174-624: Walter Hallstein (17 November 1901 – 29 March 1982) was a German academic, diplomat and statesman who was the first president of the Commission of the European Economic Community and one of the founding fathers of the European Union . Hallstein began his academic career in the 1920s Weimar Republic and became Germany's youngest law professor in 1930, at the age of 29. During World War II he served as
348-787: A German prisoner of war (POW) in the United States, Hallstein started a "camp university", where he held law courses for the prisoners. As part of the Sunflower Project , a project to re-educate German POWs, he attended an "administrative school" at Fort Getty , where teaching included the principles of the Constitution of the United States . Hallstein remained a prisoner of war from June 1944 to mid-1945. In November 1945 Hallstein returned to Germany, where he campaigned for Frankfurt University to be re-opened. Turning down an offer from Ludwig Erhard to be deputy minister at
522-451: A VAT number . These exams are usually organized by the professional orders with the collaboration of area universities. In other cases, especially in the case of health professions or childcare professionals, not protected by a professional nature, the degree itself is a qualifying title. Finally, some habilitations, since their activities cannot be done autonomously, need to be hired in a suitable structure in order to effectively carry out
696-649: A classical school in Mainz from 1913 until his matriculation ( Abitur ) in 1920. From 1920 Hallstein studied law in Bonn , later moving to Munich and then to Berlin . He specialized in international private law and wrote his doctoral dissertation on commercial aspects of the 1919 Treaty of Versailles . He obtained his doctorate from the Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin in 1925 – at
870-749: A first among equals . The role of the president is similar to that of a national prime minister chairing a cabinet. The president also has responsibility for representing the Commission in the Union and beyond. For example, they are a member of the European Council and takes part in debates in Parliament and the Council of Ministers. Outside the Union they attend the meetings of the G8 to represent
1044-552: A head of government . In terms of economic planning Van Rompuy saw the commission as dealing with the content of the plan and the European Council as dealing with the means and implementing it. Despite weekly breakfasts together there was a certain extent of rivalry between the two, as well as with the High Representative. At international summits, both presidents represented the Union, with, in principle,
1218-447: A plurality of votes in that year's election . However, at that time only a minor party had run with a specific candidate: the then fourth-placed European Green Party , which had the first true pan-European political party with a common campaign, put forward Daniel Cohn-Bendit and lost even its fourth place in the following election, becoming only the fifth-largest group in 2009 and diminishing its candidate's chances further. However,
1392-849: A "doctrine of yesteryear." Hallstein left office following a clash with the President of France , Charles de Gaulle ; he turned to German politics as a member of the Bundestag , also serving as President of the European Movement from 1968 to 1974. He is the author of books and numerous articles and speeches on European integration and on the European Communities . Walter Hallstein was born on 17 November 1901 in Mainz , Germany. After primary school in Darmstadt he attended
1566-461: A "president", it would have been clearer if they had been named differently, with a "Speaker" of the Parliament, a "Governor" of the Central Bank, a "Chairman" of the (ordinary) Council of Ministers, a "president" of the European Council, and a "Prime Commissioner". Despite the presidential style, the president has also lost ground to the larger member states as countries such as France, Italy,
1740-622: A First Lieutenant in the German Army in France. Captured by American troops in 1944, he spent the rest of the war in a prisoner-of-war camp in the United States, where he organised a "camp university" for his fellow soldiers. After the war he returned to Germany and continued his academic career; he became rector of the University of Frankfurt in 1946 and spent a year as a visiting professor at Georgetown University from 1948. In 1950 he
1914-411: A faculty supervisor. In the sciences , publication of numerous (sometimes ten or more) research articles is required during the habilitation period of about four to ten years. In the humanities , a major book publication may be a prerequisite for defense. It is possible to get a professorship without habilitation, if the search committee attests the candidate to have qualifications equaling those of
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#17327727483622088-620: A founding treaty of the union, which explains that the enumeration of presidents which ends with the present position starts with the first president of the Commission of the European Economic Community. The European Union is also the legal successor of the European Economic Community, or the European Community as it was named between 1993 and 2009. The establishment of the European Union in 1993 upon
2262-521: A full professor ( professor titular ), most notably in the three state universities of the state of São Paulo , as well as at the Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP). The degree of Docteur d'État (State Doctor) or Doctorat d'État (State Doctorate), called Doctorat ès lettres (Doctor of Letters) or Doctorat ès sciences (Doctor of Sciences) before the 1950s, formerly awarded by universities in France had
2436-444: A full professorship with an international finding commission includes a venia docendi (UG2002 §98(12)), which is restricted to the time of the appointment (UG2002 §98(13) – Habilitation ad positionem ). While the habilitation ensures the rights of the independent research and the supervision, it is on behalf of the statute of the universities to give those rights also to, e.g., associate professors without habilitation. Currently
2610-637: A greater degree of integration among a smaller number of countries. Discussions on the possibility of a wider trade area, avoiding the tariff wall between the EEC and the EFTA countries, continued, but in the middle of preparations for the negotiations the French government, on instructions from de Gaulle, withdrew. This unilateral action by the French in November 1958 displeased the other EEC members and effectively ended
2784-419: A habilitation and the higher-ranking bodies (the university's senate and the country's ministry of education) approve. However, while some subjects make liberal use of this (e.g., the natural sciences in order to employ candidates from countries with different systems and the arts to employ active artists), in other subjects it is rarely done. The habilitation is awarded after a public lecture, to be held after
2958-469: A habilitation, where older candidates often feel discriminated against, for example under the DFG 's Emmy-Noether programme. Furthermore, internal "soft" money might only be budgeted to pay for younger postdoctoral scientists. Because of the need to chase short-term research contracts, many researchers in the natural sciences apply for more transparent career development opportunities in other countries. In summary,
3132-715: A leading scholar of private law. He would remain there until 1930. In 1929 he obtained his Habilitation from the University of Berlin, based on a thesis on company law. In 1930, at the age of 29, he was appointed professor of private law and company law at the University of Rostock , making him Germany's youngest professor of law. He was made Deputy Dean ( Prodekan ) of the Faculty of Law in 1935 and then Dean in 1936. He remained in Rostock until 1941. From 1941 to 1944 Hallstein lectured at Frankfurt University , where he
3306-662: A major role. Some of the main issues of German foreign policy were now German re-unification and the relations of West Germany (the Federal Republic of Germany) with its eastern neighbours, including East Germany (the German Democratic Republic). Being more involved in Western European integration, Hallstein delegated much of this work to his deputy, Wilhelm Grewe . But in this area particularly, German foreign policy became associated with
3480-608: A meeting of the seven WEU members (20 October), a meeting of the Four Powers to end the occupation of Germany (21–22 October), and a meeting of all fourteen NATO members to approve Germany's membership. After the ratification of the Paris Accords on 5 May 1955, the General Treaty ( Deutschlandvertrag ), which largely restored (West) German sovereignty, took full effect; the Federal Republic of Germany became
3654-596: A member of NATO. Once the major foreign policy objectives were in hand, Hallstein set about restoring Germany's diplomatic service and re-organizing the Foreign Office, based on the findings of the Maltzan Report, a report commissioned by Hallstein on 26 June 1952 and produced a month later by Vollrath Freiherr von Maltzan , a former diplomat, at that time on loan from the Ministry of Economics. There
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#17327727483623828-798: A member of both the eurozone and the Schengen Agreement . There has been an assumption that there is a rolling agreement along these lines, that a president from a large state is followed by a president from a small state, and one from the political left will be followed by one from the political right: Roy Jenkins (British socialist) was followed by Gaston Thorn (Luxembourgish liberal), Jacques Delors (French socialist), Jacques Santer (Luxembourgish Christian democrat), Romano Prodi (Italian left-wing Christian democrat) and José Manuel Barroso (Portuguese Christian democrat). However, despite these assumptions, these presidents have usually been chosen during political battles and coalition-building. Delors
