopaedia would be a row of volumes in his own home or in some neighbouring house or in a convenient public library or in any school or college, and in this row of volumes he would, without any great toil or difficulty, find in clear understandable language, and kept up to date,
7686-440: The educated, and suggest that the Educational Science Section focus on the bigger picture: For this year I suggest we give the questions of drill, skills, art, music, the teaching of languages, mathematics and other symbols, physical, aesthetic, moral and religious training and development, a rest, and that we concentrate on the inquiry: What are we telling young people directly about the world in which they are to live? He asks how
7808-441: The end of the 20th century. The development of metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) large-scale integration (LSI) technology, information theory and cellular networking led to the development of affordable mobile communications . There was a rapid growth of the telecommunications industry towards the end of the 20th century, primarily due to the introduction of digital signal processing in wireless communications , driven by
7930-491: The establishment of a new world order is imperative: One needs an exceptional stupidity even to question the urgency we are under to establish some effective World Pax, before gathering disaster overwhelms us. The problem of reshaping human affairs on a world-scale, this World problem, is drawing together an ever-increasing multitude of minds. Neither Christianity nor socialism can solve the World Problem. The solution
8052-587: The first digital cinema transmission by satellite in Europe of a feature film by Bernard Pauchon, Alain Lorentz, Raymond Melwig and Philippe Binant. On September 11, 1940, George Stibitz was able to transmit problems using teletype to his Complex Number Calculator in New York City and receive the computed results back at Dartmouth College in New Hampshire . This configuration of
8174-707: The government of the Great National Assembly, of which he was president, Mustafa Kemal fought the Forces of the Entente and the Sultan's army which had remained there in collaboration with the occupying forces. Finally, on 9 September 1922 he succeeded in driving the Allied Forces back to Izmir, along with the other forces which had managed to penetrate the heartland of Anatolia. By this action he saved
8296-493: The history of telecommunication and the individuals who helped make telecommunication systems what they are today. The history of telecommunication is an important part of the larger history of communication . Early telecommunications included smoke signals and drums . Talking drums were used by natives in Africa , and smoke signals in North America and China . These systems were often used to do more than announce
8418-426: The ideas are often grounded in liberalism , although they may be rooted in socialist (specifically, social democratic ) or religious concepts. Some rely on personal transformation; others rely on small collectives, such as Mahatma Gandhi 's spinning wheel and the self-sustaining village economy, as a mode of social change . Reactionary movements , which can arise against any of these, attempt to put things back
8540-489: The ignorance of social science among the Treaty of Versailles and League of Nations framers. He mentions some recent works on the role of science in society and states his main problem as follows: We want the intellectual worker to become a more definitely organised factor in the human scheme. How is that factor to be organised? Is there any way of implementing knowledge for ready and universal effect? In answer he introduces
8662-405: The industry standard for digital telephony. By the 1990s, telecommunication networks such as the public switched telephone network (PSTN) had been largely digitized with very-large-scale integration (VLSI) CMOS PCM codec-filters, widely used in electronic switching systems for telephone exchanges and data transmission applications. The wireless revolution began in the 1990s, with
8784-476: The introduction of public hearings , the jury trial , and a professional advocate that had never existed in Russia. However, there were also problems, as certain obsolete institutions were not covered by the reform. Also, the reform was hindered by extrajudicial punishment , introduced on a widespread scale during the reigns of his successors – Alexander III and Nicholas II . One of the most important results of
8906-413: The issue have arisen from time-to-time. As with other great inventions such as radio, television, the light bulb, and the digital computer , there were several inventors who did pioneering experimental work on voice transmission over a wire , who then improved on each other's ideas. However, the key innovators were Alexander Graham Bell and Gardiner Greene Hubbard , who created the first telephone company,
9028-623: The journal Science introducing the Science Citation Index ; the article's first sentence invoked Wells's "magnificent, if premature, plea for the establishment of a world information center", and Garfield predicted that the Science Citation Index "is a harbinger of things to come—a forerunner of the World Brain". Brian R. Gaines in his 1996 paper "Convergence to the Information Highway" saw
