63-585: Surviving Destroyed or barely existing Adyghe ( / ˈ æ d ɪ ɡ eɪ / or / ˌ ɑː d ɪ ˈ ɡ eɪ / ; also known as West Circassian ) is a Northwest Caucasian language spoken by the western subgroups of Circassians . It is spoken mainly in Russia , as well as in Turkey , Jordan , Syria and Israel , where Circassians settled after the Circassian genocide ( c. 1864 –1870) by
126-995: A basic subject–object–verb typology and is characterised by the ergative construction of sentences. The official alphabet for Adyghe is the Cyrillic script , which has been used since 1936. Before that, the Arabic script was used. A new Latin alphabet based on the Turkish alphabet is designed in Turkey with the motivation to make Adyghe and Kabardian education in Turkey easier. The vowels are written ⟨ы⟩ [ə] , ⟨э⟩ [ɐ] and ⟨а⟩ [aː] . Other letters represent diphthongs : ⟨я⟩ represents [jaː] , ⟨и⟩ [jə] or [əj] , ⟨о⟩ [wɐ] or [ɐw] , ⟨у⟩ represent [wə] or [əw] , and ⟨е⟩ represents [jɐ] or [ɐj] . The language of Adyghe
189-545: A call for the Circassian people for the creation of a standard Latin script to be used by all Circassian people on the globe. Their main motivation for the creation of this alphabet was that the majority of Circassian people live in Turkey and use the Latin alphabet in their daily life because they know Turkish. However, when trying to teach the language to the younger generation, teaching them a new alphabet takes time and makes
252-631: A few consonants as well. Below table shows the Adyghe Arabic alphabet as it was officially adopted between 1918 and 1927. The Adyghe orthography was officially switched to the Latin alphabet in 1927. The Adyghe Latin alphabet was compiled and finalized a year prior, in 1926. This alphabet was the sole official script in the Soviet Union . The Adyghe Latin alphabet consisted of 50 letters, many of them newly created, some even borrowed from Cyrillic. Another interesting feature of this iteration of
315-845: A primer was published in Yekaterinodar . This official endorsement resulted in a literary boom in Adyghe and the publication of various newspapers, textbooks and other literature, including the Adyghe Maq , the main Adyghe language newspaper established in 1923. During the abovementioned decades, parallel with this process, the Arabic orthography had also been standardized for the sister Circassian language of Kabardian . Although very similar in many aspects, there were minor variations, in which letters were included based on each respective phonology, and there were minor differences in presentation of
378-486: A very uncommon sound: a voiceless bidental fricative [ h̪͆ ] , which corresponds to the voiceless velar fricative [ x ] found in other varieties of Adyghe. This sound is only known to be used in the Black Sea dialect. Affricate In contrast to its large inventory of consonants, Adyghe has only three phonemic vowels in a vertical vowel system . Adyghe, like all Northwest Caucasian languages, has
441-409: A wide variety of languages aside from Arabic, including Persian , Malay and Urdu , which are not Semitic . Such adaptations may feature altered or new characters to represent phonemes that do not appear in Arabic phonology . For example, the Arabic language lacks a voiceless bilabial plosive (the [p] sound), therefore many languages add their own letter to represent [p] in the script, though
504-501: Is a family of languages spoken in the northwestern Caucasus region, chiefly in three Russian republics ( Adygea , Kabardino-Balkaria , Karachay–Cherkessia ), the disputed territory of Abkhazia , Georgia , and Turkey , with smaller communities scattered throughout the Middle East . The group's relationship to any other language family is uncertain and unproven. One language, Ubykh , became extinct in 1992, while all of
