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135-625: The weekdays and weekend are the complementary parts of the week devoted to labour and rest , respectively. The legal weekdays ( British English ), or workweek ( American English ), is the part of the seven-day week devoted to working. In most of the world, the workweek is from Monday to Friday and the weekend is Saturday and Sunday . A weekday or workday is any day of the working week. Other institutions often follow this pattern, such as places of education . The constituted weekend has varying definitions, based on determined calendar days, designated period of time, and/or regional definition of

270-439: A four-day workweek , the three Sabbaths derive from the culture's main religious tradition: Friday ( Muslim ), Saturday ( Jewish , Adventist ), and Sunday ( Christian ). The present-day concept of the relatively longer "week-end" first arose in the industrial north of Britain in the early 19th century and was originally a voluntary arrangement between factory owners and workers allowing Saturday afternoon off starting at 2 pm on

405-404: A 'planetary labour market' in some sectors. Labour is a measure of the work done by human beings. It is conventionally contrasted with other factors of production , such as land and capital . Some theories focus on human capital , or entrepreneurship , (which refers to the skills that workers possess and not necessarily the actual work that they produce). Labour is unique to study because it

540-990: A 2012 survey by Pew Research Center , about 1% of the Muslims in Azerbaijan , 5% in Albania , 9% in Uzbekistan , 10% in Kazakhstan , 19% in Russia and 22% in Kosovo said that they attend mosque once a week or more. This was largely due to the religious restriction of Islam under communist rule , and attendance levels have been rising rapidly since the fall of the Soviet Union. Mosque attendance rates in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan have seen precipitous increases over

675-461: A 48-hour workweek (8 hours × 6 days) running from Monday to Saturday, although it is uncommon in most industries to consistently work six full days per week. It is the custom in many industries and trades to work a half-day on Saturdays. Most public employees have a five-day workweek running from Monday to Friday, and many white-collar businesses use this schedule as well. Shops and retailers remain open on Saturday and Sunday in most large cities. Since

810-406: A 9/80 work schedule (80 hours over 9 days during a two-week period)—commonly 9-hour days Monday to Thursday, 8 hours on one Friday, and off the following Friday. Some government or corporate employees work a 10/40 schedule—10 hours per day over 4 days, usually with Fridays off. Jobs in healthcare, law enforcement, transportation, retail, and other service positions commonly require employees to work on

945-464: A Friday–Saturday or a Saturday–Sunday weekend to harmonize with international markets. A series of workweek reforms in the mid-to-late 2000s and early 2010s brought much of the Arab World in synchronization with the majority of countries around the world, in terms of working hours, the length of the workweek, and the days of the weekend. The International Labour Organization (ILO) currently defines

1080-401: A Monday to Friday working week, with lunch breaks usually from 12:15pm–2:45pm on Fridays to allow Muslims to perform their prayers. The states of Kedah , Kelantan , and Terengganu follow a Sunday to Thursday working week. In Johor , while a Friday-Saturday weekend is officially observed, many companies in the private sector observe a Saturday-Sunday weekend. Starting from 1 January 2025,

1215-511: A day. It remains common for construction workers, particularly house-builders, to work six days per week, though some efforts have been made to introduce five-day work weeks to attract younger workers. The working week is Monday to Friday; 8 hours per day, 40 hours in total per week. Some institutions, however, also work 4 hours on Saturdays. Large malls are open on Saturday and Sunday; many small shops close on Sunday. Most Malaysian states except Kedah , Kelantan , Terengganu , and Johor have

1350-723: A five-day work week. Despite the aforementioned official hours, and many employees still work overtime, and in the case of the financial, service and artist industry in particular, working 12-hour days on a chronic basis is still not uncommon. Most commercial establishments in the retail sector such as restaurants, shops and cinemas, as well as public venues such as museums and libraries are open on Saturdays, Sundays and most public holidays. For schools, lessons are not normally held on Saturdays, but students may be required to go to school on Saturdays for extra-curricular activities or make-up classes. The standard working week for most office jobs begins on Monday and ends on Saturday. The work schedule

1485-668: A five-day workweek, instead of the prevalent six days, without reducing employees' pay. Hours worked stabilized at about 49 per week during the 1920s, and during the Great Depression fell below 40. During the Depression, President Herbert Hoover called for a reduction in work hours in lieu of layoffs. Later, President Franklin Roosevelt signed the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 , which established

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1620-496: A five-day, 40-hour workweek for many workers. The proportion of people working very long weeks has since risen, and the full-time employment of women has increased dramatically. The New Economics Foundation has recommended moving to a 21-hour standard workweek to address problems with unemployment, high carbon emissions, low well-being, entrenched inequalities, overworking, family care, and the general lack of free time. The Center for Economic and Policy Research states that reducing

1755-521: A gradual and more general reduction of hours across industries", culminating in a nationwide 44-hour week in 1939. In Australia the working week begins on Monday and terminates on Friday. An eight-hour working day is the norm. Working three weekdays a fortnight, for example, would therefore be approximately twenty-four hours (including or excluding traditional breaks tallying up to two hours). Some people work overtime with extra pay on offer for those that do, especially for weekend work. Shops open seven days

1890-553: A half day on Saturdays. Shops, supermarkets and shopping centres are open seven days a week and on most public holidays. 'Foreign workers', for example domestic helpers and construction workers (typically from the Philippines and India, respectively), usually work 6 days per week, having Sunday as their only day off. South Korea In South Korea , the maximum working hours per week is 40 hours for employees but can be extended by at most 12 hours for overtime. In March 2023, there

2025-508: A high income or wage rate regardless of the marginal utility from increased consumption or specific economic goals. Muslim Sabbath In Islam , Friday prayer , or Congregational prayer ( Arabic : صَلَاة ٱلْجُمُعَة , romanized :  Ṣalāh al-Jumuʿa ) is a community prayer service held once a week on Fridays. All Muslim men are expected to participate at a mosque with certain exceptions due to distance and situation. Women and children can also participate but do not fall under

2160-413: A positive wage elasticity ). This positive relationship is increasing until point F, beyond which the income effect dominates the substitution effect and the individual starts to reduce the number of labour hours he supplies (point G) as wage increases; in other words, the wage elasticity is now negative. The direction of the slope may change more than once for some individuals, and the labour supply curve