9150-440: The judiciary occurred to include trial in open court, with judges appointed for life, a jury system and the creation of justices of the peace to deal with minor offences at local level. Legal historian Sir Henry Maine credited Alexander II with the first great attempt since the time of Grotius to codify and humanise the usages of war. Alexander's bureaucracy instituted an elaborate scheme of local self-government ( zemstvo ) for
9272-652: The latter half of the 1920s in the United Kingdom and the United States, spurred notably by John Logie Baird and AT&T's Bell Labs . This occurred in part, at least by AT&T, to serve as an adjunct supplementing the use of the telephone. A number of organizations believed that videotelephony would be superior to plain voice communications. However, video technology was to be deployed in analog television broadcasting long before it could become practical—or popular—for videophones. Videotelephony developed in parallel with conventional voice telephone systems from
9394-478: The leadership of Thomas Attwood . The Chartist movement demanded basic economic reforms, higher wages and better conditions of work, and a repeal of the obnoxious Poor Law Act. The idea of universal male suffrage, an initial goal of the Chartist movement, was to include all males as voters regardless of their social standing. This later evolved into a campaign for universal suffrage. This movement sought to redraw
9516-489: The line. The sequence of selected letters leads to the writing and transmission of a message. French engineer Claude Chappe began working on visual telegraphy in 1790, using pairs of "clocks" whose hands pointed at different symbols. These did not prove quite viable at long distances, and Chappe revised his model to use two sets of jointed wooden beams. Operators moved the beams using cranks and wires. He built his first telegraph line between Lille and Paris , followed by
9638-412: The logical nucleus of the world's research universities and post-graduate studies." He suggested that the organization he was proposing "would outgrow in scale and influence alike any single university that exists, and it would inevitably take the place of the loose-knit university system of the world in the concentration of research and thought and the direction of the general education of mankind". In fact
9760-407: The mental background of every intelligent man in the world. It would be alive and growing and changing continually under revision, extension and replacement from the original thinkers in the world everywhere. Every university and research institution should be feeding it. Every fresh mind should be brought into contact with its standing editorial organisation. And on the other hand its contents would be
9882-470: The message that the idea and the ideals of outdated imperialism ought be dropped so that people within the national boundaries could make decisions in accordance with the principles and general guidelines of an effective national policy. After the occupation of Istanbul by the Forces of the Entente he laid the foundations for the new Turkish State when in 1920 he united the Great National Assembly in Ankara. With
10004-488: The mid-to-late 20th century. Only in the late 20th century with the advent of powerful video codecs and high-speed broadband did it become a practical technology for regular use. With the rapid improvements and popularity of the Internet, it became widespread through the use of videoconferencing and webcams , which frequently utilize Internet telephony , and in business, where telepresence technology has helped reduce
10126-405: The middle class to increase in number and influence. The freed peasants did not receive any free land. They had to pay a special tax for what amounted to their lifetime to the government, which in turn paid the landlords a generous price for the land that they had lost. All the property turned over to the peasants was owned collectively by the mir , the village community, which divided the land among
10248-406: The most successful and consistent of all his reforms. A completely new court system and order of legal proceedings were established. The main results were the introduction of a unified judicial system instead of a cumbersome set of estates of the realm courts, and fundamental changes in criminal trials. The latter included the establishment of the principle of equality of the parties involved ,
10370-420: The need to travel. Practical digital videotelephony was only made possible with advances in video compression , due to the impractically high bandwidth requirements of uncompressed video . To achieve Video Graphics Array (VGA) quality video ( 480p resolution and 256 colors ) with raw uncompressed video, it would require a bandwidth of over 92 Mbps . The first U.S. satellite to relay communications
10492-520: The nervous system, Nikola Tesla speculated that: When wireless is perfectly applied the whole earth will be converted into a huge brain ... Not only this, but through television and telephony we shall see and hear one another as perfectly as though we were face to face, despite intervening distances of thousands of miles; and the instruments through which we shall be able to do this will be amazingly simple compared with our present telephone. A man will be able to carry one in his vest pocket. Paul Otlet ,
