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97-770: For many years before the Waterfront Development Corporation's founding in 1986 political leaders in Louisville had hoped to do something about what was perceived by much of the community as unattractive industrial areas and brownfields along the Ohio River in the downtown area. Due to the pressure of politics and the ever-changing makeup of the political leadership ideas and/or plans for the area's revitalization would often change. Community leaders sought to create an entity that would be insulated from electoral politics and therefore free to enact

194-516: A Global Framework on Chemicals aiming to reduce pollution was agreed during an international conference in Bonn , Germany. The framework includes 28 targets, for example, to "end the use of hazardous pesticides in agriculture where the risks have not been managed" by 2035. Pollution has a cost. Manufacturing activities that cause air pollution impose health and clean-up costs on the whole of society. A manufacturing activity that causes air pollution

291-642: A 17.5:1 return on dollars invested on brownfield redevelopment. A 2014 study of EPA brownfield cleanup grants from 2002 through 2008 found an average benefit value of almost $ 4 million per brownfield site (with a median of $ 2,117,982). To expedite the cleanup of brownfield sites in the US, some environmental firms have teamed up with insurance companies to underwrite the cleanup and provide a guaranteed cleanup cost to limit land developers' exposure to environmental remediation costs and pollution lawsuits. The environmental firm first performs an extensive investigation generally in

388-630: A daily basis, and averages more than 1.5 million visitors per year. Children and families enjoy the Children's Play Area and the new Adventure Playground, while walkers, joggers, picnickers, school groups, and others take advantage of its location along the river. Phase II of the park opened on June 10, 2004. Phase II l adds approximately 17 acres (69,000 m), including the Adventure Playground, which opened in July 2003; an esplanade along

485-555: A factor of calculating optimal levels. While a study puts the global mean loss of life expectancy (LLE; similar to YPLL ) from air pollution in 2015 at 2.9 years (substantially more than, for example, 0.3 years from all forms of direct violence), it also indicated that a significant fraction of the LLE is unavoidable in terms of current economical-technological feasibility such as aeolian dust and wildfire emission control. In markets with pollution, or other negative externalities in production,

582-563: A former industrial dump site in Oakland County, Michigan . The intent is to see if the plants can serve two purposes simultaneously: assist with phytoremediation, and contribute to the economical production of biodiesel and/or ethanol fuel . The regeneration of brownfields in the United Kingdom and in other European countries has gained prominence due to greenfield land restrictions as well as their potential to promote

679-914: A health risk to animals. Motor vehicle emissions are one of the leading causes of air pollution. China , United States , Russia , India Mexico , and Japan are the world leaders in air pollution emissions. Principal stationary pollution sources include chemical plants , coal-fired power plants , oil refineries , petrochemical plants, nuclear waste disposal activity, incinerators, large livestock farms (dairy cows, pigs, poultry, etc.), PVC factories, metals production factories, plastics factories, and other heavy industry . Agricultural air pollution comes from contemporary practices which include clear felling and burning of natural vegetation as well as spraying of pesticides and herbicides. About 400 million metric tons of hazardous wastes are generated each year. The United States alone produces about 250 million metric tons. Americans constitute less than 5% of

776-704: A historical inventory named BASIAS, maintained by the Agence de l'Environnement et de la Maitrise de l'Energie (ADEME). Developing brownfield land is considered by the public as one of the most popular ways to increase housing in Hong Kong . The Liber Research Community has found 1,521 hectares of brownfield land in Hong Kong, and has found that almost 90% of existing uses of the land could easily be moved into multi-story buildings, freeing up land that could be used efficiently for housing. In June 2021, Liber Research Community and Greenpeace East Asia collaborated and found

873-485: A long-term community vision for the revitalization Louisville Riverfront. An agreement to provide equal funding between the governments of Louisville , Jefferson County , and the Commonwealth of Kentucky led to the creation of the Waterfront Development Corporation. Waterfront Development Corporation manages the downtown riverfront revitalization efforts, the centerpiece of which is Louisville Waterfront Park on

970-546: A metropolis, Berlin did not emerge from a state of barbarism into civilization until after 1870. The primitive conditions were intolerable for a world national capital, and the Imperial German government brought in its scientists, engineers, and urban planners to solve the deficiencies and forge Berlin as the world's model city. A British expert in 1906 concluded that Berlin represented "the most complete application of science, order and method of public life," adding "it

1067-454: A new total of 1,950 hectares of brownfield sites, 379 more hectares than the government was previously able to locate. Germany loses greenfields at a rate of about 1.2 square kilometres per day for settlement and transportation infrastructure. Each of the approximately 14,700 local municipalities is empowered to allocate lands for industrial and commercial use. Local control over reuse decisions of German brownfield sites ( Industriebrache )