567-590: Is a literary language, but nowhere official. It shares with Abkhaz the distinction of having just two phonemic vowels. Abaza is phonologically more complex than Abkhaz, and is characterised by large consonant clusters, similar to those that can be found in Georgian . There are two major dialects, Tapant and Ashkhar . Some are partially intelligible with Abkhaz. Ubykh forms a third branch, with parallels to both Adyghe and Abkhaz. The population switched to speaking Adyghe, and Ubykh became extinct on 7 October 1992, with
630-416: Is an even more tentative hypothesis than Nostratic , which attempts to relate Kartvelian , Indo-European , Uralic , and Altaic , etc., and which is widely considered to be undemonstrated. Arabic script Co-official script in: Official script at regional level in: The Arabic script is the writing system used for Arabic ( Arabic alphabet ) and several other languages of Asia and Africa. It
693-732: Is in Turkey , spoken by the diaspora from the Russian–Circassian War ( c. 1763 –1864). In addition, the Adyghe language is spoken by the Cherkesogai in Krasnodar Krai . Adyghe belongs to the family of Northwest Caucasian languages . Kabardian (also known as East Circassian) is a very close relative, treated by some as a dialect of Adyghe or of an overarching Circassian language . Ubykh , Abkhaz and Abaza are somewhat more distantly related to Adyghe. Adyghe exhibits between 50 and 60 consonants depending on
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#1732772582521756-576: Is no consensus that the relationship has been demonstrated. (See the article on North Caucasian languages for details, as well as the external links below). A few linguists have proposed even broader relationships, of which the Dene–Caucasian hypothesis is perhaps the most popular. Dene–Caucasian links the North Caucasian (including Northwest Caucasian), Basque , Burushaski , Yeniseian , Sino-Tibetan , and Na–Dene families. However, this
819-575: Is officially written in the Cyrillic script, and is also unofficially written in the Latin script. Before 1927, Adyghe was written in a version of the Arabic script ; after the Soviet Latinisation campaign , an older variant of the Latin alphabet had been in use in the Soviet Union until 1938, when all Soviet languages transitioned into the Cyrillic alphabet. Prior to the mid-19th century, Adyghe had no writing system. Starting from 1853,
882-879: Is one of the more widely spoken Northwest Caucasian languages. It has 500,000 speakers spread throughout Russia and the Middle East : 280,000 in Turkey ; 125,000 in Russia, where it is official in the Republic of Adygea ; 45,000 in Jordan , 25,000 in Syria , 20,000 in Iraq , and 4,000 in Israel . There is even a small community in the United States . Four main dialects are recognised: Temirgoy , Abadzekh , Shapsugh and Bzhedugh , as well as many minor ones such as Hakuchi spoken by
945-716: Is spoken by Circassians in Iraq and by Circassians in Israel , where it is taught in schools in their villages. It is also spoken by many Circassians in Syria , although the majority of Syrian Circassians speak Kabardian . There are many books written in or translated into Adyghe. An Adyghe translation of the Quran by Ishak Mashbash is available. The New Testament and many books of the Old Testament have been published in Adyghe by
1008-635: Is taught outside Circassia in Prince Hamza Ibn Al-Hussein Secondary School, a school for Jordanian Adyghes in Jordan 's capital city of Amman . This school, established by the Jordanian Adyghes with support from the late king Hussein of Jordan , is one of the first schools for the Adyghe communities outside Circassia. It has around 750 Jordanian Adyghe students, and aims to preserve the Adyghe language and traditions among future generations. Adyghe