2295-532: A previous proposal by the Nepali government, i.e. Load-shedding Reduction Work Plan 2069 BS , for a five working day plan for government offices as part of efforts to address the problem of load-shedding . The proposal has been discussed in the Administration Committee; it is not yet clear whether the plan includes private offices and educational institutions. In New Zealand , the working week

2430-648: A sermon were wrong and had lapsed (along with several other religious practices) until the return of their 12th Imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi . However, among others, Shiite modernist Muhammad ibn Muhammad Mahdi al-Khalisi (1890–1963) demanded that Shiites should more carefully observe Friday prayers in a step to bridge the gap with Sunnis . Later, the practice of communal Friday prayers was developed, and became standard there-afterwards, by Ruhollah Khomeini in Iran and later by Mohammad Mohammad Sadeq al-Sadr in Iraq. They justified

2565-554: A single employer and thus do not satisfy the perfect competition assumption of the neoclassical model above. The model of a monopsonistic labour market gives a lower quantity of employment and a lower equilibrium wage rate than does the competitive model. In many real-life situations, the assumption of perfect information is unrealistic. An employer does not necessarily know how hard workers are working or how productive they are. This provides an incentive for workers to shirk from providing their full effort, called moral hazard . Since it

2700-513: A six-day workweek and one-day weekend (6×1), which can be Friday only (in Djibouti , Iran , Somalia and Libya ), Saturday only (in Nepal ), or Sunday only (in seven countries). However, most countries have adopted a five-day workweek and two-day weekend (5×2), whose days differ according to religious tradition: Friday and Saturday (in 17 Muslim countries and Israel ); Saturday and Sunday (most of

2835-570: A time constraint, with respect to the choices of labour time and leisure time: This is shown in the graph below, which illustrates the trade-off between allocating time to leisure activities and allocating it to income-generating activities. The linear constraint indicates that every additional hour of leisure undertaken requires the loss of an hour of labour and thus of the fixed amount of goods that that labour's income could purchase. Individuals must choose how much time to allocate to leisure activities and how much to working . This allocation decision

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2970-468: A two-day Thursday-Friday weekend. These variations allow employers flexibility in choosing working hours so that the legal requirement of working for 44 hours per week is met. However, shopping places are usually open for business on Friday as well. In 2015, President Hasan Rouhani recognized Saturday as the sabbath for the country's very small Jewish minority , allowing Jewish adults to stay home from work and students to stay home from school. In Israel ,

3105-403: A variety of interesting effects. This is because the absolute value of the slope of the budget constraint is the wage rate. The point of optimisation (point A) reflects the equivalency between the wage rate and the marginal rate of substitution of leisure for income (the absolute value of the slope of the indifference curve). Because the marginal rate of substitution of leisure for income is also

3240-417: A week (including 56.0% of the population under 30 and 64.3% of men). The number of regular attendees is somewhat lower in the next largest Muslim-majority country, Pakistan , which has over 210 million Muslims making up over 95% of the population . The 2018 World Values Survey conducted there found that 46.1% of Pakistanis attended religious services at least once a week (including 47.0% of Pakistanis under

3375-400: A week but there are local municipal restrictions concerning trading hours. Banks trade from Monday to Friday, with some branches opening on Saturdays (and in some cases Sundays) in high demand areas. The Post Office (Australia Post) trades Monday to Friday as per retail shops but some retail post offices may trade on Saturdays and Sundays in some shopping centers. A notable exception to the above

3510-411: A week in most states with opening hours from 9am to 5:30 pm on weekdays, with some states having two "late night trading" nights on Thursday and Friday, when trading ceases at 9pm. Many supermarkets and low-end department stores remain open until midnight and some trade continually, without closing. Restaurants and cinemas can open at all hours, save for some public holidays. Bars generally trade seven days

3645-406: A week remains 45. As a general rule, Brazil adopts a 44-hour working week, which typically begins on Monday and ends on Friday, with a Saturday–Sunday weekend. Brazilian Law , however, also allows for shorter Monday-to-Friday working hours so employees can work on Saturdays or Sundays, as long as the weekly 44-hour limit is respected, and the employee gets at least one weekend day. This is usually

3780-458: A week. In general, Colombia has a 48-hour working week. Depending on the business, people work five days for a maximum of 8 hours per day, typically Monday to Friday, or six days for eight hours a day, Monday to Saturday. In 2021, the Government enacted a law that reduces the weekly working hours from 48 to 42, which will take effect gradually between 2023 and 2026. Mexico officially has

3915-490: A week. Almost all businesses are closed during Saturday, and most public services except for emergency services, including almost all public transport, are unavailable on Saturdays. However, some shops, restaurants, cafes, places of entertainment, and factories are open on Saturdays, and a few bus and share taxi lines are active. Employees who work Saturdays, particularly service industry workers, public sector workers, and pilots, are compensated with alternative days off. In 2014,

4050-679: A workweek exceeding 48 hours as excessive. A 2007 study by the ILO found that at least 614.2 million people around the world were working excessive hours. Actual workweek lengths have been falling in the developed world. In the United States, the workweek length reduced slowly from before the Civil War to the start of the 20th century. There was a rapid reduction between 1900 and 1920, especially between 1913 and 1919, when weekly hours fell by about eight percent. In 1926, Henry Ford standardized on

4185-588: Is Western Australia whereby retail establishments are restricted to trading between the hours of 11am-5pm on Sundays. In China , there is a five-day Monday–Friday working week, prior to which work on Saturday was standard. China began the two-day Saturday–Sunday weekend on May 1, 1995. Most government employees work 5 days a week (including officials and industrial management). Most manufacturing facilities operate on Saturdays as well. However, most shops, museums, cinemas, and commercial establishments open on Saturdays, Sundays, and holidays. Banks are also open throughout

Workweek and weekend - Misplaced Pages Continue

4320-411: Is 48 hours per week, Sunday being a rest day. However, most government offices and the software industry follow a five-day workweek from Monday to Friday. All major industries along with services like transport, hospitality, healthcare etc. work in shifts. Central government offices follow a five-day week. State governments follow half-day working on the first and third Saturdays of each month and rest on