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1164-556: A property where expansion, redevelopment or reuse may be complicated by the presence or potential presence of a hazardous substance, pollutant or contaminant. This comports well with an available general definition of the term, which scopes to "industrial or commercial property". The term brownfield first came into use on June 28, 1992, at a U.S. congressional field hearing hosted by the Northeast Midwest Congressional Coalition. Also in 1992,

1261-809: A risk of pollution, from industrial use. The specific definition of brownfield land varies and is decided by policy makers and land developers within different countries. The main difference in definitions of whether a piece of land is considered a brownfield or not depends on the presence or absence of pollution. Overall, brownfield land is a site previously developed for industrial or commercial purposes and thus requires further development before reuse. Examples of post industrial brownfield sites include abandoned factories , dry cleaning establishments, and gas stations . Typical contaminants include hydrocarbon spillages, solvents and pesticides , asbestos , and heavy metals like lead . Many contaminated post-industrial brownfield sites sit unused because

1358-408: A score of contamination, with 5,300 active contaminated sites, 2,300 suspected sites and 15,000 listed as closed because remediated or no action was necessary. The provincial governments have primary responsibility for brownfields. The provinces' legal mechanisms for managing risk are limited, as there are no tools such as "No Further Action" letters to give property owners finality and certainty in

1455-649: A significant issue in the United States in the early twentieth century, as progressive reformers took issue with air pollution caused by coal burning, water pollution caused by bad sanitation, and street pollution caused by the three million horses who worked in American cities in 1900, generating large quantities of urine and manure . As historian Martin Melosi notes, the generation that first saw automobiles replacing horses saw cars as "miracles of cleanliness". By

1552-476: A small amount that has been incinerating, virtually every piece of plastic that was ever made in the past still exists in one form or another. And since most of the plastics do not biodegrade in any meaningful sense, all that plastic waste could exist for hundreds or even thousands of years. If plastic production is not circumscribed, plastic pollution will be disastrous and will eventually outweigh fish in oceans. Carbon dioxide , while vital for photosynthesis ,

1649-498: A water play area, complete with water cannons, fish sculptures that shoot water and geysers. Construction on Phase III began in September 2005, and fund raising is underway. Phase III covers 13 acres (53,000 m) that will include a pedestrian walkway across the river and more lawn areas, tree groves, walking paths, and picnic areas. Early in 2006 Metro Mayor Jerry Abramson asked The Waterfront Development Corporation to lead

1746-423: A widespread distributed sources, such as microplastics or agricultural runoff ). Many sources of pollution were unregulated parts of industrialization during the 19th and 20th centuries until the emergence of environmental regulation and pollution policy in the later half of the 20th century. Sites where historically polluting industries released persistent pollutants may have legacy pollution long after

1843-438: Is globalization of industry. This directly affects brownfield reuse, such as limiting the effective economic life of the use on the revitalized sites. Canada has an estimated 200,000 "contaminated sites" across the nation. As of 2016 , Canada had about 23,078 federally recognized contamination sites, from abandoned mines, to airports, lighthouse stations, and military bases, which are classified into N 1,2,or 3, depending on

1940-697: Is a critical factor. Industrial sites tend to be remote due to zoning laws, and incur costly overhead for providing infrastructure such as utilities, disposal services and transportation. In 1989, a brownfield of the Ruhrgebiet became Emscher Park . In the UK , centuries of industrial use of lands which once formed the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution have left entire regions in a brownfield status. There are legal and fiscal incentives for brownfield redevelopment. Remediation laws are centered on

2037-458: Is a marvel of civic administration, the most modern and most perfectly organized city that there is." The emergence of great factories and consumption of immense quantities of coal gave rise to unprecedented air pollution , and the large volume of industrial chemical discharges added to the growing load of untreated human waste. Chicago and Cincinnati were the first two American cities to enact laws ensuring cleaner air in 1881. Pollution became

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2134-781: Is a repurposed used landfill that is converted to a solar array solar farm . In the United States, Brownfield regulation and development is governed mainly by state environmental agencies in cooperation with the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). In 1995, the EPA launched the Brownfields Program, which was expanded in 2002 with the Brownfields Law . The EPA and local and national governments can provide technical help and some funding for assessment and cleanup. From 2002 through 2013,

2231-464: Is an example of a negative externality in production. A negative externality in production occurs "when a firm's production reduces the well-being of others who are not compensated by the firm." For example, if a laundry firm exists near a polluting steel manufacturing firm, there will be increased costs for the laundry firm because of the dirt and smoke produced by the steel manufacturing firm. If external costs exist, such as those created by pollution,