1071-531: Is the second-most widely used alphabetic writing system in the world (after the Latin script ), the second-most widely used writing system in the world by number of countries using it, and the third-most by number of users (after the Latin and Chinese scripts ). The script was first used to write texts in Arabic, most notably the Quran , the holy book of Islam . With the religion's spread , it came to be used as
1134-508: Is writing Turkish loanwords containing these letters. 5) Wıçüpe (уцупэ; the place of stopping) is written with a ` (accent grave) or ' (apostrophe) and has a complicatd use. It is equivalent to Ӏ (palochka) in its use an ejective marker but not as the glottal stop. The glottal stop is not written as a letter but is implied through the use of consecutive vowels like in "mıerıs" (мыӀэрыс; apple). As many ejective sounds have their own letters (Ć, Ṕ, Q, Š, Ṫ), only some ejective sounds are written with
1197-1405: The Institute for Bible Translation in Moscow. According to the UNESCO 2009 map entitled "UNESCO Map of the World's Languages in Danger", the status of the Adyghe language in 2009, along with all its dialects (Adyghe, Western Circassian tribes; and Kabard-Cherkess, Eastern Circassian tribes), is classified as vulnerable . 1. Алахьэу гукӏэгъушӏэу, гукӏэгъу зыхэлъым ыцӏэкӏэ! 2. Зэрэдунае и Тхьэу Алахьым щытхъур ыдэжь, 3. Гукӏэгъушӏэу, гукӏэгъу зыхэлъэу, 4. Пщынэжь мафэр зиӏэмырым! 5. Шъхьащэ тэ къыпфэтэшӏы, тыолъэӏу О ӏэпыӏэгъу укъытфэхъунэу! 6. Гъогу занкӏэм О тырыщ, 7. Шӏу О зыфэпшӏагъэхэм ягъогу нахь, губж лъэш зыфэпшӏыгъэхэр зытетхэр арэп, гъощагъэхэр зытетхэри арэп. [1. Ālāḥăw g°č̣′ăġ°ṣ̂ăw, g°č̣′ăġ° zǝxălъǝm ǝc̣ăč̣′ă! 2. Zărădwnāe i Tḥăw Ālāḥǝm šʹǝtx°r ǝdăž′, 3. G°č̣′ăġ°ṣ̂ăw, g°č̣′ăġ° zǝxălъăw, 4. Pšʹǝnăž′ māfăr ziʾămǝrǝm! 5. Ŝḥāšʹă tă qǝpfătăṣ̂ǝ, tǝolъăʾ° O ʾăpǝʾăġ° wqǝtfăx°năw! 6. Ġog° zānč̣′ăm O tǝrǝšʹ, 7. Ṣ̂° O zǝfăpṣ̂āġăxăm яġog° nāḥ, g°bž lъăš zǝfăpṣ̂ǝġăxăr zǝtetxăr ārăp, ġošʹāġăxăr zǝtetxări ārăp.] Error: {{Lang}}: Non-latn text/Latn script subtag mismatch ( help ) 1. In
1260-762: The Russian Empire . It is closely related to the Kabardian (East Circassian) language , though some reject the distinction between the two languages in favor of both being dialects of a unitary Circassian language . The literary standard of Adyghe is based on its Temirgoy dialect. Adyghe and Russian are the two official languages of the Republic of Adygea in the Russian Federation . In Russia, there are around 128,000 speakers of Adyghe, almost all of them native speakers. In total, some 300,000 speak it worldwide. The largest Adyghe-speaking community
1323-642: The Sahel , developed with the spread of Islam . To a certain degree the style and usage tends to follow those of the Maghreb (for instance the position of the dots in the letters fāʼ and qāf ). Additional diacritics have come into use to facilitate the writing of sounds not represented in the Arabic language. The term ʻAjamī , which comes from the Arabic root for "foreign", has been applied to Arabic-based orthographies of African languages. Today Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, and China are
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#17327725825211386-747: The Syriac alphabet , which are both derived from the Aramaic alphabet , which, in turn, descended from the Phoenician alphabet . The Phoenician script also gave rise to the Greek alphabet (and, therefore, both the Cyrillic alphabet and the Latin alphabet used in America and most European countries.). In the 6th and 5th centuries BCE, northern Arab tribes emigrated and founded a kingdom centred around Petra , Jordan . These people (now named Nabataeans from
1449-426: The 16th century, it was also used for some Spanish texts, and—prior to the script reform in 1928 —it was the writing system of Turkish . The script is written from right to left in a cursive style, in which most of the letters are written in slightly different forms according to whether they stand alone or are joined to a following or preceding letter. The script does not have capital letters . In most cases,