10614-420: The new encyclopedism he was advocating was "the only possible method I can imagine, of bringing the universities and research institutions around the world into effective cooperation and creating an intellectual authority sufficient to control and direct collective life". Ultimately the World Encyclopaedia would be "a permanent institution, a mighty super-university, holding together, utilizing and dominating all of
10736-594: The parliamentary districts within Great Britain and create a salary system for elected officials so that workers could afford to represent their constituents without a burden on their families. Many consider Mary Wollstonecraft 's Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792) to be the source of the reformers' long-running campaign for feminist inclusion and the origin of the Women's Suffrage movement. Harriet Taylor
10858-465: The peasants and supervised the various holdings. Although serfdom was abolished, since its abolition was achieved on terms unfavourable to the peasants, revolutionary tensions were not abated, despite Alexander II's intentions. Revolutionaries believed that the newly freed serfs were merely being sold into wage slavery in the onset of the industrial revolution, and that the bourgeoisie had effectively replaced landowners. The judicial reforms were among
10980-511: The pluralism inherent in the Misplaced Pages "Neutral Point of View" goal of "representing significant views fairly, proportionately, and without bias". Social reform Reformism is a type of social movement that aims to bring a social or also a political system closer to the community's ideal. A reform movement is distinguished from more radical social movements such as revolutionary movements which reject those old ideals, in that
11102-621: The power of the low-population districts controlled by rich families. Despite determined resistance from the House of Lords to the Bill, this Act gave more parliamentary power to the liberals, while reducing the political force of the working class, leaving them detached from the main body of middle class support on which they had relied. Having achieved the Reform Act of 1832, the Radical alliance
11224-523: The presence of a military camp. In Rabbinical Judaism a signal was given by means of kerchiefs or flags at intervals along the way back to the high priest to indicate the goat "for Azazel" had been pushed from the cliff. Homing pigeons have occasionally been used throughout history by different cultures. Pigeon post had Persian roots, and was later used by the Romans to aid their military. Greek hydraulic semaphore systems were used as early as
11346-516: The priests returned home. Others stayed to minister to their native parishioners, who remain members of the Russian Orthodox Church into the 21st century. Atatürk's Reforms were a series of significant political, legal, cultural, social and economic changes that were implemented under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in the 1920s and 1930s in the new Republic of Turkey In the years between 1919 and 1923 Mustafa Kemal
11468-414: The reform was wide introduction of jury trials . The jury trial included three professional judges and twelve jurors. A juror had to possess real estate of a certain value. Unlike in modern jury trials, jurors not only could decide whether the defendant was guilty or not guilty but also could decide that the defendant was guilty but not to be punished, as Alexander II believed that justice without morality
11590-568: The ruling concepts of our social order, the outlines and main particulars in all fields of knowledge, an exact and reasonably detailed picture of our universe, a general history of the world, and if by any chance he wanted to pursue a question into its ultimate detail, a trustworthy and complete system of reference to primary sources of knowledge. In fields where wide varieties of method and opinion existed, he would find, not casual summaries of opinions, but very carefully chosen and correlated statements and arguments. [...] This World Encyclopaedia would be
11712-614: The rural districts (1864) and the large towns (1870), with elective assemblies possessing a restricted right of taxation, and a new rural and municipal police under the direction of the Minister of the Interior . The Alaska colony was losing money, and would be impossible to defend and wartime against Britain, so in 1867 Russia sold Alaska to the United States for $ 7.2 million (equivalent to roughly $ 200 million in current dollars). The Russian administrators, soldiers, settlers, and some of
11834-470: The sciences and in all noble arts. This work will augment in each century, according to the increase of knowledge. The Encyclopedist movement in France in the mid-eighteenth century was a major attempt to actualize this philosophy. However, efforts to encompass all knowledge came to seem less possible as the available corpus expanded exponentially. In 1926, extending the analogy between global telegraphy and
11956-447: The standard source of material for the instructional side of school and college work, for the verification of facts and the testing of statements—everywhere in the world. Even journalists would deign to use it; even newspaper proprietors might be made to respect it. Such an encyclopedia would be akin to a secular bible. Universal acceptance would be possible due to the underlying similarity of human brains. For specialists and intellectuals,