2328-529: Is available for redevelopment so is a small subset of all land that would be considered brownfield. There is also brownfield capacity in areas in which the green belt is in danger, for example in Northwest England, where local authorities have identified enough brownfield land to provide for 12 years of housing demand. The UK government has recognised the ecological importance of brownfield sites and has afforded some protection to such habitats through

2425-421: Is extracted from soils and treated, which has the effect of removing contaminants from the soils and groundwater beneath a site. Binders can be added to contaminated soil to prevent chemical leaching. Some brownfields with heavy metal contamination have even been cleaned up through an innovative approach called phytoremediation , which uses deep-rooted plants to soak up metals in soils into the plant structure as

2522-447: Is important that policymakers attempt to balance these indirect benefits with the costs of pollution in order to achieve an efficient outcome. It is possible to use environmental economics to determine which level of pollution is deemed the social optimum. For economists, pollution is an "external cost and occurs only when one or more individuals suffer a loss of welfare". There is a socially optimal level of pollution at which welfare

2619-436: Is maximized. This is because consumers derive utility from the good or service manufactured, which will outweigh the social cost of pollution until a certain point. At this point the damage of one extra unit of pollution to society, the marginal cost of pollution, is exactly equal to the marginal benefit of consuming one more unit of the good or service. Moreover, the feasibility of pollution reduction rates could also be

2716-415: Is not unusual. When accidents occur, some pollution sources, such as nuclear power stations or oil ships, can create extensive and potentially catastrophic emissions. Plastic pollution is choking our oceans by making plastic gyres, entangling marine animals, poisoning our food and water supply, and ultimately inflicting havoc on the health and well-being of humans and wildlife globally. With the exception of

2813-461: Is projected to be complete in 2022. In July 2015 the $ 86,847,474 contract "to relocate the historic low-level radioactive waste and marginally contaminated soils from an existing waste management facility on the shoreline of Lake Ontario to the new, state-of-the-art facility about a kilometre north of the current site." was undertaken. There is also "$ 1.8 billion for general inventory sites" and "$ 200 million for other sites." The same report claimed

2910-421: Is related to federal government activities or national security. See Natural Resources Canada (2012) While Denmark lacks the large land base which creates the magnitude of brownfield issues facing countries such as Germany and the U.S., brownfield sites in areas critical to the local economies of Denmark's cities require sophisticated solutions and careful interaction with affected communities. Examples include

3007-493: Is sometimes referred to as pollution, because raised levels of the gas in the atmosphere are affecting the Earth's climate. Disruption of the environment can also highlight the connection between areas of pollution that would normally be classified separately, such as those of water and air. Recent studies have investigated the potential for long-term rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide to cause slight but critical increases in

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3104-530: Is through the land use planning system when a new land use is being considered. Pollution Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse change. Pollution can take the form of any substance (solid, liquid, or gas) or energy (such as radioactivity, heat, sound, or light). Pollutants , the components of pollution, can be either foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants. Although environmental pollution can be caused by natural events,

3201-858: Is triple the number of deaths caused by AIDS, tuberculosis and malaria combined, and 15 times higher than deaths caused by wars and other forms of human violence. The study concluded that "pollution is one of the great existential challenges of the Anthropocene era. Pollution endangers the stability of the Earth's support systems and threatens the continuing survival of human societies." Adverse air quality can kill many organisms, including humans. Ozone pollution can cause respiratory disease , cardiovascular disease , throat inflammation, chest pain, and congestion . A 2010 analysis estimated that 1.2 million people died prematurely each year in China alone because of air pollution. China's high smog levels can damage

3298-658: The Environmental Protection Act 1990 ; responsibility falls on local authorities to create a "contaminated land register". For sites with dubious past and present uses, the Local Planning Authority may ask for a desktop study, which is sometimes implemented as a condition in planning applications. However by definition land that is derelict or underused is highly unlikely to be determined as contaminated land – primarily due to risks to human health. The key regulation of brownfield land

3395-463: The Global South . Because of the impacts of these chemicals, local and international countries' policy have increasingly sought to regulate pollutants, resulting in increasing air and water quality standards, alongside regulation of specific waste streams. Regional and national policy is typically supervised by environmental agencies or ministries , while international efforts are coordinated by

3492-579: The UN Environmental Program and other treaty bodies . Pollution mitigation is an important part of all of the Sustainable Development Goals . Various definitions of pollution exist, which may or may not recognize certain types, such as noise pollution or greenhouse gases . The United States Environmental Protection Administration defines pollution as "Any substances in water, soil, or air that degrade

3589-712: The United Kingdom Biodiversity Action Plan . The Creekside Discovery Centre in Deptford , London is an urban wildlife centre encompassing brownfield habitats. United States estimates suggest there are over 500,000 brownfield sites contaminated at levels below the Superfund caliber (the most contaminated) in the country. While historic land use patterns created contaminated sites, the Superfund law has been criticized as creating