4455-592: Is 7 hours, and 39 hours in total per week. Official work hours run from 08:30 am to 05:30pm with one hour for lunch from 12:30pm to 01:30pm. On Friday, lunch hour runs from 2:00 pm to 6:00 to allow Muslims to attend Friday prayers. Saturday and Sunday are public holidays. The private sector often follows different schedule with most of them often working on Saturdays. Despite being an Islamic country , Morocco does not follow workweek conventions implemented in many Middle Eastern countries. The standard workweek in Morocco

4590-459: Is Wajib Takhyiri (at the time of Occultation ), which means that there is an option to offer Jum'ah prayers, if its necessary, conditions are fulfilled, or to offer Zuhr prayers. Hence, if Salat al-Jum'ah is offered then it is not necessary to offer Zuhr prayer. It is also recommended by Shiite Scholars to attend Jum'ah as it will become Wajib after the appearance of Imam al-Mahdi and Jesus Christ (Isa). Shiite (Imamite) attach high significance to

4725-530: Is a derived demand; that is, hiring labour is not desired for its own sake but rather because it aids in producing output, which contributes to an employer's revenue and hence profits. The demand for an additional amount of labour depends on the Marginal Revenue Product (MRP) and the marginal cost (MC) of the worker. With a perfectly competitive goods market, the MRP is calculated by multiplying

4860-400: Is a special type of good that cannot be separated from the owner (i.e. the work cannot be separated from the person who does it). A labour market is also different from other markets in that workers are the suppliers and firms are the demanders. There are two sides to labour economics. Labour economics can generally be seen as the application of microeconomic or macroeconomic techniques to

4995-567: Is also the day of the week when the Day of Judgment will occur and the world will end. There is also a belief that Allah is more likely to forgive and bless on Fridays. It is also believed to be the day that Islam was revealed to be perfected. There is consensus among Muslims regarding the Friday prayer ( salat al-jum'ah ) being wajib – required – in accordance with the Quranic verse, as well as

5130-469: Is costly, and only those who excel in academia can succeed in becoming doctors. The port cleaner, however, requires relatively less training. The supply of doctors is therefore significantly less elastic than that of port cleaners. Demand is also inelastic as there is a high demand for doctors and medical care is a necessity, so the NHS will pay higher wage rates to attract the profession. Some labour markets have

5265-593: Is defined as the number of people of working age , who are either employed or actively looking for work (unemployed). The labour force participation rate ( LFPR ) is the number of people in the labour force divided by the size of the adult civilian noninstitutional population (or by the population of working age that is not institutionalized ), LFPR = LF/Population. The non-labour force includes those who are not looking for work, those who are institutionalized (such as in prisons or psychiatric wards), stay-at-home spouses, children not of working age, and those serving in

5400-558: Is different for different individuals. Other variables that affect the labour supply decision, and can be readily incorporated into the model, include taxation, welfare, work environment, and income as a signal of ability or social contribution. A firm's labour demand is based on its marginal physical product of labour (MPP L ). This is defined as the additional output (or physical product) that results from an increase of one unit of labour (or from an infinitesimal increase in labour). (See also Production theory basics .) Labour demand

5535-524: Is difficult for the employer to identify the hard-working and the shirking employees, there is no incentive to work hard and productivity falls overall, leading to the hiring of more workers and a lower unemployment rate. One solution that is used to avoid a moral hazard is stock options that grant employees the chance to benefit directly from a firm's success. However, this solution has attracted criticism as executives with large stock-option packages have been suspected of acting to over-inflate share values to

Workweek and weekend - Misplaced Pages Continue

5670-449: Is due to numerous factors including labour supply and demand shifts as well as institutional changes in the labour market. On the shifts in labour supply and demand, factors include demand for skilled workers going up more than the supply of skilled workers and relative to unskilled workers as well as technological changes that increase productivity; all of these things cause wages to go up for skilled labour while unskilled worker wages stay

5805-417: Is education, whereby employers assume that high-ability workers will have higher levels of education. Employers can then compensate high-ability workers with higher wages. However, signalling does not always work, and it may appear to an external observer that education has raised the marginal product of labour, without this necessarily being true. One of the major research achievements of the 1990–2010 period

5940-409: Is from Monday to Friday , with Saturday and Sunday being public holidays. In South Africa , the working week traditionally was Monday to Friday with a half-day on Saturday and Sunday a public holiday. However, since 2013 there have been changes to the working week concept based on more than one variation. The week can be five days of work, or more. The maximum number of hours someone can work in

6075-703: Is in effect here as a more religious youthful contingent replaced a less religious contingent that grew up under the Soviet Union. In the Middle East and North Africa, mosque attendance at least once a week ranges from 35% in Lebanon to 65% in Jordan . Sub-Saharan African Muslim communities tend to have a high rates of mosque attendance, and ranges from 65% in Senegal to nearly 100% in Ghana . In South Asia , home to

6210-427: Is informed by the indifference curve labelled IC 1 . The curve indicates the combinations of leisure and work that will give the individual a specific level of utility. The point where the highest indifference curve is just tangent to the constraint line (point A), illustrates the optimum for this supplier of labour services. If consumption is measured by the value of income obtained, this diagram can be used to show

6345-495: Is just one day each week, but the preceding day (the Jewish Sabbath) came to be taken as a holiday as well in the 20th century. This shift has been accompanied by a reduction in the total number of hours worked per week. The present-day concept of the "weekend" first arose in the industrial north of Britain in the early 19th century. A day off is a non-working day, not necessarily on weekends. Some countries have adopted

6480-468: Is not obligatory for old men, children, women, slaves, travellers, the sick, blind and disabled, as well as those who are outside the limit of two farsakhs . It is mentioned in the Quran : O you who have faith! When the call is made for prayer on Friday, hurry toward the remembrance of God, and leave all business. That is better for you, should you know. And when the prayer is finished, disperse through

6615-424: Is on "how firms establish, maintain, and end employment relationships and on how firms provide incentives to employees," including models and empirical work on incentive systems and as constrained by economic efficiency and risk/incentive tradeoffs relating to personnel compensation. Inequality and discrimination in the workplace can have many effects on workers. In the context of labour economics, inequality

6750-442: Is shown by the shift from point A to point B. The relative magnitude of the two effects depends on the circumstances. In some cases, such as the one shown, the substitution effect is greater than the income effect (in which case more time will be allocated to working), but in other cases, the income effect will be greater than the substitution effect (in which case less time is allocated to working). The intuition behind this latter case