12078-557: The teaching and research organizations at present in existence". This section provides a brief excerpt of Wells's speech at the World Congress of Universal Documentation , 20 August 1937. He tells the participants directly that they are participating in the creation of a world brain. He says: I am speaking of a process of mental organisation throughout the world which I believe to be as inevitable as anything can be in human affairs. The world has to pull its mind together, and this
12200-545: The term "Internet" as a shorthand for internetworking. In September 1981, RFC 791 introduced the Internet Protocol v4 (IPv4). This established the TCP/IP protocol, which much of the Internet relies upon today. The User Datagram Protocol (UDP), a more relaxed transport protocol that, unlike TCP, did not guarantee the orderly delivery of packets, was submitted on 28 August 1980 as RFC 768. An e-mail protocol, SMTP ,
12322-503: The transition from analog to digital RF technology. Advances in metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, or MOS transistor) technology, the key component of the RF technology that enables digital wireless networks, has been central to this revolution. Hitachi developed the vertical power MOSFET in 1969, but it was not until Ragle perfected the concept in 1976 that the power MOSFET became practical. In 1977 Hitachi announce
12444-493: The twentieth century televisions used the cathode ray tube (CRT) invented by Karl Braun . Such a television was produced by Philo Farnsworth , who demonstrated crude silhouette images to his family in Idaho on September 7, 1927. Farnsworth's device would compete with the concurrent work of Kalman Tihanyi and Vladimir Zworykin . Though the execution of the device was not yet what everyone hoped it could be, it earned Farnsworth
12566-724: The unsuccessful Women's Franchise League , and in October 1903 she founded the better-known Women's Social and Political Union (later dubbed 'suffragettes' by the Daily Mail ), an organization famous for its militancy. Led by Pankhurst and her daughters, Christabel and Sylvia, the campaign culminated in 1918, when the British Parliament the Representation of the People Act 1918 granting the vote to women over
12688-480: The way they were before any successes the new reform movement(s) enjoyed, or to prevent any such successes. After two decades of intensely conservative rule, the logjam broke in the late 1820s with the repeal of obsolete restrictions on Nonconformists, followed by the dramatic removal of severe limitations on Catholics in Britain. The Radical movement campaigned for electoral reform , against child labour , for
12810-500: The world brain. This section was first published in Harper's Magazine , April 1937, and contributed to the new Encyclopédie française , August 1937. In this essay, Wells explains how current encyclopaedias have failed to adapt to both the growing increase in recorded knowledge and the expansion of people requiring information that was accurate and readily accessible. He asserts that these 19th-century encyclopaedias continue to follow
12932-404: Was Project SCORE in 1958, which used a tape recorder to store and forward voice messages. It was used to send a Christmas greeting to the world from U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower . In 1960 NASA launched an Echo satellite ; the 100-foot (30 m) aluminized PET film balloon served as a passive reflector for radio communications. Courier 1B , built by Philco , also launched in 1960,
13054-584: Was a significant influence on John Stuart Mill 's work and ideas, reinforcing Mill's advocacy of women's rights . Her essay, "Enfranchisement of Women," appeared in the Westminster Review in 1851 in response to a speech by Lucy Stone given at the first National Women's Rights Convention in Worcester, Massachusetts in 1850, and it was reprinted in the United States. Mill cites Taylor's influence in his final revision of On Liberty, (1859) which
13176-642: Was at the forefront of the Turkish War of Independence and involved with the eradication of the antiquated institutions of the Osmanic Empire and in laying the foundations of the new Turkish State. He approached the National Congresses of Erzurum and Sivas to organise and lift the morale of the people in its determined opposition to the Forces of the Entente who were occupying Anatolia. By the end of these conventions he had managed to convey
13298-532: Was broken until the Liberal-Labour alliance of the Edwardian period. The Chartist movement in nineteenth-century Britain sought universal suffrage . A historian of the Chartist movement observed that "The Chartist movement was essentially an economic movement with a purely political programme." A period of bad trade and high food prices set in, and the drastic restrictions on Poor Law relief were
13420-561: Was characterized by various attempts to modernize the Ottoman Empire , to secure its territorial integrity against nationalist movements and aggressive powers. The reforms encouraged Ottomanism among the diverse ethnic groups of the Empire, attempting to stem the tide of nationalist movements within the Ottoman Empire . The reforms attempted to integrate non-Muslims and non-Turks more thoroughly into Ottoman society by enhancing their civil liberties and granting them equality throughout