3686-431: The brownfield phenomenon where investment moves to greenfields for new development due to severe, no-fault liability schemes and other disincentives. The Clinton-Gore administration and US EPA launched a series of brownfield policies and programs in 1993 to tackle this problem. Acquisition, adaptive re-use, and disposal of a brownfield site requires advanced and specialized appraisal analysis techniques. For example,

3783-522: The contamination on local brownfield sites, to quantify the cleanup costs in an effort to move the redevelopment process forward. Therefore, federal and state programs have been developed to help developers interested in cleaning up brownfield sites and restoring them to practical uses. In the process of cleaning contaminated brownfield sites, previously unknown underground storage tanks , buried drums or buried railroad tank cars containing wastes are sometimes encountered. Unexpected circumstances increase

3880-588: The environment from the adverse effects of pollution, many nations worldwide have enacted legislation to regulate various types of pollution as well as to mitigate the adverse effects of pollution. At the local level, regulation usually is supervised by environmental agencies or the broader public health system . Different jurisdictions often have different levels regulation and policy choices about pollution. Historically, polluters will lobby governments in less economically developed areas or countries to maintain lax regulation in order to protect industrialisation at

3977-428: The free market equilibrium will not account for the costs of pollution on society . If the social costs of pollution are higher than the private costs incurred by the firm, then the true supply curve will be higher. The point at which the social marginal cost and market demand intersect gives the socially optimal level of pollution. At this point, the quantity will be lower and the price will be higher in comparison to

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4074-452: The highest and best use of the brownfield site may be affected by the contamination, both before and after remediation. Additionally, the value should take into account residual stigma and potential for third-party liability. Normal appraisal techniques frequently fail, and appraisers must rely on more advanced techniques, such as contingent valuation , case studies, or statistical analyses. A 2011 University of Delaware study has suggested

4171-616: The ozone layer , and hydrogen sulfides , which are capable of killing humans at concentrations of less than 1 part per thousand. Volcanic emissions also include fine and ultrafine particles which may contain toxic chemicals and substances such as arsenic , lead , and mercury . Wildfires , which can be caused naturally by lightning strikes , are also a significant source of air pollution. Wildfire smoke contains significant quantities of both carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide, which can cause suffocation . Large quantities of fine particulates are found within wildfire smoke as well, which pose

4268-410: The urban renaissance . Development of brownfield sites also presents an opportunity to reduce the environmental impact on communities, and considerable assessments need to take place in order to evaluate the size of this opportunity. Many contaminated brownfield sites sit unused for decades because the cost of cleaning them to safe standards is more than the land would be worth after redevelopment, in

4365-408: The waste products from overconsumption , heating, agriculture, mining, manufacturing, transportation and other human activities, whether they accumulate or disperse, will degrade the environment . In the hierarchy of controls, pollution prevention and waste minimization are more desirable than pollution control. In the field of land development , low impact development is a similar technique for

4462-556: The world's population , but produce roughly 25% of the world's CO 2 , and generate approximately 30% of world's waste . In 2007, China overtook the United States as the world's biggest producer of CO 2 , while still far behind based on per capita pollution (ranked 78th among the world's nations). Chlorinated hydrocarbons (CFH), heavy metals (such as chromium, cadmium – found in rechargeable batteries, and lead – found in lead paint, aviation fuel, and even in certain countries, gasoline), MTBE, zinc, arsenic, and benzene are some of

4559-519: The EPA awarded nearly 1,000 clean-up grants for almost $ 190 million. It can also provide tax incentives for cleanup that is not paid for outright; specifically, cleanup costs are fully tax-deductible in the year they are incurred. Many of the most important provisions on liability relief are contained in state codes that can differ significantly from state to state. In the United Kingdom, regulation of contaminated land comes from Part IIA of

4656-562: The Parliamentary Budget Officer estimated that the "total liability for remediating Canada's contaminated sites reported in the public accounts [was] $ 4.9 billion." The report listed significant sites called the Big Five with a liability of $ 1.8 billion: Faro mine , Colomac Mine , Giant Mine , Cape Dyer-DEW line and Goose Bay Air Base . The Port Hope, Ontario site has a liability of $ 1 billion. Port Hope has

4753-464: The Superfund. As of September 2023, the EPA estimates that the EPA Brownfields program has resulted in 134,414 acres of land readied for reuse. Mothballed brownfields are properties that the owners are not willing to transfer or put to productive reuse. Brownfield status is a legal designation which places restrictions, conditions or incentives on redevelopment and use on the site. In