6885-400: Is that the individual decides that the higher earnings on the previous amount of labour can be "spent" by purchasing more leisure. If the substitution effect is greater than the income effect, an individual's supply of labour services will increase as the wage rate rises, which is represented by a positive slope in the labour supply curve (as at point E in the adjacent diagram, which exhibits

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7020-533: Is the " day of rest and worship ". The Jewish Shabbat or Biblical Sabbath lasts from sunset on Friday to the fall of full darkness on Saturday; as a result, the weekend in Israel is observed on Friday–Saturday. Some Muslim-majority countries historically instituted a Thursday–Friday weekend. Today, many of these countries, in the interests of furthering business trade and cooperation, have shifted to Friday–Saturday or Saturday–Sunday. The Christian day of worship

7155-538: Is typically Monday to Friday 8:30 to 17:00, but it is not uncommon for many industries (especially construction) to work a half day on Saturday, normally from 8:00 or 9:00 to about 13:00. Supermarkets, malls, independent retailers, and increasingly, banks, remain open seven days a week. In the Philippines , Article 91 of the Labor Code requires at least one rest day for workers in a week; the choice of selecting

7290-722: Is used as a method to attain cost efficiency. Variables like employment level, unemployment level, labour force, and unfilled vacancies are called stock variables because they measure a quantity at a point in time. They can be contrasted with flow variables which measure a quantity over a duration of time. Changes in the labour force are due to flow variables such as natural population growth, net immigration, new entrants, and retirements . Changes in unemployment depend on inflows (non-employed people starting to look for jobs and employed people who lose their jobs that are looking for new ones) and outflows (people who find new employment and people who stop looking for employment). When looking at

7425-526: Is usually referring to the unequal distribution of earning between households. Inequality is commonly measured by economists using the Gini coefficient . This coefficient does not have a concrete meaning but is more used as a way to compare inequality across regions. The higher the Gini coefficient is calculated to be the larger inequality exists in a region. Over time, inequality has, on average, been increasing. This

7560-540: The Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America was the first union to demand and receive a five-day workweek. The rest of the United States slowly followed, but it was not until 1940, when a provision of the 1938 Fair Labor Standards Act mandating a maximum 40-hour workweek went into effect, that the two-day weekend was adopted nationwide. Over the succeeding decades, particularly in the 1940s to 1960s, an increasing number of countries adopted either

7695-614: The Nepal Sambat (NS) calendar, which has the resting day on Saturdays and the working days of the week on Sundays to Fridays. Workweek starts on Sunday and ends on Friday. Schools in Nepal are off on Saturdays, so it is common for pupils to go to school from Sunday to Friday. In November 2012, the home ministry proposed a two-day holiday per week plan for all government offices except at those providing essential services like electricity, water, and telecommunications. This proposal followed

7830-483: The price of the end product or service by the Marginal Physical Product of the worker. If the MRP is greater than a firm's Marginal Cost, then the firm will employ the worker since doing so will increase profit . The firm only employs however up to the point where MRP=MC, and not beyond, in neoclassical economic theory. The MRP of the worker is affected by other inputs to production with which

7965-651: The Friday prayer was given by Allah before hijrah, but the people were unable to congregate and perform it. The Prophet wrote a note to Mus'ab ibn Umayr , who represented the Prophet in Madinah to pray two raka'at in congregation on Friday (that is, Jumu'ah). Then, after the migration of the Prophet to Medina, the Jumu'ah was held by him. For Shiites, historically, their clergy discouraged Shiites from attending Friday prayers. According to them, communal Friday prayers with

8100-473: The Gregorian or Chinese calendar, rather than a particular Monday or Friday as is the norm in some other countries. As a result, it is rare that a public holiday would naturally create a long weekend . As a result, around the time of public holidays, the government often shifts weekend rest days into weekdays to create longer continuous periods of rest. Swapped weekends are common between the actual holiday and

8235-597: The World Values Survey reported that 33.8% of Turks attended (including 29.0% of those under 30 and 56.4% of men). This shows that even though both countries have relatively low religious attendance, religiosity is stronger in Turkey than in Iran, especially among the youth. In several countries, such as in Central Asia and Balkans , self-reported Muslims practice the religion at low levels. According to

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8370-406: The ability to create a higher derivative efficiency of labour, especially on a national and international level, compared to simpler forms of labour distribution, leading to a higher financial GDP growth and output. An efficient labour market is important for the private sector as it drives up derivative income through the reduction of relative costs of labour. This presupposes that division of labour

8505-485: The age of 30 and 52.7% of men). However, this was a large increase from the same survey conducted in 2012, where it was reported that only 28.9% of Pakistanis attended religious services at least once a week (including 21.5% of Pakistanis under the age of 30 and 31.4% of men). This is a testament to increasing religiosity in Pakistan, especially among the youth, who have gone from attending jumuah at rates far below that of

8640-432: The aggregate demand for labour. Likewise, the supply curves of all the individual workers (mentioned above) can be summed to obtain the aggregate supply of labour. These supply and demand curves can be analysed in the same way as any other industry demand and supply curves to determine equilibrium wage and employment levels. Wage differences exist, particularly in mixed and fully/partly flexible labour markets. For example,

8775-555: The average workweek was 45.8 hours for men and 37.1 hours for women. The standard business office working week in Japan begins on Monday and ends on Friday, 40 hours per week. This system became common between 1980 and 2000. Before then, most workers in Japan worked full-time from Monday to Friday and a half day on Saturday, 45 to 48 hours per week. Public schools and facilities (excluding city offices) are generally open on Saturdays for half

8910-837: The basis that staff would be available for work sober and refreshed on Monday morning. The Oxford English Dictionary traces the first use of the term "weekend" to the British magazine Notes and Queries in 1879. In 1908, the first five-day workweek in the United States was instituted by a New England cotton mill so that Jewish workers would not have to work on the Sabbath from sundown Friday to sundown Saturday. In 1926, Henry Ford began shutting down his automotive factories for all of Saturday and Sunday, realizing that by giving workers more time off it would encourage more leisure activities such as vacations and shopping. In 1929,

9045-581: The case for malls, supermarkets and shops. The law also grants labor unions the right to negotiate different work weeks, within certain limits, which then become binding for that union's labor category. Overtime is allowed, limited to two extra hours a day, with an increase in pay. The working week in Chile averages 45 hours, most often worked on a Monday–Friday schedule, but is not uncommon to work on Saturdays. Retail businesses mostly operate Monday through Saturday, with larger establishments being open seven days