4002-412: A number of options, the decisions being made by the foreign minister, Brentano, and the chancellor, Adenauer; in any case, the name Hallstein doctrine may have been something of a misnomer. No official text of the so-called "doctrine" was made public, but it was explained publicly in a radio interview by its main architect, Wilhelm Grewe. Adenauer also explained the outlines of the policy in a statement to
4176-427: A peer-reviewed demonstration of a successful academic development and an international outlook is considered more than compensation for an habilitation where there is evidence of grant applications, well-cited publications, a network of collaborators, lecturing and organisational experience, and experience of having worked and published abroad. On the other hand, amongst many senior researchers, especially in medicine ,
4350-584: A period of eurosclerosis , owing to economic difficulties and disagreements on the Community budget , and by the time of the Thorn Commission the president was unable to exert his influence to any significant extent. However, the commission began to recover under President Jacques Delors ' Commission . He is seen as the most successful president, being credited with having given the Community
4524-474: A position of a lecturer, with a much higher teaching load and no research obligations, or even be dismissed. In practice, however, on many occasions schools extend the deadlines for habilitation for most scholars if they do not make it in time, and there is evidence that they are able to finish it in the near future. In Austria, the procedure is currently regulated by national law (Austrian University Act UG2002 §103 ). The graduation process includes additionally to
4698-405: A powerful Europe that could play its proper part on the world stage. De Gaulle also envisaged a pooling of sovereignty in certain areas, such as external defence, harmonization of industrial production and foreign trade, currency, exploitation of resources in overseas territories, and cultural and scientific development, but at the same time he was developing the French nuclear deterrent capability,
4872-671: A prerequisite for being able to be selected by a university committee to fill these roles, it is necessary to have obtained the scientific qualification for the relative kind of teaching. For STEM fields (so called "bibliometric fields"), the qualifications requires a two-step evaluation: The successful candidate will then receive his or her ASN habilitation as associate or full professor (or, in some instances, for both) and may thus apply for those vacancies in Italian universities. The ASN habilitation also allows to compete for three-year tenure-track assistant professorship positions (called RTDb in
5046-405: A prime minister of a member state, but there is no such restraint on European offices. As such, the Commission president, who already sits in the European Council, could also be appointed as its president. This would allow the European Council to combine the position, with its powers, of both executive bodies into a single president of the European Union . The basic monthly salary of the president
5220-515: A principal investigator, as well as a sound, ambitious, and feasible five-year research project. Outstanding postdoctoral researchers who are not yet appointed to a university could also obtain the habilitation if they meet the requirements. The French habilitation committee is constituted by a majority of external and sometimes foreign referees. The French habilitation entitles assistant professors ( maîtres de conférences ) to apply for full professor positions ( professeur des universités ). As such,
5394-517: A sense of direction and dynamism. The International Herald Tribune noted the work of Delors at the end of his second term in 1992: "Mr. Delors rescued the European Community from the doldrums. He arrived when Europessimism was at its worst. Although he was a little-known (outside France) finance minister and former MEP, he breathed life and hope into the EC and into the dispirited Brussels Commission. In his first term, from 1985 to 1988, he rallied Europe to
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5568-423: A separate officeholder was needed. Adenauer is said to have considered Hallstein for the position, even though he was not a member of a political party. Hallstein also played an important part in promoting West Germany's goals of regaining sovereignty and creating a European Defence Community (EDC), of which West Germany would be a member. Negotiations at first resulted in two international agreements: However,
5742-798: A small group of close advisers, including Hallstein and Blankenhorn) on the one hand and the division leaders at the Foreign Office and the diplomatic missions on the other. In particular, Hallstein was also criticised in the press after the European Defence Community was rejected by the French National Assembly , as had been predicted by the German diplomatic mission in Paris. On 6 June 1955, Adenauer, who had until then been Foreign Minister as well as Chancellor, appointed Heinrich von Brentano foreign minister and there
5916-709: A somewhat similar purpose. In 1984, the Doctorat d'État was replaced by the Habilitation à diriger des recherches (or French habilitation ). The award of the French habilitation is a general requirement for being the main supervisor of PhD students and to be eligible for full professor positions. The official eligibility named qualification is granted by the French Conseil National des Universités (CNU). Members of Directeur de Recherche corps who are assimilated to full professors by
6090-467: A specific academic subject at universities (sometimes also referred to as Venia docendi , Latin for "right of teaching"). Someone in possession of the Venia legendi but not a professorship has the right to carry the title Privatdozent (for men) or Privatdozentin (for women), abbreviated PD or Priv.-Doz. . The status as a PD requires doing some (generally unpaid) teaching in order to keep
6264-476: A specific, unpublished thesis, which then tends to be very long. While cumulative habilitations are predominant in some fields (such as medicine ), they have been, since about a century ago, almost unheard of in others (such as law ). The level of scholarship of a habilitation is considerably higher than for a doctoral dissertation in the same academic tradition in terms of quality and quantity, and must be accomplished independently, without direction or guidance of
6438-563: A tariff barrier with other countries. The EFTA convention was signed in January 1960 and was to come into force in May 1960. On 3 March 1960, Hallstein announced a plan for accelerating the implementation of the common market, which commentators regarded as sabotaging hopes of a joint free trade area that included the EEC and EFTA. This invoked the displeasure, not only of the EFTA countries, but also of
6612-501: A university or "externally" as a research and teaching-oriented practitioner. Once the habilitation thesis ( Habilitationsschrift , often simply Habilitation ) and all other requirements are completed, the candidate (called Habilitand/in in German) "has habilitated him- or herself" and receives an extension to his/her doctoral degree, namely Dr. habil. (with the specification, such as Dr. rer. nat. habil. ). The habilitation
6786-508: Is conducted through their calling and chairing of meetings of the College of Commissioners, their personal cabinet and the meetings of the heads of each commissioner's cabinet (the Hebdo). The president may also force a Commissioner to resign. The work of the commission as a body is based on the principle of cabinet collective responsibility ; however, in their powers they act as more than
6960-572: Is fixed at 138% of the top civil service grade which, in 2013, amounted to €25,351 per month or €304,212 per year plus an allowance for a residence equal to 15% of salary as well as other allowances including for children's schooling and household expenses. The European Economic Community was established by the Treaty of Rome , presently known as the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union;
7134-620: Is in practical contrast with the spirit of the Gelmini-reform. If an ASN habilitation application fails, the candidate can apply again, but only after a 12-month hiatus. The ASN habilitation was initially valid for four years, but this validity term was extended many times. Currently (2023), due to extreme scarcity of tenure track positions in Italy, the ASN habilitation validity has been recently increased to ten years by government decree. In
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7308-448: Is often a qualification for full professorship in those countries. In German-speaking countries it allows the degree holder to bear the title PD (for Privatdozent ). In a number of countries there exists an academic post of docent , appointment to which often requires such a qualification. The degree conferral is usually accompanied by a public oral defence event (a lecture or a colloquium) with one or more opponents. Habilitation