1512-622: The Abzakh-based Latin alphabet because of dialectal differences. The most notable of these differences is the lack of differentiation between post-alveolar, alveolo-palatal and retroflex sounds. Though there are some additional letters in the alphabet for Eastern Circassian, the materials in the CLA website are primarily in West Circassian. 1) Ć is the equivalent of both Кӏ and Чӏ and shows the ejective potalveolar affricate. Qq, on
1575-560: The Adyghe Latin alphabet was that there was no distinction between lower case and upper case letters. Each letter only had one single case. Below table shows Adyghe Latin alphabet as it was officially adopted between 1927 and 1938. In 2012, the Circassian Language Association (Adyghe: Адыге Бзэ Хасэ or Adıǵe Bze Xase, abbreviated as ABX; Turkish : Adıge Dil Derneği ; danef.com) in Turkey has issued
1638-438: The Arabic alphabet use the same base shapes. Most additional letters in languages that use alphabets based on the Arabic alphabet are built by adding (or removing) diacritics to existing Arabic letters. Some stylistic variants in Arabic have distinct meanings in other languages. For example, variant forms of kāf ك ک ڪ are used in some languages and sometimes have specific usages. In Urdu and some neighbouring languages,
1701-520: The Arabic script is used to write Serbo-Croatian , Sorani , Kashmiri , Mandarin Chinese , or Uyghur , vowels are mandatory. The Arabic script can, therefore, be used as a true alphabet as well as an abjad , although it is often strongly, if erroneously, connected to the latter due to it being originally used only for Arabic. Use of the Arabic script in West African languages, especially in
1764-518: The Arabic script were incorporated among the assortment of scripts used for writing native languages. In the 20th century, the Arabic script was generally replaced by the Latin alphabet in the Balkans , parts of Sub-Saharan Africa , and Southeast Asia , while in the Soviet Union , after a brief period of Latinisation , use of Cyrillic was mandated. Turkey changed to the Latin alphabet in 1928 as part of an internal Westernizing revolution. After
1827-459: The Aramaic alphabet, which continued to evolve; it separated into two forms: one intended for inscriptions (known as "monumental Nabataean") and the other, more cursive and hurriedly written and with joined letters, for writing on papyrus . This cursive form influenced the monumental form more and more and gradually changed into the Arabic alphabet. The Arabic script has been adapted for use in
1890-539: The North-West Caucasian languages may be genetically related to the Indo-European family, at a time depth of perhaps 12,000 years before the present. This hypothesised proto-language is called Proto-Pontic , but is not widely accepted. There does at least appear to have been extensive contact between the two proto-languages, and the resemblances may be due to this influence. Many linguists join
1953-754: The Northwest Caucasian (Circassian) family and the extinct Hattic language . Hattic was spoken in Anatolia ( Turkey ), in the area around ancient Hattusa (modern Boğazköy ), until about 1800 BCE, when it was replaced by the Indo-European Hittite language . The name Hetto-Iberian (or Proto-Iberian ) was proposed by Georgian historian Simon Janashia for a superfamily comprising the North and South Caucasian languages, Hattic and other languages of ancient Anatolia . (The "Iberian" in