4850-921: The United Kingdom, brownfield land and previously developed land (PDL) have the same definition under the National Planning Policy Framework (NPPF). The government of the United Kingdom refers to them both as: "Land which is or was occupied by a permanent structure, including the curtilage of the developed land (although it should not be assumed that the whole of the curtilage should be developed) and any associated fixed surface infrastructure." They exclude land that: "is or has been occupied by agricultural or forestry buildings; has been developed for minerals extraction or waste disposal by landfill purposes where provision for restoration has been made through development control procedures; land in built-up areas such as private residential gardens, parks, recreation grounds and allotments; and land that

4947-612: The United States. Dayton , like many other cities in the region, is developing Tech Town in order to attract technology-based firms to Dayton and revitalize the downtown area. In Homestead, Pennsylvania , the site once occupied by Carnegie Steel has been converted into a successful commercial center, The Waterfront . Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania , has successfully converted numerous former steel mill sites into high-end residential, shopping, and offices. Examples of brownfield redevelopment in Pittsburgh include: A Solar landfill

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5044-610: The Waterfront District (the Waterfront Review Overlay or WRO District). President/Executive Director Chairman of the Board of Directors Phase I of Waterfront Park, approximately 55 acres (220,000 m), was dedicated on July 4, 1999. The park hosted hundreds of events in its first full season of use, with an estimated total attendance of more than a million people. The park is heavily used on

5141-488: The acidity of ocean waters , and the possible effects of this on marine ecosystems. In February 2007, a report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), representing the work of 2,500 scientists, economists, and policymakers from more than 120 countries, confirmed that humans have been the primary cause of global warming since 1950. Humans have ways to cut greenhouse gas emissions and avoid

5238-411: The amount of pollution that they are producing. The associated costs of doing this are called abatement costs, or marginal abatement costs if measured by each additional unit. In 2005 pollution abatement capital expenditures and operating costs in the US amounted to nearly $ 27 billion. The Pure Earth , an international non-for-profit organization dedicated to eliminating life-threatening pollution in

5335-429: The assessment, cleanup, and revitalization of brownfields as well as unique technical and program management experience, and public and environmental health expertise to individual brownfield communities. The motivation for this act was the success of the EPA's brownfields program, which it started in the 1990s in response to several court cases that caused lenders to redline contaminated property for fear of liability under

5432-519: The banks of the Ohio River. From the inception of the Articles of Incorporation WDC has been governed by a fifteen-member board of directors . Initially the board of directors was appointed equally between the three governments; this structure changed with the merger of Louisville, Jefferson County government. The post-merger structure has nine appointments from the city government and six from

5529-429: The case if the producer were to receive payment for the external benefits to others. Goods and services that involve negative externalities in production, such as those that produce pollution, tend to be overproduced and underpriced since the externality is not being priced into the market. Pollution can also create costs for the firms producing the pollution. Sometimes firms choose, or are forced by regulation, to reduce

5626-538: The city back to its roots along the Ohio River , an example of this is the Great Lawn which actually connects the city grid to the river. The Great Lawn breaks the barrier of I-64 creating an open space between the river and Witherspoon Street. The corporation's three-part mission includes oversight of the design and construction of Waterfront Park, operation of the park/ event coordination, and park maintenance. WDC also administers design review for properties within

5723-704: The cleaning costs may be more than the land is worth after redevelopment . Previously unknown underground wastes can increase the cost for study and clean-up. Depending on the contaminants and damage present adaptive re-use and disposal of a brownfield can require advanced and specialized appraisal analysis techniques. The Federal Government of Canada defines brownfields as "abandoned, idle or underutilized commercial or industrial properties [typically located in urban areas] where past actions have caused environmental contamination, but which still have potential for redevelopment or other economic opportunities." The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defined brownfield as

5820-661: The cleanup and redevelopment of former and current ship building facilities along Copenhagen 's historic waterfront. Laws in Denmark require a higher degree of coordination of planning and reuse than is found in many other countries. In France, brownfields are called friches industrielles and the Ministère de l'Écologie, du Développement Durable et de l'Énergie (MEDDE) maintains a database of polluted sites named BASOL, with "more than 4,000 sites", of about 300,000 to 400,000 potentially polluted sites total (around 100,000 ha), in

5917-662: The cleanup and reuse process. Yet, Canada has cleaned up sites and attracted investment to contaminated lands such as the Moncton rail yards. A strip of the Texaco lands in Mississauga is slated to be part of the Waterfront Trail . However, Imperial Oil has no plans to sell the 75-acre (30 ha) property which has been vacant since the 1980s. According to their 2014 report on federally listed contaminated sites,