7482-611: Is the highest university degree , or the procedure by which it is achieved, in Germany, France, Italy and some other European and non-English-speaking countries. The candidate fulfills a university's set criteria of excellence in research, teaching, and further education, which usually includes a dissertation. The degree, sometimes abbreviated Dr. habil . ( Doctor habilitatus ), Dr hab. ( Doktor habilitowany ), or D.Sc. ( Doctor of Sciences in Russia and some CIS countries),
7656-417: Is thus an additional qualification at a higher level than the German doctoral degree . Only those candidates receiving the highest (or second-highest) grade for their doctoral thesis are encouraged to proceed with a habilitation. A typical procedure after completing the habilitation is that the successful researcher officially receives the so-called Venia legendi (Latin for "permission for lecturing") for
7830-511: Is usually awarded 5–15 years after a PhD degree or its equivalent. Achieving this academic degree does not automatically give the scientist a paid position, though many people who apply for the degree already have steady university employment. The term habilitation is derived from the Medieval Latin habilitare , meaning "to make suitable, to fit", from Classical Latin habilis "fit, proper, skillful". The degree developed in
8004-571: The Force de Frappe , which he envisaged as part of a European defence capability independent of the United States. This independence from the United States was one of de Gaulle's main objectives; he was against the increased integration of Europe under the umbrella of transatlantic integration as provided for in the Rome treaties. The Hallstein Commission drew up plans and a timetable for an economic and currency union , and Hallstein presented these to
8178-567: The Spitzenkandidat principle, below – but this is a convention, not an obligation). That provision was not in force in the nomination in 2004, but the centre-right EPP, which won the election, pressured for a candidate from its own ranks. In the end, the EPP candidate, José Manuel Barroso, was chosen. On the same basis, the EPP endorsed again Barroso for a second term during
8352-484: The 1973 oil crisis and the 1979 energy crisis , economic hardship reduced the priority of European integration, with only the president trying to keep the idea alive. The member states had the upper hand, and they created the European Council to discuss topical problems, yet the council was unable to keep the major projects on track such as the Common Agricultural Policy . The Community entered
8526-575: The Amsterdam Treaty . The Treaty of Nice changed the council's vote from a unanimous choice to one that merely needed a qualified majority . This meant that the weight of the Parliament in the process increased resulting in a quasi- parliamentary system where one group could be in government. This became evident when numerous candidates were put forward in 2004, and a centre-right vote won out over left-wing groups, France and Germany. José Manuel Barroso , elected Commission president that year,
8700-535: The Bundestag (the federal parliament) cannot pass such a law, because the German constitution explicitly states that affairs of education are the sole responsibility of the states and declared the law to be invalid in June 2004. In reaction, a new federal law was passed, giving the states more freedom regarding habilitations and junior professors. The junior professor has since been legally established in all states, but it
8874-578: The Common Agricultural Policy as from July 1965, including its financing from direct levies rather than national contributions; this would entail a transfer of revenues to the Community. The ministers representing other countries, in particular the Netherlands, indicated that their national parliaments would not approve transfer of revenues to the Community unless the rights of the European Parliament were strengthened. On 20 January 1965,
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#17327727483629048-699: The Council of Ministers and the European Parliament in October 1962. A second attempt by de Gaulle to establish a closer political union in Europe that would be independent of the United States was the Franco-German bilateral treaty on political cooperation . This treaty between France and Germany, which was signed on 22 January 1963, was criticized by other countries as being incompatible with
9222-494: The EEC treaty left many questions open. Opinions were divided, for instance, on whether a common market could succeed without a common economic policy , on enlargement of the European Union – in particular whether Britain should join – and whether the final goal should be a political union in the sense of a " United States of Europe ". Differing interests and traditions in the member states and differences of opinion among
9396-506: The European Commission Directorate-General for Research, and therefore usually implies the holder of such title has a degree equivalent to habilitation. In 2004, the habilitation was the subject of a major political debate in Germany. The former Federal Minister for Education and Science, Edelgard Bulmahn , aimed to abolish the system of the habilitation and replace it with the alternative concept of
9570-689: The European Court , but now he was put forward as the German candidate for the president of the commission, though the Belgian Minister of Economics, Rey and the Netherlands Agriculture Minister, Mansholt were regarded as the strongest contenders for the position. The conference of foreign ministers on 20 December 1957 could not reach a decision, so when the Treaties of Rome took effect on 1 January 1958,
9744-451: The European Parliament passed a resolution appealing to the governments to take this step toward strengthening a democratic and federal Europe. Hallstein supported this. Hallstein had received indications that other countries shared his point of view and decided to risk the confrontation with de Gaulle, interpreting the instructions from the Council broadly, with the support of Dutch Commissioner for Agriculture, Sicco Mansholt. The majority of
9918-418: The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation in the seventeenth century ( c. 1652 ). Initially, habilitation was synonymous with "doctoral qualification". The term became synonymous with "post-doctoral qualification" in Germany in the 19th century "when holding a doctorate seemed no longer sufficient to guarantee a proficient transfer of knowledge to the next generation". Afterwards, it became normal in
10092-408: The Political groups of the European Parliament ) nominating their candidate for Commission President prior to the Parliamentary elections. The Spitzenkandidat of the largest party (or the one able to secure the support of a majority coalition) would then have a mandate to assume the Commission Presidency. This process was first run in 2014, and its legitimacy was contested by some of the members of
10266-408: The Treaty on European Union in 1993, the European Parliament, the body elected directly by the citizens of the European Union, gained the right to be consulted on the appointment of the president and to veto the commission as a whole. Parliament decided to interpret its right to be consulted as a right to veto the president, which the Council reluctantly accepted. This right of veto was formalised in
10440-460: The brain drain of talented young researchers who think their chances of getting a professorship at a reasonable age to be better abroad and hence move, for example, to the UK or the USA. Many feel overly dependent on their supervising principal investigators (the professor heading the research group) since superiors have power to delay the process of completing the habilitation. A further problem comes with funding support for those who wish to pursue
10614-432: The first President of the Commission of the European Economic Community , which would later become the European Union . He held the office from 1958 to 1967 and was the only German to be selected as president of the European Commission or its predecessors until the selection of Ursula von der Leyen in 2019. Hallstein famously described his role as "a kind of European prime minister" and dismissed national sovereignty as
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#173277274836210788-431: The humanities and the social sciences , the habilitation was—and still is—regarded as a valuable instrument of quality control before giving somebody a tenured position for life. Bavaria, Saxony and Thuringia, three states with conservative governments, filed suit at the German Constitutional Court against the new law replacing the habilitation with the junior professor. The Court concurred with their argument that
10962-483: The president of the European Council is a "strategist". The High Representative specialises in "bilateral relations" while the European Commissioner for Enlargement and European Neighbourhood Policy deals in technical matters such as the free trade agreement with Ukraine. The president of the European Parliament meanwhile articulates the EU's values. The MEP and author of several EU text books Richard Corbett has suggested that, instead of every EU institution having
11136-489: The 2009 European election campaign and, being largest again after that election, was able to secure his nomination by the European Council . Further criteria seen to be influencing the choice of the Council include: which area of Europe the candidate comes from, favoured as Southern Europe in 2004; the candidate's political influence, credible yet not overpowering members; language, proficiency in French considered necessary by France; and degree of integration, their state being