9180-410: The cost of hiring a non-minority worker, which causes less hiring of the minority. Another taste model is for employee discrimination, which does not cause a decline in the hiring of minorities, but instead causes a more segregated workforce because the prejudiced worker feels that they should be paid more to work next to the worker they are prejudiced against or that they are not paid an equal amount as

9315-541: The countries); or Friday and Sunday (in Brunei Darussalam , Aceh province (Indonesia) and state of Sarawak (Malaysia), with the previous evening post-work often considered part of the weekend. Proposals continue to be put forward to reduce the number of days or hours worked per week, such as the four-day workweek , on the basis of predicted social and economic benefits. A continuous seven day cycle that runs throughout history, paying no attention whatsoever to

9450-517: The country, according to the World Values Survey conducted in the country in 2018, 62.0% of Indonesians attend religious services at least once a week (including 54.0% of the population under the age of 30 and 66.1% of men). Most of these presumably would fall under the category of attending jumuah prayers. These numbers are stable from the same survey conducted in 2006, where 64.5% of Indonesians attended religious services at least once

9585-477: The decision of how many hours to work, one must look at the income effect and substitution effect . The wage increase shown in the previous diagram can be decomposed into two separate effects. The pure income effect is shown as the movement from point A to point C in the next diagram. Consumption increases from Y A to Y C and – since the diagram assumes that leisure is a normal good – leisure time increases from X A to X C . (Employment time decreases by

9720-447: The degree of capital mobility within and between countries. According to neoclassical theory, over the relevant range of outputs, the marginal physical product of labour is declining (law of diminishing returns). That is, as more and more units of labour are employed, their additional output begins to decline. Additionally, although the MRP is a good way of expressing an employer's demand, other factors such as social group formation can

9855-480: The demand, as well as the labour supply. This constantly restructures exactly what a labour market is, and leads way to cause problems for theories of inflation. The marginal revenue product of labour can be used as the demand for labour curve for this firm in the short run. In competitive markets , a firm faces a perfectly elastic supply of labour which corresponds with the wage rate and the marginal resource cost of labour (W = S L = MFC L ). In imperfect markets,

9990-429: The demanders of labour services (employers), and attempts to understand the resulting pattern of wages, employment, and income. These patterns exist because each individual in the market is presumed to make rational choices based on the information that they know regarding wage, desire to provide labour, and desire for leisure. Labour markets are normally geographically bounded, but the rise of the internet has brought about

10125-471: The detriment of the long-run welfare of the firm. Another solution, foreshadowed by the rise of temporary workers in Japan and the firing of many of these workers in response to the financial crisis of 2008, is more flexible job- contracts and -terms that encourage employees to work less than full-time by partially compensating for the loss of hours, relying on workers to adapt their working time in response to job requirements and economic conditions instead of

10260-412: The diagram would have to be adjusted because MFC L would then be equal to the wage rate divided by marginal costs. Because optimum resource allocation requires that marginal factor costs equal marginal revenue product, this firm would demand L units of labour as shown in the diagram. The demand for labour of this firm can be summed with the demand for labour of all other firms in the economy to obtain

10395-400: The difference in wages that occurs because of differences in skills versus the returns to those skills. A way of modelling discrimination in the workplace when dealing with wages are Gary Becker 's taste models. Using taste models, employer discrimination can be thought of as the employer not hiring the minority worker because of their perceived cost of hiring that worker is higher than that of

10530-604: The early to mid-20th century the working week in the United States traditionally begins on Monday and ends on Friday, 40 hours per week, with Saturday and Sunday being weekend days. However, in practice, only 42% of employees work 40-hour weeks. The average workweek for full-time employees is 47 hours. Retail stores and restaurants are generally also open for business on Saturday and often on Sunday as well, except in some places where prohibited by law (see Blue law ). Increasingly, employers are offering compressed work schedules to employees. Some government and corporate employees now work

10665-411: The employer trying to determine how much work is needed to complete a given task and overestimating. Another aspect of uncertainty results from the firm's imperfect knowledge about worker ability. If a firm is unsure about a worker's ability, it pays a wage assuming that the worker's ability is the average of similar workers. This wage under compensates high-ability workers which may drive them away from

10800-521: The first rak'at and Surah al-Munafiqun in the second rak'at, after Surah al-Hamd . Although Friday is not a sabbath in Islam it is recognized as a superior and holy day. According to the Islamic scholar Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya there are 32 reasons that Friday is special. Some of the reasons include a belief that Friday was the day when Adam was created, entered into, and expelled from Jannah . It

10935-431: The following is a general outline of the steps of the prayer cycle. According to Shi'ite doctrine, two qunut (raising one's hands for supplication during salat) is especially recommended during salatul Jum'ah. The first Qunut is offered in the 1st rak'at before ruku' and the second is offered in the 2nd rak'at after rising from ruku'. According to Shiite doctrine, it is advisable (Sunnat) to recite Surah al-Jum'ah in

11070-468: The full reward of fasting all the days of a year and observing night-vigil on each of its nights for every step that he took towards the mosque." [Ibn Khuzaymah, Ahmad]. There are many hadiths reported on the significance of Jum'ah. The Muhammad has been reported saying: The Jum'ah prayer is half the Zuhr (dhuhr) prayer, for convenience, preceded by a khutbah (a sermon as a technical replacement of

11205-423: The hours available to them. Let w denote the hourly wage, k denote total hours available for labour and leisure, L denote the chosen number of working hours, π denote income from non-labour sources, and A denote leisure hours chosen. The individual's problem is to maximise utility U , which depends on total income available for spending on consumption and also depends on the time spent in leisure, subject to

11340-415: The introduction of a three-day workweek. The arguments for its introduction include a better work-life balance, more family time, improved health and well-being, greater sustainability (such as via reduced carbon emissions), increased work productivity, and a reduction of overwork, unemployment and over-consumption. The official government working week is Monday to Friday; 8 hours per day, except Friday which

11475-435: The khaṭīb takes his place on the minbar , a second adhan is made. The khaṭīb is supposed to deliver two sermons, stopping and sitting briefly between them. In practice, the first sermon is longer and contains most of the content. The second sermon is very brief and concludes with a dua , after which the muezzin calls the iqāmah . This signals the start of the main two rak'at prayer of Jum'ah. In Shia Islam, Salat al-Jum'ah