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6014-650: The consequences of global warming, a major climate report concluded. But to change the climate, the transition from fossil fuels like coal and oil needs to occur within decades, according to the final report this year from the UN's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Pollution affects humans in every part of the world. An October 2017 study by the Lancet Commission on Pollution and Health found that global pollution, specifically toxic air, water, soil and workplaces, kills nine million people annually, which

6111-552: The cost for study and clean-up. As a result, the cleanup work may be delayed or stopped entirely. To avoid unexpected contamination and increased costs, many developers insist that a site be thoroughly investigated (via a Phase II Site Investigation or Remedial Investigation) prior to commencing remedial cleanup activities. As of 2006 the Atlantic Station project in Atlanta , was the largest brownfield redevelopment in

6208-445: The cost of human and environmental health . The modern environmental regulatory environment has its origins in the United States with the beginning of industrial regulations around Air and Water pollution connected to industry and mining during the 1960s and 1970s. Pollution control is a term used in environmental management . It refers to the control of emissions and effluents into air, water or soil. Without pollution control,

6305-557: The developing world, issues an annual list of some of the world's most polluting industries. Below is the list for 2016: A 2018 report by the Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy and GRAIN says that the meat and dairy industries are poised to surpass the oil industry as the world's worst polluters. The textile industry is one of the largest polluters in the globalized world of mostly free market dominated socioeconomic systems. Chemically polluted textile wastewater degrades

6402-635: The earlier extreme cases of water quality problems with the Great Stink on the Thames of 1858, which led to the construction of the London sewerage system soon afterward. Pollution issues escalated as population growth far exceeded the viability of neighborhoods to handle their waste problem. Reformers began to demand sewer systems and clean water. In 1870, the sanitary conditions in Berlin were among

6499-510: The environment with large amounts of microplastics and has been identified in one review as the industry sector producing the largest amount of pollution. A campaign of big clothing brands like Nike, Adidas and Puma to voluntarily reform their manufacturing supply chains to commit to achieving zero discharges of hazardous chemicals by 2020 (global goal) appears to have failed. Outdoor air pollution attributable to fossil fuel use alone causes ~3.61 million deaths annually, making it one of

6596-589: The first fires . According to a 1983 article in the journal Science, " soot " found on ceilings of prehistoric caves provides ample evidence of the high levels of pollution that was associated with inadequate ventilation of open fires." Metal forging appears to be a key turning point in the creation of significant air pollution levels outside the home. Core samples of glaciers in Greenland indicate increases in pollution associated with Greek, Roman, and Chinese metal production. The burning of coal and wood, and

6693-686: The first detailed policy analysis of the issue was convened by the Cuyahoga County, Ohio Planning Commission. EPA selected Cuyahoga County as its first brownfield pilot project in September 1993. The term applies more generally to previously used land or to sections of industrial or commercial facilities that are to be upgraded. In 2002, President George W. Bush signed the Small Business Liability Relief and Brownfields Revitalization Act (the "Brownfields Law") which provides grants and tools to local governments for

6790-412: The form of desk studies and potentially further intrusive investigation. Innovative remediation techniques used at distressed brownfields in recent years include in situ thermal remediation, bioremediation and in situ oxidation . Often, these strategies are used in conjunction with each other or with other remedial strategies such as soil vapor extraction . In this process, vapor from the soil phase

6887-455: The free market equilibrium. Therefore, the free market outcome could be considered a market failure because it "does not maximize efficiency". This model can be used as a basis to evaluate different methods of internalizing the externality, such as tariffs , a Pigouvian tax (such as a carbon tax ) and cap and trade systems. Air pollution has always accompanied civilizations. Pollution started from prehistoric times , when man created

6984-560: The human body and cause various diseases. In 2019, air pollution caused 1.67 million deaths in India (17.8% of total deaths nationally). Studies have estimated that the number of people killed annually in the United States could be over 50,000. A study published in 2022 in GeoHealth concluded that energy-related fossil fuel emissions in the United States cause 46,900–59,400 premature deaths each year and PM2.5-related illness and death costs

7081-537: The inventory currently lists 24,990 contaminated sites." The federal government exercises some control over environmental protection, the "provincial and territorial governments issue the bulk of legislation regarding contaminated sites." Under the Shared-Responsibility Contaminated Sites Policy Framework (2005), the government may provide funding for the remediation of nonfederal sites, if the contamination

7178-587: The largest volume of historic low-level radioactive wastes in Canada, resulting from "radium and uranium processing in Port Hope between 1933 and 1988 by the former Crown corporation Eldorado Nuclear Limited and its private sector predecessors. By 2010 it was projected that it would cost well over a billion dollars for the soil remediation project, it was the largest such cleanup in Canadian history. The effort