11310-430: The Bavarian Ministry of Economics, he became a professor at Frankfurt University on 1 February 1946, and in April he was elected its rector , a position he retained until 1948. He was president of the South German Rectors' Conference, which he founded. From 1948 to 1949, he spent a year as visiting professor at Georgetown University in Washington D.C. Hallstein was co-founder of the German national UNESCO committee and
11484-426: The CNU do not require the French habilitation to supervise PhD students. Depending on the field, the French habilitation requires consistent research from five to ten years after appointment as an assistant professor ( maître de conférences ), a substantial amount of significant publications, the supervision of at least one PhD student from start to graduation, a successful track record securing extramural funding as
11658-429: The Cabinet authorized intergovernmental negotiations, to be held at the conference of foreign ministers in Venice at the end of May, the German delegation again to be led by Hallstein. In July 1956, Britain had made proposals for the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC) to examine the possibility of a free trade area for industrial goods. The French, mainly interested in Euratom, attempted to separate
11832-424: The Commission president speaking on economic questions and the European Council president on political questions, although this division is often hard to maintain in practice. Although there are concerns that this competition with the European Council president would lead to increased infighting, there are provisions for combining the two offices. The European Council president may not hold a national office, such as
12006-403: The Community ought to be run, in the hopes of generating a wave of pro-Europeanism big enough to get past the objections of member states. However, in this it proved that, despite its past successes, Hallstein was overconfident in his risky proposals. In reaction to Hallstein's proposals and actions, then-French president Charles de Gaulle , who was sceptical of the rising supranational power of
12180-403: The Community. His tenure had produced a strong Presidency and a strong Commission as the president became more important. Following treaties cemented this change, with the president being given control over the allocation of portfolios and being able to force the resignation of Commissioners. When President Romano Prodi took office with the new powers of the Treaty of Amsterdam , he was dubbed by
12354-480: The Council and Parliament. Delors had enjoyed the Parliament's and the council's support for his whole term, during which, through treaty changes, the Parliament increased in powers and, through the accession of new member states, the Council increased in membership. The membership is now so large the president is increasingly unable to garner the support of all the states, even though the job is supposed to try to keep everyone happy. The Parliament now has more powers over
12528-525: The EEC Commission, was cautious, considering the British application premature. Of British politicians, only Heath was able to establish a rapport with Hallstein. The Financial Times (of 2 August 1961) wrote that Hallstein was one of the least enthusiastic about British membership of the EEC. In British government circles he was at first seen as siding with the French and de Gaulle, against Britain and
12702-593: The EEC and NATO treaties. Hallstein and other members of the commission also criticized the treaty, and this angered de Gaulle. When the treaty was ratified by West Germany, the German Bundestag unilaterally added a preamble that re-affirmed the commitment to close transatlantic ties, the enlargement of the existing European Communities and attempts to secure Britain's accession. Since Britain had firmly expressed its unwillingness to support an autonomous European defence independent of America, de Gaulle regarded
12876-519: The EPP selected Barroso as its candidate and, as the largest party, it was able to ensure his turn was renewed. The Socialists, disappointed at the 2009 election, agreed to put forward a candidate for Commission President at all subsequent elections. After a campaign within that party to have open primaries for said candidate, the PES Congress gathering in Brussels in November 2011 decided that
13050-614: The Eastern bloc is equivalent to a habilitation. The cumulative form of the habilitation can be compared to the higher doctorates , such as the D.Sc. ( Doctor of Science ), Litt.D. (Doctor of Letters), LL.D. (Doctor of Laws) and D.D. (Doctor of Divinity) found in the UK, Ireland, and some Commonwealth countries, which are awarded on the basis of a career of published work. However, higher doctorates from these countries (except Russia) are often not recognized by any German state as being equivalent to
13224-731: The Economics Ministry under Erhard. Commentators talked of Hallstein's "religious zeal". In 1961 Harold Macmillan , the British Prime Minister , finally gave up the idea of the larger free trade area, and the United Kingdom applied to join the EEC. Edward Heath , as Lord Privy Seal in the Macmillan government , led the negotiations in Britain's first attempt to join the EEC. Hallstein, as president of
13398-687: The European Commission The president of the European Commission , also known as president of the College of Commissioners or prime commissioner , is the head of the European Commission , the executive branch of the European Union (EU). The president of the commission leads a cabinet of commissioners, referred to as the college. The president is empowered to allocate portfolios among, reshuffle, or dismiss commissioners as necessary. The college directs
13572-671: The European Commission by the European Parliament on 16 July. Von der Leyen assumed office on 1 December 2019, following the approval of her nominated College of Commissioners by the European Parliament. The present Commission was established by the Treaty of Rome in 1957; it also replaced the High Authority and the Commission of Euratom in 1967. The commission's first president was Walter Hallstein (see Hallstein Commission ) who started consolidating European law and began to impact on national legislation. National governments at first took little heed of his administration, with
13746-552: The European Council (with the UK and Hungarian Prime Ministers voting against the nomination of the EPP's Spitzenkandidat Jean Claude Juncker (see below)). The president is elected for a renewable five-year term starting five months after the elections to the European Parliament . These were brought into alignment via the Maastricht Treaty (prior to which the commission had a four-year term of office) and
13920-490: The European populace. Hallstein contended that institutional integration was in the interests of a successful German export industry. Ludwig Erhard and the Ministry of Economics argued for a looser "functional integration" and advocated intergovernmental economic co-operation. Erhard opposed supranational structures and characterized the Foreign Office proponents of a federal Europe as out of touch with economic realities. In
14094-639: The French Minister of Information, Alain Peyrefitte announced that France would leave the EEC if the European Agricultural market were not implemented in the agreed form by 15 December 1964. On 1 December 1964, Erhard, now head of government in Germany, announced that Germany would accede to French demands for a common wheat price, and on 15 December the Council of Ministers laid down common grain prices from 1 July 1967 and instructed
14268-539: The French habilitation is similar to the promotion to associate professor in North America. In other words, the North American ranks of assistant professor, associate professor, and full professor are equivalent to maître de conférences , French habilitation / qualification , and professeur des universités , respectively, in France. In order to hold the rank of a full professor ( W3 ) within
14442-588: The German parliament on 22 September 1955. It meant that the Federal German government would regard it as an " unfriendly act " if third countries were to recognize or maintain diplomatic relations with the "German Democratic Republic" (East Germany). The exception was the Soviet Union , as one of the Four Powers responsible for Germany. The threatened response to such an unfriendly act was often understood to mean breaking off diplomatic relations; this
14616-421: The German university system to write two doctoral theses: the inaugural thesis ( Inauguraldissertation ), completing a course of study, and the habilitation thesis ( Habilitationsschrift ), which opens the road to a professorship. Habilitation qualifications exist or existed in: A habilitation thesis can be either cumulative (based on previous research, be it articles or monographs) or monographical, i.e.,
14790-425: The German university system, it is necessary to have obtained the habilitation (or "habilitation-equivalent achievements"). This can be demonstrated by leading a research group, being a junior professor , or other achievements in research and teaching as a post-doctoral researcher. The habilitation in Germany is usually earned after several years of independent research and teaching, either "internally" while working at
14964-745: The Hallstein Doctrine came from Hallstein's deputy, Wilhelm Grewe . The doctrine would become one of the major elements of West German foreign policy from September 1955 – until official recognition of the German Democratic Republic in October 1969. Based on the Basic Law , its de facto constitution, the Federal Republic of Germany – then commonly known in the English-speaking world as West Germany – claimed an exclusive mandate to represent