11610-418: The labour market as well as at the same time attracting low-ability workers. Such a phenomenon, called adverse selection , can sometimes lead to market collapse. One way to combat adverse selection, firms will try to use signalling , pioneered by Michael Spence , whereby employers could use various characteristics of applicants differentiate between high-ability or low-ability workers. One common signal used

11745-436: The labour market may act as a non-clearing market . While according to neoclassical theory most markets quickly attain a point of equilibrium without excess supply or demand, this may not be true of the labour market: it may have a persistent level of unemployment. Contrasting the labour market to other markets also reveals persistent compensating differentials among similar workers. Models that assume perfect competition in

11880-427: The labour market, as discussed below, conclude that workers earn their marginal product of labour. Households are suppliers of labour. In microeconomic theory, people are assumed to be rational and seeking to maximize their utility function . In the labour market model, their utility function expresses trade-offs in preference between leisure time and income from time used for labour. However, they are constrained by

12015-402: The labour market. Many sociologists, political economists, and heterodox economists claim that labour economics tends to lose sight of the complexity of individual employment decisions. These decisions, particularly on the supply side, are often loaded with considerable emotional baggage and a purely numerical analysis can miss important dimensions of the process, such as social benefits of

12150-474: The labour market. Microeconomic techniques study the role of individuals and individual firms in the labour market. Macroeconomic techniques look at the interrelations between the labour market, the goods market, the money market, and the foreign trade market. It looks at how these interactions influence macro variables such as employment levels, participation rates, aggregate income and gross domestic product . The labour market in macroeconomic theory shows that

12285-465: The land and seek God's grace, and remember God greatly so that you may be successful. Narrated Abu Huraira : Muhammad said, "On every Friday the angels take their stand at every gate of the mosques to write the names of the people chronologically (i.e. according to the time of their arrival for the Friday prayer) and when the Imam sits (on the pulpit) they fold up their scrolls and get ready to listen to

12420-570: The largest Muslim communities in the world, mosque attendance at least once a week ranges from 53% in Bangladesh to 61% in Afghanistan . Surveys conducted in 1994 and in 1996 observed a decrease in religiosity among Muslims in Belgium based on lowering mosque participation, less frequent prayer, dropping importance attached to a religious education, etc. This decrease in religiosity

12555-514: The last decade. According to the World Values Survey, weekly attendance in Kazakhstan went from 9.0% in 2011 (including 8.7% among those under 30 and 9.6% among men) to 15.3% in 2018 (including 14.6% of those under 30 and 17.1% among men), while weekly attendance in Tajikistan climbed from 29.3% in 2011 (including 35.1% of those under 30 and 58.1% of men) to 33.2% in 2020 (including 35.1% of those under 30 and 58.1% of men). Generational replacement

12690-555: The length of the work week would slow climate change and have other environmental benefits. A study from the University of Massachusetts concluded that a full day taken off of the workweek would cut humanity's carbon footprint by nearly 30%. In the 21st century, those such as Anna Coote, the head of social policy at the New Economics Foundation and British sociologist Peter Fleming, among others, have proposed

12825-557: The majority of Shiite and Sunni doctrine, the sermon must contain praise and glorification of Allah , invoke blessings on Muhammad and his progeny, and have a short quotation from the Quran in Arabic called a surah . It must also give the participants a sense of taqwa , admonition and exhortation. Juum'ah prayer consists of two rak'ats or prayer segments. Shia and Sunni sects of Islam prescribe slight differences in this pattern but

12960-470: The many traditions narrated both by Shi'i and Sunni sources. According to the majority of Sunni schools and some Shiite jurists, Friday prayer is a religious obligation, but their differences were based on whether its obligation is conditional to the presence of the ruler or his deputy in it or if it is wajib unconditionally. The Hanafis and the Twelver Imamis believe that the presence of

13095-452: The military. The unemployment level is defined as the labour force minus the number of people currently employed. The unemployment rate is defined as the level of unemployment divided by the labour force. The employment rate is defined as the number of people currently employed divided by the adult population (or by the population of working age). In these statistics , self-employed people are counted as employed. The labour market has

13230-512: The mosque all worshippers participate in a practice called wudu — a ritual washing. Participants wash their face first, then their arms, then wipe their head, then wash or wipe their feet, in this order according to certain rules prescribed by Islamic law . A Muezzin will recite a specific chant called an Adhan to call the congregation to the mosque, then to line up to begin the service. The imam will then get up and recite The Sermon for Necessities . The first call summons Muslims to enter

13365-454: The mosque and then a second call, known as the iqama , summons those already in the mosque to line up for prayer. The Imam will then get up and give a sermon called a Khutbah and recite prayer and scripture from the Quran in Arabic . The sermon is given in the local language and Arabic or completely in Arabic depending on the context. The imam performs the following: According to

13500-450: The net of exports minus imports (X−M), since AE = C + I + G + (X−M). Neoclassical economists view the labour market as similar to other markets in that the forces of supply and demand jointly determine the price (in this case the wage rate) and quantity (in this case the number of people employed). However, the labour market differs from other markets (like the markets for goods or the financial market) in several ways. In particular,

13635-506: The number of Egyptians attended at least once a week had risen to 57.0% (including 52.9% of those under 30 and 89.4% of men). However, different patterns are found in the non-Arab Middle Eastern countries of Iran and Turkey . In these two countries, jumuah attendance is among the lowest in the world. The 2005 World Values Survey in Iran found 33.8% of the population attending (including 27.3% of Iranians under 30 and 38.9% of Iranian men). By 2020, all these numbers had fallen, as only 26.1% of

13770-423: The office on Monday. In Hong Kong , a typical working week for local enterprises begins on 9am on Monday and ends at 1pm on Saturday, although most employees have alternate Saturdays off. After the introduction of the five-day working week for the majority of government departments in 2006, most multinational enterprises and large local companies followed suit, extended the working day from 9am to 5pm so as to adopt

13905-418: The overall macroeconomy, several types of unemployment have been identified, which can be separated into two categories of natural and unnatural unemployment. Natural Unemployment Unnatural Unemployment Aggregate expenditure (AE) can be increased, according to Keynes, by increasing consumption spending (C), increasing investment spending (I), increasing government spending (G), or increasing