13542-482: Was delayed for five years by the American Civil War . The first successful transatlantic telegraph cable was completed on 27 July 1866, allowing continuous transatlantic telecommunication for the first time. The electric telephone was invented in the 1870s, based on earlier work with harmonic (multi-signal) telegraphs . The first commercial telephone services were set up in 1878 and 1879 on both sides of
13664-481: Was established via communication satellites, a host of other commercial telecommunications were also adapted to similar satellites starting in 1979, including mobile satellite phones , satellite radio , satellite television and satellite Internet access . The earliest adaption for most such services occurred in the 1990s as the pricing for commercial satellite transponder channels continued to drop significantly. Realization and demonstration, on October 29, 2001, of
13786-502: Was first delivered as a lecture in America, October and November 1937. This lecture promotes the doctrine New Encyclopedism described previously. Wells begins with the observation that the world has become a single interconnected community due to the enormously increased speed of telecommunications . Secondly, he says that energy is available on a new scale, enabling, among other things, the capability for mass destruction. Consequently,
13908-592: Was initially overlooked by Bell because they did not find it practical for analog telephone applications. MOS technology eventually became practical for telephone applications with the MOS mixed-signal integrated circuit , which combines analog and digital signal processing on a single chip, developed by former Bell engineer David A. Hodges with Paul R. Gray at UC Berkeley in the early 1970s. In 1974, Hodges and Gray worked with R.E. Suarez to develop MOS switched capacitor (SC) circuit technology, which they used to develop
14030-658: Was introduced in August 1982 by RFC 821 and [[HTTP| http://1.0 ]] a protocol that would make the hyperlinked Internet possible was introduced in May 1996 by RFC 1945. However, not all important developments were made through the Request for Comments process. Two popular link protocols for local area networks (LANs) also appeared in the 1970s. A patent for the Token Ring protocol was filed by Olof Söderblom on October 29, 1974. And
14152-581: Was launched by NASA from Cape Canaveral on July 10, 1962, the first privately sponsored space launch. Relay 1 was launched on December 13, 1962, and became the first satellite to broadcast across the Pacific on November 22, 1963. The first and historically most important application for communication satellites was in intercontinental long-distance telephony . The fixed Public Switched Telephone Network relays telephone calls from land line telephones to an earth station , where they are then transmitted
14274-562: Was not operational until 1956, only six years before the first commercial telecommunications satellite, Telstar , was launched into space. Over several years starting in 1894, the Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi worked on adapting the newly discovered phenomenon of radio waves to telecommunication, building the first wireless telegraphy system using them. In December 1901, he established wireless communication between St. John's, Newfoundland and Poldhu, Cornwall (England), earning him
14396-584: Was published shortly after her death, and she appears to be obliquely referenced in Mill's The Subjection of Women. A militant campaign to include women in the electorate originated in Victorian times. Emmeline Pankhurst 's husband, Richard Pankhurst, was a supporter of the women's suffrage movement and had been the author of the Married Women's Property Acts of 1870 and 1882. In 1889, Pankhurst founded
14518-572: Was published. This process is important because ARPANET would eventually merge with other networks to form the Internet and many of the protocols the Internet relies upon today were specified through this process. The first Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) specification, RFC 675 ( Specification of Internet Transmission Control Program ), was written by Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal , and Carl Sunshine, and published in December 1974. It coined
14640-623: Was the world's first active repeater satellite. Satellites these days are used for many applications such as GPS, television, internet and telephone. Telstar was the first active, direct relay commercial communications satellite . Belonging to AT&T as part of a multi-national agreement between AT&T, Bell Telephone Laboratories , NASA, the British General Post Office , and the French National PTT (Post Office) to develop satellite communications, it
14762-531: Was to discuss ideas and methods for implementing Wells's ideas of the World Brain. Wells himself gave a lecture at the Congress. Reginald Arthur Smith extended Wells's ideas in the book A Living Encyclopædia: A Contribution to Mr. Wells's New Encyclopædism (London: Andrew Dakers Ltd., 1941). In his 1962 book Profiles of the Future , Arthur C. Clarke predicted that the construction of what H. G. Wells called
14884-423: Was unrivaled until 1931. In 1928, he was the first to transmit human faces in half-tones on television, influencing the later work of Vladimir K. Zworykin . On March 25, 1925, Scottish inventor John Logie Baird publicly demonstrated the transmission of moving silhouette pictures at the London department store Selfridge's . Baird's system relied upon the fast-rotating Nipkow disk , and thus it became known as
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