7275-404: The manufacturer will choose to produce more of the product than would be produced if the manufacturer were required to pay all associated environmental costs. Because responsibility or consequence for self-directed action lies partly outside the self, an element of externalization is involved. If there are external benefits, such as in public safety , less of the good may be produced than would be

7372-410: The most frequent soil contaminants. A series of press reports published in 2001, culminating in the publication of the book Fateful Harvest, revealed a widespread practise of recycling industrial leftovers into fertilizer, resulting in metal poisoning of the soil. Ordinary municipal landfills are the source of many chemical substances entering the soil environment (and often groundwater), emanating from

7469-451: The nation $ 537–$ 678 billion annually. In the US, deaths caused by coal pollution were highest in 1999, but decreased sharply after 2007. The number dropped by about 95% by 2020, as coal plants have been closed or have scrubbers installed. In 2019, water pollution caused 1.4 million premature deaths. Contamination of drinking water by untreated sewage in developing countries is an issue, for example, over 732 million Indians (56% of

7566-561: The natural quality of the environment, offend the senses of sight, taste, or smell, or cause a health hazard. The usefulness of the natural resource is usually impaired by the presence of pollutants and contaminants." In contrast, the United Nations considers pollution to be the "presence of substances and heat in environmental media (air, water, land) whose nature, location, or quantity produces undesirable environmental effects." The major forms of pollution are listed below along with

7663-439: The particular contaminants relevant to each of them: One of the most significant natural sources of pollution are volcanoes , which during eruptions release large quantities of harmful gases into the atmosphere. Volcanic gases include carbon dioxide, which can be fatal in large concentrations and contributes to climate change , hydrogen halides which can cause acid rain , sulfur dioxides, which are harmful to animals and damage

7760-471: The plant grows. After they reach maturity, the plants – which now contain the heavy metal contaminants in their tissues – are removed and disposed of as hazardous waste. Research is under way to see if some brownfields can be used to grow crops, specifically for the production of biofuels . Michigan State University , in collaboration with DaimlerChrysler and NextEnergy, has small plots of soybean , corn , canola , and switchgrass growing in

7857-1348: The population) and over 92 million Ethiopians (92.9% of the population) do not have access to basic sanitation . In 2013 over 10 million people in India fell ill with waterborne illnesses in 2013, and 1,535 people died, most of them children. As of 2007 , nearly 500 million Chinese lack access to safe drinking water. Acute exposure to certain pollutants can have short and long term effects. Oil spills can cause skin irritations and rashes . Noise pollution induces hearing loss , high blood pressure , stress , and sleep disturbance . Mercury has been linked to developmental deficits in children and neurologic symptoms. Older people are significantly exposed to diseases induced by air pollution . Those with heart or lung disorders are at additional risk. Children and infants are also at serious risk. Lead and other heavy metals have been shown to cause neurological problems, intellectual disabilities and behavioural problems. Chemical and radioactive substances can cause cancer and birth defects . The health impacts of pollution have both direct and lasting social consequences. A 2021 study found that exposure to pollution causes an increase in violent crime. A 2019 paper linked pollution to adverse school outcomes for children. A number of studies show that pollution has an adverse effect on

7954-529: The premise that the remediation should leave land safe and suitable for its current or intended use. In 2018, the Campaign to Protect Rural England (CPRE) reported that the 17,656 sites (covering over 28,000 hectares of land) identified by English local planning authorities on their Brownfield Land Registers would provide enough land for a minimum of 1 million homes, which could rise to over 1.1 million once all registers are published. The registers contain land that

8051-555: The presence of many horses in concentrated areas made the cities the primary sources of pollution. King Edward I of England banned the burning of sea-coal by proclamation in London in 1272, after its smoke became a problem; the fuel was so common in England that this earliest of names for it was acquired because it could be carted away from some shores by the wheelbarrow . The Industrial Revolution gave birth to environmental pollution as we know it today. London also recorded one of

8148-414: The prevention of urban runoff . Policy , law and monitoring/transparency/ life-cycle assessment -attached economics could be developed and enforced to control pollution. A review concluded that there is a lack of attention and action such as work on a globally supported "formal science – policy interface", e.g. to " inform intervention, influence research, and guide funding". In September 2023

8245-463: The process becoming involuntary parks as they grow over. However, redevelopment has become more common in the first decade of the 21st century, as developable land has become less available in highly populated areas, and brownfields contribute to environmental stigma which can delay redevelopment. Also, the methods of studying contaminated land have become more sophisticated and costly. Some states and localities have spent considerable money assessing

8342-474: The productivity of both indoor and outdoor workers. Pollution has been found to be present widely in the natural environment . A 2022 study published in Environmental Science & Technology found that levels of anthropogenic chemical pollution have exceeded planetary boundaries and now threaten entire ecosystems around the world. There are a number of effects of this: To protect