14040-603: The phases of the moon and having a fixed day of rest, was most likely first practised in Judaism , dated to the 6th century BC at the latest. In Ancient Rome (753 BC–476 AD), every eight days there was a nundinae . It was a market day, during which children were exempted from school and agricultural workers stopped work in the field and came to the city to sell the produce of their labor or to practice religious rites. The French Revolutionary Calendar (1793–1805) had ten-day weeks (called décades ) and allowed décadi , one out of

14175-454: The population attended at least once a week (including 19.1% of Iranians under 30 and 29.3% of men). In Turkey, the 2012 World Values Survey found 33.2% of the population attending (including 28.6% of Turks under 30 and 54.0% of men). Similarly, According to a 2012 survey by Pew Research Center , 19% of Turkish Muslims say that they attend Friday prayer once a week and 23% say they never visit their local mosque. However, six years later in 2018,

14310-895: The practice under the newly promoted Guardianship of the Islamic Jurists doctrine. When al-Sadr installed Friday prayer imams in Shia-majority areas—a practice not traditional in Iraqi Shiism and considered "revolutionary, if not heretical" —it put him at odds with the Shia religious establishment in Najaf . Under both Khomeini and al-Sadr, political sermons would be heard. The world's largest Muslim population can be found in Indonesia , where over 240 million Muslims live making up nearly 90% of Indonesia's total population . In

14445-424: The presence of a just ruler or his representative or Faqih and in the absence of a just ruler or his representative and a just faqih, there exists an option between performing either the Friday or the zuhr prayer, although preference lies with the performance of Friday prayer. According to the history of Islam and the report from Abdullah bn 'Abbas narrated from the Prophet saying that: the permission to perform

14580-549: The previous week. The weekend-shifting arrangements are ad hoc from year to year and are announced by the government towards the end of each year for the next year. A number of provinces and municipalities across China, including Hebei, Jiangxi and Chongqing, have issued new policies, calling on companies to create 2.5-day weekends. Under the plan, government institutions, state-owned companies, joint-ventures and privately held companies are to be given incentives to allow their workers to take off at noon on Friday before coming back to

14715-409: The productivity of the worker. Many regions and countries have enacted government policies to combat discrimination, including discrimination in the workplace. Discrimination can be modelled and measured in numerous ways. The Oaxaca decomposition is a common method used to calculate the amount of discrimination that exists when wages differ between groups of people. This decomposition aims to calculate

14850-448: The ratio of the marginal utility of leisure (MU ) to the marginal utility of income (MU ), one can conclude: where Y is total income and the right side is the wage rate. If the wage rate increases, this individual's constraint line pivots up from X,Y 1 to X,Y 2 . He/she can now purchase more goods and services. His/her utility will increase from point A on IC 1 to point B on IC 2 . To understand what effect this might have on

14985-427: The rest day is left to the employer, subject to collective bargaining . Most workers avail of Sunday as their mandated rest day. However, government offices, banks, and many non-service industry establishments maintain a five-day (Monday to Friday) work week. In Singapore the common working week is 5-day work week, which runs from Monday to Friday beginning 8:30 a.m. and end at 5 p.m. – 6 p.m. Some companies work

15120-463: The ruler or his deputy is necessary; the Friday prayer is not obligatory if neither of them is present. The Imamis require the ruler to be just (' adil ); otherwise his presence is equal to his absence. To the Hanafis, his presence is sufficient even if he is not just. The Shafi'is , Malikis and Hanbalis attach no significance to the presence of the ruler. Moreover, it has been stated that Jum'ah

15255-456: The same amount as leisure increases.) But that is only part of the picture. As the wage rate rises, the worker will substitute away from leisure and into the provision of labour—that is, will work more hours to take advantage of the higher wage rate, or in other words substitute away from leisure because of its higher opportunity cost . This substitution effect is represented by the shift from point C to point B. The net impact of these two effects

15390-610: The same obligation that men do. The service consists of several parts including ritual washing, chants, recitation of scripture and prayer, and sermons. Youm Jumu'ah ("day of congregation"), or simply Jumu'ah means Friday in Arabic . In many Muslim countries , the weekend is inclusive of Fridays, and in others, Fridays are half-days for schools and some workplaces. It is one of the most exalted Islamic rituals and one of its confirmed obligatory acts. The service consists of several parts including ritual washing, chants, recitation of scripture and prayer, and sermons. When entering

15525-477: The same or decline. As for the institutional changes, a decrease in union power and a declining real minimum wage, which both reduce unskilled workers wages, and tax cuts for the wealthy all increase the inequality gap between groups of earners. As for discrimination, it is the difference in pay that can be attributed to the demographic differences between people, such as gender, race, ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation, etc, even though these factors do not affect

15660-787: The second and fourth Saturdays, except West Bengal, Rajasthan, Bihar, Punjab, Delhi, Tamil Nadu, and Maharashtra government which follows a Monday–Friday workweek. There is usually no half working day in the private sector, and people work in two or three shifts of 8 hours each. Most schools follow a six-day workweek from Monday to Saturday with the second and fourth Saturdays off. Banks have second and fourth Saturdays off as well in India effective from 1 September 2015. The standard working week in Iran begins on Saturday and ends on Thursday. Thursdays are usually half-day working days. Many private enterprises which operate on an 8 to 5 basis take Thursdays off for

15795-467: The sermon." Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj an-Naysaburi relates that Muhammad used to read Surah 87 ( Al-Ala ) and Surah 88, ( Al-Ghashiya ), in Eid Prayers and also in Friday prayers. If one of the festivals fell on a Friday, Muhammad would have made sure to read these two Surahs in the prayers. Muhammad is quoted as saying "The best day the sun rises over is Friday; on it Allah created Adam . On it, he

15930-517: The standard workweek is 42 hours as prescribed by law. The typical workweek is five days, Sunday to Thursday, with 8.4 hours a day as the standard, with anything beyond that considered overtime. A minority of jobs operate on a partial six-day Sunday–Friday workweek. Many Israelis work overtime hours, with a maximum of 12 overtime hours a week permitted by law. Most offices and businesses run on a five-day week, though many stores, post offices, banks, and schools are open and public transportation runs six days