15138-468: The Italian system, for ricercatore a tempo determinato di tipo b ). At the end of the three-year contract the assistant professor must have a valid ASN habilitation in order to become a permanent associate professor; otherwise, he or she is permanently laid off. To prevent this (which may be disastrous to already undermanned Italian departments), it is common practice to award RTDb positions to people already habilitated as associate or full professors, which
15312-525: The Netherlands). The tasks it faced included the implementation of a customs union and the Four Freedoms , as well as common policies on competition , trade , transport and agriculture . Hallstein famously described his role as "a kind of European prime minister" and regarded national sovereignty as a "doctrine of yesteryear." Though Hallstein's personal vision of a federal Europe was clear,
15486-608: The PES would designate its candidate for Commission president through primaries taking place in January 2014 in each of its member parties and organisations, before a ratification of the results by an Extraordinary PES Congress in February 2014. The lead candidate ( German : Spitzenkandidat ) process is the method of linking the choice of President of the Commission to the outcome of the European Parliament elections, by having each major European Political Party (not to be confused with
15660-400: The Parliament elects, rather than simply approves, the council's proposed candidate. This was taken as the parliament's cue to have its parties run with candidates for the president of the commission with the candidate of the winning party being proposed by the council. This was partly put into practice in 2004 when the European Council selected a candidate from the political party which secured
15834-612: The Saar to Germany; on 27 October 1956, the Saar Treaty was signed. In 1955, Germany had in large measure regained its sovereignty and become integrated into western defence-organizations, the WEU and NATO; European integration had progressed, with the establishment of the ECSC; the Saar question was to be resolved by the referendum in October 1955. In all of these matters, Hallstein had played
16008-596: The Treaty of Paris failed to obtain the necessary approval of the French Parliament . Instead, a solution involving the Western European Union (WEU) was agreed, and West Germany was to become a member of NATO . The efforts to resolve the issues culminated, in 1954, in a series of conferences in London and Paris . The German side was represented by Adenauer, the German chancellor, together with
16182-491: The UK and Germany sought to sideline its role. This has increased with the creation of the permanent president of the European Council . There was disagreement and concern over competition between the former president of the European Council Van Rompuy and the former Commission president Barroso due to the vague language of the treaty. Some clarifications saw Van Rompuy as the "strategist" and Barroso as
16356-554: The Union. However, in foreign affairs, the president does have to compete with several Commissioners with foreign affairs related portfolios: the High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy and the president of the European Council . The presidential system had started to develop since Jacques Delors and has since been cemented. However, externally they are still dependent on support from
16530-819: The Wehrmacht in Northern France with the rank of first lieutenant ( Oberleutnant ). In early 1944, Hallstein's name was submitted by the University of Frankfurt as a potential Nationalsozialistischer Führungsoffizier to the National Socialist Lecturers League . On 26 June 1944, during the Battle of Cherbourg , he was captured by the Americans and sent to Camp Como, a prisoner-of-war camp in Mississippi . As
16704-469: The academic course report is replaced by a research proposal or a proposal for advanced PhD studies. After the candidate submits the habilitation thesis, a jury composed of five to nine full professors or coordinator researchers first evaluates the submitted documents; the majority needs to approve the candidate's request. If approved, the candidate then needs to defend their thesis in a two-day public defense. The public defense lasts for two hours each day. On
16878-611: The age of 23. From 1923 to 1926 he was a legal clerk at the Kammergericht , and in 1927, having passed his qualifying examination, he was employed for a very brief spell as a judge. He then worked as an academic at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Foreign Private and International Private Law in Berlin, where he specialized in comparative commercial and company law, working under Professor Martin Wolff ,
17052-532: The argument of his French counterpart, Faure , that it would benefit Germany. Hallstein helped to strike a deal by which the imports and exports of overseas territories would be treated like products of the mother country and private investment and company branches of other member states would be permitted, thus opening up the overseas territories for German exports. Hallstein helped deal with these problems at two conferences of foreign ministers, one from 26 to 27 January 1957 and another on 4 February. On 25 March 1957,
17226-437: The best candidate, why were you not the first?" The candidate selected by the Council has often been a leading national politician, but this is not a requirement. The choice of President must take into account the result of the latest Parliamentary elections (for example, by choosing the candidate supported by the largest European political party in particular, or at least someone from that political family –
17400-482: The call of the single market, and when appointed to a second term he began urging Europeans toward the far more ambitious goals of economic, monetary and political union." But Delors not only turned the Community around, he signalled a change in the Presidency. Before he came to power, the Commission president still was a position of first among equals ; when he left office, he was the undisputed icon and leader of
17574-759: The chancellor, Adenauer, again settled the dispute between the ministries by a decision in favour of Hallstein and the Foreign Office. When the Spaak Report (the Brussels Report on the General Common Market ) was finally presented in April 1956, it recommended a customs union. In the Cabinet meeting of 9 May 1956 there was renewed opposition to the position of the Foreign Office from other ministers, but Adenauer lent his support to Hallstein, and
17748-609: The collapse, in August 1954, of the plans to create a European Political Community and a European Defence Community , when France failed to ratify the treaty. On 6 September 1955, shortly before Adenauer's trip to Moscow, Hallstein, standing in for Brentano, attended the Noordwijk Conference of foreign ministers convened to evaluate progress made by the Spaak Committee . On 9 November 1955, Hallstein reported
17922-491: The commission and can reject its proposals, although the commission has little power over Parliament, such as the ability to dissolve it to call new elections. The president's office is on the top, 13th, floor of the Berlaymont building in Brussels. The president receives their political guidance from their cabinet , the head of which acts as a political bodyguard for the president. Such factors can lead to an isolation of
18096-484: The commission as a substantial power. The presidents were involved in the major political projects of the day in the 1970s, such as the European Monetary Union . In 1970, President Jean Rey secured the Community's own financial resources, and in 1977, President Roy Jenkins became the first Commission president to attend a G7 summit on behalf of the Community. However, owing to problems such as
18270-525: The commission backed Hallstein. On 24 March 1965, Hallstein presented the commission's proposals for financing the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) to the European Parliament. It was proposed that customs duties collected at EEC borders would go to the community budget and that the Common Agricultural Market would be implemented as scheduled on 1 July 1967 – but the customs union for industrial products would also be implemented at
18444-495: The commission to submit proposals for financing the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) by 1 July 1965. Differences between France and the Commission ;– and especially between de Gaulle and Hallstein – were exacerbated when France held the rotating six-month Presidency of the council, from January to June 1965. The Council of Ministers instructed the commission to submit plans by 1 April 1965 on how to finance
18618-451: The commission's civil service, sets the policy agenda and determines the legislative proposals it produces. The commission is the only body that can propose , or draft, bills to become EU laws . The commission president also represents the EU abroad, together with the president of the European Council and the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy . The post
18792-439: The commission, accused Hallstein of acting as if he were a head of state . France eventually withdrew its representative from the council, triggering the notorious "empty chair crisis". Although this was resolved under the " Luxembourg compromise ", Hallstein became the scapegoat for the crisis. The Council refused to renew his term, despite his being the most 'dynamic' leader until Jacques Delors . Hallstein's work did position