8439-618: The proposed redevelopment of the Riverview Park (known to locals as "The Greenwood Boat Ramp") in southwest Jefferson County . The Waterfront Development Corporation Board agreed and initial design work has begun. The lead design staff on the project has held public meetings as the Master Plan is developed. No date has been set for completion. Brownfield Brownfield is previously-developed land that has been abandoned or underutilized, and which may carry pollution , or

8536-555: The quality of the soil and water . The pollution comes from the type of conduct of chemical treatments used e.g., in pretreatment, dyeing, printing, and finishing operations that many or most market-driven companies use despite "eco-friendly alternatives". Textile industry wastewater is considered to be one the largest polluters of water and soil ecosystems , causing "carcinogenic, mutagenic, genotoxic, cytotoxic and allergenic threats to living organisms". The textile industry uses over 8000 chemicals in its supply chain, also polluting

8633-585: The river's edge; a cafe plaza where Tumbleweed will open in Spring 2005; the Brown-Forman amphitheater; docks for transient boaters; and an area for a new rowing facility for the University of Louisville Women's Rowing Team, school, and community rowing groups. The Adventure Playground is double the size of the Children's Playground (Phase I). The playground includes a large jungle gym play structure and

8730-747: The source of the pollution is stopped. Major forms of pollution include air pollution , water pollution , litter , noise pollution , plastic pollution , soil contamination , radioactive contamination , thermal pollution , light pollution , and visual pollution . Pollution has widespread consequences on human and environmental health , having systematic impact on social and economic systems. In 2019, pollution killed approximately nine million people worldwide (about one in six deaths that year); about three-quarters of these deaths were caused by air pollution . A 2022 literature review found that levels of anthropogenic chemical pollution have exceeded planetary boundaries and now threaten entire ecosystems around

8827-569: The state government. After determining that a Downtown park was the public's favored redevelopment option the Board of Directors requested qualifications for creation of a Master Plan . After a lengthy review process of dozens of submissions the Board of Directors selected the Hargreaves Associates to create the Waterfront Park Master Plan. The Hargreaves plan was chosen as the submission that best connected

8924-535: The top contributors to human death , beyond being a major driver of climate change whereby greenhouse gases are considered per se as a form of pollution (see above ) . Society derives some indirect utility from pollution; otherwise, there would be no incentive to pollute. This utility may come from the consumption of goods and services that inherently create pollution (albeit the level can vary) or lower prices or lower required efforts (or inconvenience) to abandon or substitute these goods and services. Therefore, it

9021-589: The wide variety of refuse accepted, especially substances illegally discarded there, or from pre-1970 landfills that may have been subject to little control in the U.S. or EU. There have also been some unusual releases of polychlorinated dibenzodioxins , commonly called dioxins for simplicity, such as TCDD . Pollution can also occur as a result of natural disasters. Hurricanes, for example, frequently result in sewage contamination and petrochemical spills from burst boats or automobiles. When coastal oil rigs or refineries are involved, larger-scale and environmental damage

9118-436: The word pollution generally implies that the contaminants have an anthropogenic source – that is, a source created by human activities, such as manufacturing , extractive industries , poor waste management , transportation or agriculture . Pollution is often classed as point source (coming from a highly concentrated specific site, such as a factory , mine , construction site ), or nonpoint source pollution (coming from

9215-458: The world. Pollutants frequently have outsized impacts on vulnerable populations, such as children and the elderly, and marginalized communities, because polluting industries and toxic waste sites tend to be collocated with populations with less economic and political power. This outsized impact is a core reason for the formation of the environmental justice movement , and continues to be a core element of environmental conflicts , particularly in

9312-496: The worst in Europe. August Bebel recalled conditions before a modern sewer system was built in the late 1870s: Waste-water from the houses collected in the gutters running alongside the curbs and emitted a truly fearsome smell. There were no public toilets in the streets or squares. Visitors, especially women, often became desperate when nature called. In the public buildings the sanitary facilities were unbelievably primitive....As

9409-952: Was previously developed but where the remains of the permanent structure or fixed surface structure have blended into the landscape in the process of time." Generally, post industrial brownfield sites exist in a city's or town's industrial section, on locations with abandoned factories or commercial buildings, or other previously polluting operations like steel mills , refineries or landfills . Small brownfields also may be found in older residential neighborhoods, as for example dry cleaning establishments or gas stations produced high levels of subsurface contaminants. Typical contaminants found on contaminated brownfield land include hydrocarbon spillages, solvents , pesticides , heavy metals such as lead (e.g., paints), tributyl tins , and asbestos . Old maps may assist in identifying areas to be tested. The primary issue facing all nations involved in attracting and sustaining new uses to brownfield sites

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