16065-484: The state will revert to officially observing a Saturday-Sunday weekend, bringing it in line with most of the other states as well as neighbouring Singapore . Mongolia has a Monday to Friday working week, with a normal maximum time of 40 hours. Most shops are also open on weekends, many large retail chains having full opening hours even on Sunday. Private enterprises conduct business from 9:00 to 18:00, and government institutions may have full working hours. Nepal follows

16200-452: The supply of labour exceeds demand, which has been proven by salary growth that lags productivity growth. When labour supply exceeds demand, salary faces downward pressure due to an employer's ability to pick from a labour pool that exceeds the jobs pool. However, if the demand for labour is larger than the supply, salary increases, as employee have more bargaining power while employers have to compete for scarce labour. The Labour force (LF)

16335-487: The survey found that the number had dropped to 44.4% (including 41.3% of those under 30 and 48.8% of men). Meanwhile, in the Arab country of Egypt , jumuah attendance has risen massively in recent years. The 2012 World Values Survey found that 45.2% of Egyptians attended at least once a week (including 44.9% of Egyptians under the age of 30 and 60.1% of Egyptian men), but six years later the 2018 World Values Survey found that

16470-510: The ten days, as a leisure day. From 1929 to 1940, the Soviet Union utilized a calendar with five and six-day work weeks, with a rest day assigned to a worker either with a colour or number. During the Han dynasty of imperial China , officials had a day off once every 5 days known as hsui-mu （休沐） . This rest day was known as "a day for rest and for washing one's hair". In cultures with

16605-523: The total population to attending at rates higher than the total population. A different pattern is seen in the Muslim-majority country of Bangladesh (which has over 150 million Muslims making up over 90% of the population ). There the 2002 World Values Survey found that 56.1% of Bangladeshis attended religious services at least once a week (including 50.6% of Bangladeshis below the age of 30 and 61.7% of men), whereas sixteen years later in 2018,

16740-409: The two reduced rakaʿāt of the ordinary Zuhr (dhuhr) prayer), and followed by a congregational prayer, led by the imām . In most cases the khaṭīb also serves as the imam. Attendance is strictly incumbent upon all adult males who are legal residents of the locality. The muezzin (muʾadhdhin) makes the call to prayer, called the adhan , usually 15–20 minutes prior to the start of Jum'ah. When

16875-451: The wages of a doctor and a port cleaner, both employed by the NHS , differ greatly. There are various factors concerning this phenomenon. This includes the MRP of the worker. A doctor's MRP is far greater than that of the port cleaner. In addition, the barriers to becoming a doctor are far greater than that of becoming a port cleaner. To become a doctor takes a lot of education and training which

17010-605: The weekend and on most public holidays. In primary and secondary schools, before 1995, schools generally timetabled classes from Mondays to Saturdays, although in the 1990s some schools began to shift to a half-day on Saturday, or alternating between five- and six-day weeks. A government-mandated shift from 6-day (or 5 and a half day) weeks to 5-day weeks as standard took effect on 1 September 1995, although some high schools continue to have non-standard timetabling practices to this day. Public holidays in China are all set on fixed days of

17145-551: The weekend or to do shift work . A five-day, 40-hour week was introduced nationally from 1 January 1948 following a ruling of the Commonwealth Court of Conciliation and Arbitration . A 44-hour week, usually taken as a half-day on Saturday, had been applied for some industries from 1927 following a ruling by the court in a case brought by the Amalgamated Engineering Union . The ruling "led to

17280-455: The weekend, so three-day or seven-day holiday periods are created. The nearby Saturday or Sunday may be changed to a normal working day. For example, if the actual holiday falls on a Tuesday, the Monday may be swapped as a holiday, and citizens are required to work on the previous Saturday instead, creating a three-day long weekend (Sunday to Tuesday) but a six-day work week (Monday to Saturday) in

17415-507: The worker can work (e.g. machinery), often aggregated under the term " capital ". It is typical in economic models for greater availability of capital for a firm to increase the MRP of the worker, all else equal. Education and training are counted as " human capital ". Since the amount of physical capital affects MRP, and since financial capital flows can affect the amount of physical capital available, MRP and thus wages can be affected by financial capital flows within and between countries, and

17550-473: The worker they are prejudiced against. One more taste model involves customer discrimination, whereby the employers themselves are not prejudiced but believe that their customers might be, so therefore the employer is less likely to hire the minority worker if they are going to interact with customers that are prejudiced. There are many other taste models other than these that Gary Becker has made to explain discrimination that causes differences in hiring in wages in

17685-409: The working week (e.g., commencing after 5:00 p.m. on Friday and lasting until 6:00 p.m. on Sunday). Sometimes the term "weekend" is expanded to include the time after work hours on the last workday of the week. Weekdays and workdays can be further detailed in terms of working time , the period of time that an individual spends at paid occupational labor. In many Christian traditions, Sunday

17820-400: Was a proposal to increase the workweek to 69 hours but was overturned. In Thailand the working week is Monday to Friday for a maximum of 44 to 48 hours per week (Saturday can be a half or full day). Labour (economics) Labour markets or job markets function through the interaction of workers and employers. Labour economics looks at the suppliers of labour services (workers) and

17955-532: Was made to enter paradise , on it he was expelled from it, and the Last Hour will take place on no other day than Friday." [Ahmad and at-Tirmithi]. Aws ibn Aws, narrated that Muhammad said: "Whoever performs Ghusl on Friday and causes (his wife) to do ghusl, then goes early to the mosque and attends from the beginning of the Khutbah and draws near to the Imam and listens to him attentively, Allah will give him

18090-701: Was more visible in younger Muslims. A study published in 2006, found that 35% of the Muslim youth in Germany attend religious services regularly. In 2009, 24% of Muslims in the Netherlands said they attended mosque once a week according to a survey. According to a survey published in 2010, 20% of the French Muslims claimed to go regularly to the mosque for the Friday service. Data from 2017 shows that American Muslim women and American Muslim men attend

18225-570: Was the development of a framework with dynamic search , matching, and bargaining. At the micro level, one sub-discipline eliciting increased attention in recent decades is analysis of internal labour markets , that is, within firms (or other organisations), studied in personnel economics from the perspective of personnel management . By contrast, external labour markets "imply that workers move somewhat fluidly between firms and wages are determined by some aggregate process where firms do not have significant discretion over wage setting." The focus

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