18966-439: The council has led to more candidates being fielded while there has been greater politicisation due to the involvement of Parliament and the change of policy direction in the EU from the creation of the single market to reform of it. However, despite this, the choice within the Council remains largely behind closed doors. During the appointment of Santer, discussions were kept in camera ("private" from Latin "in chamber"), with
19140-436: The council, puts forward their team to the Parliament to be scrutinised. The Parliament normally insists that each one of them appear before the parliamentary committee that corresponds to their prospective portfolio for a public hearing. The Parliament then votes on the commission as a whole; if approved, the European Council, acting by a qualified majority, appoints the president and their team to office. Qualified majority in
19314-511: The council. These proposals led to an immediate backlash from France. Hallstein knew the proposals would be contentious, and took personal charge of drafting them, over-riding the Agriculture Commissioner . However he did gain the support of Parliament through his proposals to increase its powers, and he also presented his policy to Parliament a week before he submitted them to the council. He aimed to demonstrate how he thought
19488-521: The debate on the two topics and proposed a compromise treaty under which only the general principles of a common market would be agreed, leaving details to be decided later, but Germany made negotiations on Euratom dependent on negotiations on a common market. At the Venice Conference , the French foreign minister , Christian Pineau agreed to intergovernmental negotiations, with three provisos:
19662-451: The degrees is very similar, with minor changes. Any PhD holder can submit a habilitation thesis to obtain the degree. For agregação , the thesis is composed by a detailed CV of the achievements obtained after concluding the PhD, a detailed report of an academic course taught at the university (or a proposed course to be taught), and the summary of a lesson to be given. For habilitação ,
19836-711: The dispute, Adenauer finally supported Hallstein, settling the acrimonious, and public, conflict between Hallstein and Erhard. In 1955 the foreign ministers of the European Coal and Steel Community met at the Messina Conference , among other things to nominate a member of the High Authority of the European Coal and Steel Community and to appoint its new president and vice-presidents for the period ending 10 February 1957. The conference, which
20010-414: The economic community was to be established in stages; customs tariffs should be reduced by only 30%; and national governments should not be overly constrained with regard to economic policy. Hallstein warned against accepting the French terms, which in his view meant that the French would push for a quick decision in favour of Euratom and delay the negotiations on the common market. Hallstein was supported by
20184-412: The elections take place in June every five years (in years ending in 4 and 9). This alignment has led to a closer relationship between the elections and the president themself with the above-mentioned proposals for political parties running with candidates. The president and their Commission may be removed from office by a vote of censure from Parliament. Parliament has never done this to date; however,
20358-533: The entry into force of the Maastricht Treaty (formally the Treaty on European Union) did not affect the name of the position. Upon its entry into force in 2009, the Treaty of Lisbon renamed the Commission of the European Communities the European Commission, reflecting the de facto name as well as the fact that the European Communities pillar was abolished along with the rest of the pillar system. Groups Habilitation Habilitation
20532-430: The field of free regulated professions, protected by a professional body (architects, lawyers, engineers, doctors, pharmacists, journalists, etc.), it identifies the state examination, more properly called "state examination for the qualification for the exercise of professions" that allows already graduated students or those with the necessary titles to register on the list of professionals and work. Many state exams include
20706-477: The first day, the curriculum of the candidate is discussed (for both degrees) and in the case of agregação , the candidate also needs to present the academic course selected. On the second day, the candidate needs to present a lecture ( agregação ) or a proposal of a research project ( habilitação ). The Doctor of Science in Russia and some other countries formerly part of the Soviet Union or
20880-488: The foreign ministers of the Netherlands and Luxembourg, against France, in demanding a fixed deadline and timetable for the establishment of a common market. The French National Assembly approved the commencement of intergovernmental negotiations in July 1956, after the prime minister, Guy Mollet , gave an assurance that Euratom would not impose restrictions on the French nuclear weapons programme. Another cause of disagreement
21054-472: The formation of the European Coal and Steel Community . Jean Monnet , the leader of the French delegation, and Hallstein drew up the Schuman Plan , which was the basis for the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), established by the Treaty of Paris in 1951. The ECSC was to develop into the European Economic Community , and later the European Union . In August 1950, to general surprise, Hallstein
21228-490: The formation of the EEC, preferring a looser free trade area , and later proposed a larger free trade area that would include the EEC and other European countries. The German government, German industry, and – especially – the Economics Minister, Ludwig Erhard , wanted Britain to be part of an integrated Europe. Hallstein opposed the idea of a wider free trade area at this time, advocating first achieving
21402-704: The habilitation. In 1999, Russia and Germany signed a Statement on Mutual Academic Recognition of Russian Academic Degrees and German Academic Qualifications, including the equivalence of the Russian Doctor of Science and the German Habilitation qualification. Furthermore, the position or title of an associate professor (or higher) at a European Union-based university is systematically translated into or compared to titles such as Universitätsprofessor (W2) (Germany), førsteamanuensis (Norway), or Doktor hab. (Poland) by institutions such as
21576-602: The imminence of such a vote in 1999, due to allegations of financial mismanagement, led to the Santer Commission resigning on its own accord, before the Parliamentary vote. The president of the European Commission is the most powerful position in the European Union, controlling the Commission which collectively has the right of initiative on Union legislation (only on matters delegated to it by member states for collective action, as determined by
21750-576: The junior professor: a researcher should first be employed for up to six years as a "junior professor" (a non- tenured position roughly equivalent to assistant professor in the United States) and so prove his/her suitability for holding a tenured professorship. Many, especially researchers in the natural sciences , as well as young researchers, have long demanded the abandonment of the habilitation as they think it to be an unnecessary and time-consuming obstacle in an academic career, contributing to
21924-480: The major Austrian universities do that only for master's level students, but not for PhD programs. Livre-docência is a title (similar to Habilitation in Germany) granted to holders of doctorate degrees upon submission of a cumulative thesis followed by a viva voce examination . It has practically disappeared amongst Brazilian Federal HEIs . It is still required at a few institutions for admissions as
22098-462: The media relying on insider leaks. MEPs were angry with the process, against the spirit of consultation that the new EU treaty brought in. Pauline Green MEP, leader of the Socialist group , stated that her group thought "Parliament should refuse to condone a practice which so sullies the democratic process". There were similar deals in 1999 and 2004 saw a repeat of Santer's appointment when Barroso
22272-489: The name Hallstein. In 1955, Hallstein and Grewe accompanied Adenauer as members of a delegation to Moscow, where the establishment of diplomatic relations between Bonn and Moscow was agreed. It was on the flight back from Moscow that the policy that was later to become known as the Hallstein Doctrine was fleshed out, though the Foreign Office had already devised and practised elements of the policy. The idea behind
22446-619: The negotiations. German politicians like Erhard felt that Hallstein and his commission had not done enough to promote the wider free trade area. The six countries of the EEC had decided on a customs union : they agreed to remove tariffs between one another within a period of twelve years, and to erect a common tariff barrier between themselves and other countries. Seven of the excluded European countries (United Kingdom, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Switzerland, Austria, and Portugal) responded with an alternative free trade area, EFTA, which also removed tariff barriers between each other, but did not insist on
22620-593: The other five members of the EEC, who were more welcoming to Britain, and as favouring the French protectionist position. Elements of the British Press, notably the Daily Express , were critical of Hallstein – or what he represented. It was in 1961 that de Gaulle proposed the Fouchet Plan , a plan for an intergovernmental "union of states", as an alternative to the European Communities . There