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2016-516: The Northwest and Northeast Caucasian languages into a North Caucasian family, sometimes simply called Kavkazian (in opposition to Kartvelian (South Caucasian) , which is thought to be unrelated, albeit heavily influenced by their northern neighbours). This hypothesis has perhaps been best illustrated by Sergei A. Starostin and Sergei Nikolayev , who present a set of phonological correspondences and shared morphological structure. However, there
2079-509: The accepted orthography for Adyghe. Over the following decades, several authors attempted to further improve the Adyghe Arabic orthography. The most successful attempt was the alphabet created by Akhmetov Bekukh . In this version, letters were designated for vowel sounds, and the orthography was transformed from an " Impure abjads to a true alphabet . In 1918, on the initiative of the Kuban Revolutionary Committee ,
2142-407: The analysis) coupled with rich consonantal systems that include many forms of secondary articulation . Ubykh (Ubyx) , for example, had two vowels and probably the largest inventory of consonants outside Southern Africa . Northwest Caucasian languages have rather simple noun systems, with only a handful of cases at the most, coupled with highly agglutinative verbal systems that can contain almost
2205-643: The beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was a god. This one was in the beginning With God. All things came into existence through him, and apart from him not even one thing came into existence. What has come into existence by means of him was life, and the life was the light of men. And the light is shining in the darkness, but the darkness has not overpowered it. Northwest Caucasian language The Northwest Caucasian languages , also called West Caucasian , Abkhazo-Adyghean , Abkhazo-Circassian , Circassic , or sometimes Pontic languages ,
2268-787: The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, many of the Turkic languages of the ex-USSR attempted to follow Turkey's lead and convert to a Turkish-style Latin alphabet. However, renewed use of the Arabic alphabet has occurred to a limited extent in Tajikistan , whose language's close resemblance to Persian allows direct use of publications from Afghanistan and Iran. As of Unicode 15.1, the following ranges encode Arabic characters: Used to represent / ɡ / in Morocco and in many dialects of Algerian . Most languages that use alphabets based on
2331-525: The consonants /ʃʷʼ, ʐʷ, ʂʷ, ʐ, ʂ, tsʷ, dzʷ/ became /fʼ, v, f, ʑ, ɕ, f, v/ . Abkhaz has 100,000 speakers in Abkhazia (a de facto independent republic, but a de jure autonomous entity within Georgia ), where it is the official language, and an unknown number of speakers in Turkey . It has been a literary language from the beginning of the 20th century. Abkhaz and Abaza may be said to be dialects of
2394-545: The death of Tevfik Esenç . A dialectal division within Ubykh was suspected by Georges Dumézil , but the divergent form he described in 1965 was never investigated further. With eighty-one consonants, Ubykh had perhaps the largest inventory in the world aside from the Kx'a and Tuu families of southern Africa with their extensive system of clicks . There are pharyngealised consonants and a four-way place contrast among sibilants . It
2457-572: The dialect. All dialects possess a contrast between plain and labialized glottal stops . A very unusual minimal contrast, and possibly unique to the Abzakh dialect of Adyghe, is a three-way contrast between plain, labialized and palatalized glottal stops (although a palatalized glottal stop is also found in Hausa and a labialized one in Tlingit ). The Shapsug (Black Sea) dialect of Adyghe contains
2520-556: The entire syntactic structure of the sentence. All finite verbs are marked for agreement with three arguments: absolutive , ergative , and indirect object , and there are also a wide range of applicative constructions . There is a split between "dynamic" and "stative" verbs , with dynamic verbs having an especially complex morphology. A verb's morphemes indicate the subject's and object's person, place, time, manner of action, negative, and other types of grammatical categories. All Northwest Caucasian languages are left-branching , so that