22794-545: The politicians meant that consensus was difficult. The disagreements that had preceded the creation of the EEC continued after it was established, and these were reflected within the commission. For instance, the protectionist Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), the responsibility of Sicco Mansholt , the Commissioner for Agriculture , was at odds with the liberal foreign trade policy of the Commissioner for External relations , Jean Rey . Britain had at first been against
22968-497: The position had not been filled. At the conference of foreign ministers on 6 and 7 January 1958, however, Hallstein was finally chosen as the first president of the EEC Commission. Hallstein's selection for this position at the head of a major European organization, a decade after the end of World War II, was a major achievement for Germany. Barely a decade after the end of World War II, the German Walter Hallstein
23142-403: The possession of a specific qualification among the requirements. For example, to take the habilitation exam for to become an architect or an engineer, one must have already graduated from a university. However, in order to actually practice the profession it is necessary to register with the relevant professional association and, if the profession is exercised independently, it is necessary to have
23316-498: The post of Foreign Minister was filled by Adenauer himself. On 2 April 1951, Hallstein was made the leading civil servant at the newly created Foreign Office. Foreign policy continued to be managed by Adenauer himself with his group of intimates, including Hallstein, Blankenhorn and others. In many respects Hallstein was the West German Foreign Minister in all but name, but there was a growing awareness that
23490-583: The president from outside events. For the European Civil Service the president has a very high status, due to their immense authority and symbolism within the body. The president exercises further authority through the legal service and Secretariat-General of the Commission . The former has the power to strike down proposals on legal technicalities while the latter organises meetings, agendas and minutes. The president's control over these areas gives them further political tools when directing
23664-414: The president having to stamp the commission's authority early on. With the aid of the European Court of Justice , the commission began to be taken more seriously. In 1965, Hallstein put forward his proposals for the Common Agricultural Policy , which would give the Community its own financial resources while giving more power to the Commission and Parliament and removing the veto power over Agriculture in
23838-439: The press as Europe's first Prime Minister. President Delors' work had increased the powers of the Parliament, whose support he had enjoyed. However, later Commissions did not enjoy the same support, and in 1999, the European Parliament used its powers to force the Santer Commission to resign. Historically, the Council appointed the Commission president and the whole body by unanimity without input from Parliament. However, with
24012-471: The profession in question. This is for example the case of the education sector: once the qualifying examination has been passed, a public competition must be won for recruitment in an upper or lower secondary school. In the Portuguese legal system, there are two types of habilitation degree. The first is normally given to university professors and is named agregação or Decree of Law 239/2007 while
24186-442: The qualified majority is in this case a 'reinforced qualified majority' since the European Council votes on a proposal not coming from the European Commission or the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy . This proposal is then put before Parliament which must approve or veto the appointment. If an absolute majority of MEPs support the nominee, they are elected. The president then, together with
24360-604: The results to the West German Cabinet, where the Ministry of Economics and the Ministry of Agriculture opposed the plans for a common market rather than a free trade area . The Ministry of Economics feared that a customs union meant protectionism ; the Ministry of Agriculture was concerned that the interests of German farmers would be betrayed; Franz Josef Strauss opposed the perceived discrimination against German industry regarding access to uranium . Finally,
24534-539: The same time, two and a half years earlier than provided for in the Rome Treaty. The proposals would have allowed the Community to develop its own financial resources independently of the member states and given more budgetary powers to the European Parliament . From 1 January 1966, voting in the Council was to be by simple majority, removing the implicit veto power of individual countries. The French government stated it could not agree to this. President of
24708-538: The second is named habilitação (Decree of Law 124/99) and is used by doctoral researchers working in institutes outside universities. Legally, they are equivalent and are required for a professor ( agregação ) or a researcher ( habilitação ) to reach the top of their specific careers (full professor or coordinator researcher). Both degrees aim to evaluate if the candidate has achieved significant outputs in terms of scientific activity, including activities in postgraduation supervision. The process to obtain any of
24882-568: The six countries Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxemburg, and Netherlands signed the Treaties of Rome . Adenauer and Hallstein signed for Germany. The foreign minister, Brentano had largely left the negotiations to Hallstein, so the signing of the treaty represented a major success for Hallstein. It was also Hallstein who explained the treaties to the German parliament on 21 March 1957, before they were signed on 25 March 1957. There had been previous suggestions of Hallstein becoming president of
25056-438: The sub-commission of the senate (including students representatives for a hearing on the teaching capabilities of the candidate) an external reviewer. Holding a habilitation allows academics to do research and supervise (PhD, MSc, ...) on behalf of this university. As it is an academic degree, this is even valid if the person is not enrolled (or not enrolled anymore) at this institution ( Habilitation ad personam ). Appointment to
25230-450: The thesis has been accepted, and after which the venia legendi (Latin: 'permission to read', i.e., to lecture) is bestowed. In some areas, such as law, philosophy, theology and sociology, the venia , and thus the habilitation, is given only for certain sub-fields (such as criminal law , civil law , or philosophy of science , practical philosophy , etc.); in others, for the entire field. Although disciplines and countries vary in
25404-516: The title ( Titellehre or titular teaching). In the Italian legal system, habilitations are different types of acts and authorizations. Regarding university habilitations, the so-called Gelmini reform of the research and university teaching system (Italian Law 240 of year 2010 and subsequent modifications) has established the national scientific habilitation for the calls in the role of associate professor and full professor (called abilitazione scientifica nazionale , or ASN). This means that, as
25578-416: The top civil servants at the German Foreign Office: Hallstein, his colleague Blankenhorn, and his deputy, Grewe. Hallstein helped negotiate various treaties at the London Nine-Power Conference from 23 September to 3 October 1954; they were finalized at the Paris conference from 20 to 23 October 1954. The conferences in Paris included a meeting of the parties to the Nine-Power Conference in London (20 October),
25752-458: The treaties) and is responsible for ensuring its enforcement. The president controls the policy agenda of the commission for their term and in practice no policy can be proposed without the president's agreement. The role of the president is to lead the commission, and give direction to the Commission and the Union as a whole. The treaties state that "the Commission shall work under the political guidance of its president" (Article 219 TEC ), this
25926-452: The treaty as a failure. Further attempts by de Gaulle at military cooperation with Germany to the exclusion of America were rebuffed by Erhard (now Federal Chancellor) and his foreign minister Gerhard Schröder . Britain's application for membership of the EEC was vetoed by de Gaulle in 1963, which also further antagonized the other participants. De Gaulle took a confrontational course on the Common Agricultural Policy, and on 21 October 1964,
26100-439: The typical number of years for obtaining habilitation after getting a doctorate, it usually takes longer than for the American academic tenure . For example, in Poland until 2018, the statutory time for getting a habilitation (traditionally, although not obligatorily, relying on a book publication) is eight years. Theoretically, if an assistant professor does not succeed in obtaining habilitation in this time, they should be moved to
26274-408: The victorious EPP only mentioned four or five people as candidates for president. There have been plans to strengthen the European political parties for them to propose candidates for future elections. The European Liberal Democrat and Reform Party indicated, in its October 2007 congress, its intention to forward a candidate for the post as part of a common campaign but failed to do so. However,
26448-430: The whole of Germany, including the Communist East Germany , which was aligned with the Soviet Union. One of the early objectives of West German foreign policy was the diplomatic isolation of East Germany. In 1958, journalists named this policy the Hallstein–Grewe Doctrine , which later became shortened to the Hallstein Doctrine . Grewe himself writes that he did devise the broad outlines of the policy, but mainly as one of