2583-485: The fewest consonants of any North-Western Caucasian language, with 48, including some rather unusual ejective fricatives and a small number of vowels. Kabardian itself has several dialects, including Terek, the literary standard, and Besleney, which is intelligible with both Terek and Adyghe . Unlike the Adyghe, Kabardian lost many of the consonants that existed in the Proto-Circassian language , for example,
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2646-429: The influence of Russian. Percentage of total Northwest Caucasian speakers, by language There are five recognized languages in the Northwest Caucasian family: Abkhaz , Abaza , Kabardian or East Circassian, Adyghe or West Circassian, and Ubykh . They are classified as follows: Circassian (Cherkess) is a cover term for the series of dialects that include the literary languages of Adyghe and Kabardian. Adyghe
2709-623: The labialized consonants affect the vowels around them to create allophonic rounded vowels. The letters O, Ö, U and Ü are used to show these allophonic rounded vowels. O/Ö and U/Ü works similar to the vowel use О and У in the Adyghe Cyrillic alphabet with O/Ö showing labialized consonant+[ɜ] combinations and U/Ü the labialized consonant+[ə] combinations. However, Ö and Ü are used when these combinations occur next to postalveolar sounds (Ş, J, Ç). The diphthongal uses of О and У, i.e. [wɜ] and [wə], are written as "We" and "Wı". Another use of Ö and Ü
2772-516: The last speakers of Ubykh in Turkey. Adyghe has many consonants: between 50 and 60 consonants in the various Adyghe dialects but it has only three phonemic vowels. Its consonants and consonant clusters are less complex than the Abkhaz–Abaza dialects. Kabardian has just over one million speakers: 550,000 in Turkey and 450,000 in Russia , where it is an official language of the republics of Kabardino-Balkaria and Karachay–Cherkessia . Kabardian has
2835-470: The letters transcribe consonants , or consonants and a few vowels, so most Arabic alphabets are abjads , with the versions used for some languages, such as Kurdish dialect of Sorani , Uyghur , Mandarin , and Bosniak , being alphabets . It is the basis for the tradition of Arabic calligraphy . The Arabic alphabet is derived either from the Nabataean alphabet or (less widely believed) directly from
2898-498: The levelling of an old grammatical class prefix system (so */w-ka/ may have become /kʷa/ ), on the basis of pairs like Ubykh /ɡʲə/ vs. Kabardian and Abkhaz /ɡʷə/ heart . This same process is claimed by some to lie behind the development of labiovelars in Proto-Indo-European , which once neighboured Proto-NWC . The entire family is characterised by a paucity of phonemic vowels (two or three, depending upon
2961-407: The main non-Arabic speaking states using the Arabic alphabet to write one or more official national languages, including Azerbaijani , Baluchi , Brahui , Persian , Pashto , Central Kurdish , Urdu , Sindhi , Kashmiri , Punjabi and Uyghur . An Arabic alphabet is currently used for the following languages: With the establishment of Muslim rule in the subcontinent , one or more forms of