26622-410: The work of the commission. This has also increased the presidential style of the Commission president. With the reorganisation of leading EU posts under the Lisbon Treaty , there was some criticism of each post's vague responsibilities. Ukrainian ambassador to the EU Andriy Veselovsky praised the framework and clarified it in his own terms: The Commission president speaks as the EU's "government" while
26796-433: Was Director of the Institute for Comparative Law and Economic Law. In 1935, Hallstein attempted to start a military career alongside his academic duties. In 1936, he managed to integrate a voluntary military service in an artillery unit. In the years between 1936 and 1939, he attended several military courses and was made a reserve officer. Hallstein was a member of several nominally Nazi professional organizations, but he
26970-403: Was a reshuffling of responsibilities, but Hallstein retained the trust of Adenauer and continued to attend cabinet meetings. Herbert Blankenhorn , who until then been the head of the Political Department of the Foreign Office, became the German Permanent Representative to NATO in Paris; Wilhelm Grewe took over the Political Department under Hallstein and was made Hallstein's deputy. Hallstein
27144-421: Was appointed through a series of secret meetings between leaders with no press releases on the negotiations being released. This was sharply criticised by MEPs such as the ALDE group leader Graham Watson who described the procedure as a " Justus Lipsius carpet market" producing only the "lowest common denominator"; while Green-EFA co-leader Daniel Cohn-Bendit asked Barroso after his first speech "If you are
27318-407: Was chosen following a Franco-British disagreement over Claude Cheysson , Santer was a compromise after Britain vetoed Jean-Luc Dehaene , and Prodi was backed by a coalition of thirteen states against the Franco-German preference for Guy Verhofstadt . In February 2008, President Barroso admitted that despite the president having in theory as much legitimacy as heads of governments, in practice it
27492-406: Was criticism of a lack of information and consultation and an atmosphere of secrecy, possible resulting from Adenauer's distrust of the old hands at the Foreign Office, the Wilhelmstraße veterans, as well as the desire to fill top jobs with outsiders not tainted by having served as diplomats under the Nazis . There were suggestions of a disconnect between the leadership (consisting of Adenauer and
27666-413: Was established in 1958. Each new president is nominated by the European Council and elected by the European Parliament, for a five-year term. The president of the commission also delivers an annual State of the Union address to the European Parliament . In July 2019, the European Council nominated Ursula von der Leyen to succeed Jean-Claude Juncker , and she was elected the 13th president of
27840-449: Was forced by Parliament to make a change to his proposed Commission, but eventually received assent. However, in exchange for approval, Parliament forced some concessions from Barroso in terms of Parliamentary representation at Commission and international meetings. On 7 September 2010, Barroso gave the first US-style State of the Union address to Parliament, which focused primarily on the EU's economic recovery and human rights. The speech
28014-405: Was held from 1 to 3 June 1955 in the Italian city of Messina , Sicily , would lead to the signing of the Treaty of Rome in 1957. Shortly before the conference, Adenauer had given up his double post as Foreign Minister and, since Brentano had not yet been sworn in, Hallstein led the German delegation. The agenda included discussion of an action programme to relaunch European integration following
28188-513: Was involved in discussions with the French concerning the return of the coal-rich Saar to Germany. In October 1955 there was a referendum held to decide whether the Saar would remain separate from Germany or be re-integrated into Germany, following which it was agreed with France that there would be political integration into the Federal Republic of Germany by 1 January 1957 and economic integration by 1 January 1960. In September 1956, Hallstein announced that France had agreed to hand over control of
28362-586: Was its president from 1949 to 1950. Against the background of the Second World War , a conflict that had caused massive destruction and left the continent split in two by the Iron Curtain , there were calls for increased co-operation in Europe. The French foreign minister , Robert Schuman , put forward a plan, originating from Jean Monnet , for a European Coal and Steel Community that would unify control of German and French coal and steel production, and talks were started with this aim. Germany had still not regained its sovereignty following defeat in World War II, and
28536-425: Was little support from the other European countries, and negotiations were abandoned on 17 April 1962. While Hallstein had a decidedly federal vision for Europe, and regarded the commission as a quasi-federal organ, de Gaulle's vision was of a confederation . From the beginning, Hallstein did not believe that de Gaulle's approach of cooperation between sovereign nation states would be able to realize his vision of
28710-415: Was made head of the Office of Foreign Affairs ( Dienststelle für auswärtige Angelegenheiten ) at the Federal Chancellery ( Kanzleramt ). At this time, little was known about Hallstein, except that he had not been a member of the Nazi Party and that he was on good terms with US officials. Following a change in the Occupation Statute , the German Foreign Office was re-created in March 1951, but
28884-453: Was not a member of the Nazi Party or of the SA . He is reputed to have rejected Nazi ideology and to have kept his distance from the Nazis. There was opposition from Nazi officials to his proposed appointment, in 1941, as professor of law at the University of Frankfurt , but the academics pushed through his candidacy, and he soon advanced to become dean of the faculty. In 1942 Hallstein was called up; he served in an artillery regiment of
29058-463: Was not stated as an automatic response under the policy, but remained the ultima ratio . Members of the German government had different positions on European integration. Hallstein and his team at the Foreign Office advocated a federal solution with a form of "constitutional integration" broadly based on the European Coal and Steel Community , with the scope gradually increasing to include additional sectors, and with true parliamentary representation of
29232-444: Was not the case. The low voter turnout creates a problem for the president's legitimacy, with the lack of a "European political sphere", but analysts claim that if citizens were voting for a list of candidates for the post of President, turn out would be much higher than that seen in recent years. Under the Treaty of Lisbon the European Council has to take into account the results of the latest European elections and, furthermore,
29406-437: Was recruited to a diplomatic career , becoming the leading civil servant at the German Foreign Office , where he gave his name to the Hallstein Doctrine , West Germany 's policy of isolating East Germany diplomatically. A keen advocate of a federal Europe , Hallstein played a key role in West German foreign policy and then in European integration. He was one of the architects of the European Coal and Steel Community and
29580-411: Was represented internationally by the Allied High Commission . There was no German foreign office and, for a time, foreign affairs were dealt with by the Chancellery . Konrad Adenauer , the German Chancellor , called Hallstein to Bonn, at the suggestion of Wilhelm Röpke , and in June 1950 he appointed him to head the German delegation at the Schuman Plan negotiations in Paris, which were to lead to
29754-444: Was the inclusion of French overseas territories in any common market. Erhard strongly opposed this, partly because of the perceived danger of France involving the other member states in its colonial responsibilities. The Foreign Office shared these concerns to some extent but Hallstein and Carstens were willing to accept the French position, believing it would help gain support from the French National Assembly; Hallstein also accepted
29928-442: Was then forced to back down over his choice of Commissioners, owing to Parliament's threat that it would not approve his Commission. In 2009, the European People's Party (EPP) endorsed Barroso as its candidate for Commission president, and the EPP subsequently retained its position as largest party in that year's election. The Socialists responded by pledging to put forward a rival candidate at future elections. Once again, Barroso
30102-413: Was to be annual. Article 17 of the Treaty on European Union , as amended by the Treaty of Lisbon , lays out the procedure for appointing the president and their team. The European Council votes by reinforced qualified majority for a nominee for the post of President, taking account of the latest European elections . According to Article 238 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union,
30276-406: Was unanimously elected the first president of the Commission of the European Economic Community (now the European Commission ) in Brussels . He was elected on 7 January 1958, and he was to remain in the position until 1967. Hallstein's commission , which held its first meeting on 16 January 1958, comprised nine members (two each from France, Italy and Germany, one each from Luxembourg, Belgium and
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