3024-1714: The name of Allāh, the Entirely Merciful, the Especially Merciful! 2. [All] praise is [due] to Allāh, Lord of the worlds, 3. The Entirely Merciful, the Especially Merciful, 4. Sovereign of the Day of Recompense! 5. It is You we worship and You we ask for help! 6. Guide us to the straight path, 7. The path of those upon whom You have bestowed favor, not of those who have earned [Your] anger or of those who are astray. ١-بِسْمِ اللَّهِ الرَّحْمَٰنِ الرَّحِيمِ ٢-الْحَمْدُ لِلَّهِ رَبِّ الْعَالَمِينَ ٣-الرَّحْمَٰنِ الرَّحِيمِ ٤-مَالِكِ يَوْمِ الدِّينِ ٥-إِيَّاكَ نَعْبُدُ وَإِيَّاكَ نَسْتَعِينُ ٦-اهْدِنَا الصِّرَاطَ الْمُسْتَقِيمَ ٧-صِرَاطَ الَّذِينَ أَنْعَمْتَ عَلَيْهِمْ غَيْرِ الْمَغْضُوبِ عَلَيْهِمْ وَلَا الضَّالِّينَ Ублапӏэм ыдэжь Гущыӏэр щыӏагъ. Ар Тхьэм ыдэжь щыӏагъ, а Гущыӏэри Тхьэу арыгъэ. Ублапӏэм щегъэжьагъэу а Гущыӏэр Тхьэм ыдэжь щыӏагъ. Тхьэм а Гущыӏэм зэкӏэри къыригъэгъэхъугъ. Тхьэм къыгъэхъугъэ пстэуми ащыщэу а Гущыӏэм къыримыгъгъэхъугъэ зи щыӏэп. Мыкӏодыжьын щыӏэныгъэ а Гущыӏэм хэлъыгъ, а щыӏэныгъэри цӏыфхэм нэфынэ афэхъугъ. Нэфынэр шӏункӏыгъэм щэнэфы, шӏункӏыгъэри нэфынэм текӏуагъэп. Ublāṗăm ədăžʼ G˚šʼəʾăr šʼəʾāġ. Ār Tḥăm ədăžʼ šʼəʾāġ, ā G˚šʼəʾări Tḥăw ārəġă. Ublāṗăm šʼeġăžʼāġăw ā G˚šʼəʾăr Tḥăm ədăžʼ šʼəʾāġ. Tḥăm ā G˚šʼəʾăm zăč̣ʼări qəriġăġăꭓ˚ġ. Tḥăm qəġăꭓ˚ġă pstăwmi āšʼəšʼăw ā G˚šʼəʾăm qəriməġġăꭓ˚ġă zi šʼəʾăp. Məč̣ʼodəžʼən šʼəʾănəġă ā G˚šʼəʾăm xăłəġ, ā šʼəʾănəġări c̣əfxăm năfənă āfăꭓ˚ġ. Năfənăr ṣ̂˚nč̣ʼəġăm šʼănăfə, ṣ̂˚nč̣ʼəġări năfənăm teḳ˚āġăp. In
3087-521: The name of one of the tribes, Nabatu) spoke Nabataean Arabic , a dialect of the Arabic language. In the 2nd or 1st centuries BCE, the first known records of the Nabataean alphabet were written in the Aramaic language (which was the language of communication and trade), but included some Arabic language features: the Nabataeans did not write the language which they spoke. They wrote in a form of
3150-518: The name refers to Caucasian Iberia , a kingdom centered in eastern Georgia which existed from the 4th century BCE to the 5th century CE; it is not related to the Iberian Peninsula.) Many Northwest Caucasian ( Adygean ) family names have prefixes like "Hath" or "Hatti", and one Adyghe tribe has the name " Hatuqwai " ( Adyghe : Хьатыкъуай ) (From Хьаты ("Hatti") + Кхъуэ ("male or son"); meaning "HattiSon"). It has been conjectured that
3213-504: The other hand, only corresponds to Кӏ and shows an ejective velar plosive. 2) Ç normally stands for Ч but when it is followed by Ü and Ö, it is equivalent to Цу. 3) É and İ are not direct equivalents of Е and И. The Cyrillic letters denote the [jɜ] and [jə] sounds at the beginning of syllables and [e] and [i] sounds at the end. The Latin letters are only used for the sounds [e] and [i]. The diphthongs are written as "Ye" and "Yi" 4) Circassian languages do not have phonemic rounded vowels but
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#17327725825213276-433: The other languages are in some form of endangerment, with UNESCO classifying all as either "vulnerable", "endangered", or "severely endangered". The Northwest Caucasian languages possess highly complex sets of consonant distinctions paired with a lack of vowel distinctions, often providing archetypical cases of vertical vowel systems , also known as "linear" vowel systems. Linguistic reconstructions suggest that both
3339-514: The primary script for many language families, leading to the addition of new letters and other symbols. Such languages still using it are: Persian ( Farsi and Dari ), Urdu , Uyghur , Kurdish , Pashto , Punjabi ( Shahmukhi ), Sindhi , Azerbaijani (Torki in Iran), Malay ( Jawi ), Javanese and Indonesian ( Pegon ), Balti , Balochi , Luri , Kashmiri , Cham (Akhar Srak), Rohingya , Somali , Mandinka , and Mooré , among others. Until
3402-534: The process more laborsome. ABX has created a Latin script based on the Turkish alphabet and chose the Abzakh dialect as their base because it is the dialect with the most speakers in Turkey. However, the alphabet employed by the Circassian Language Association has been criticized by others. Some suggested that they created the alphabet without a good understanding of the Circassian phonology and have not even considered former Latin alphabets used to write Circassian and that
3465-702: The process of creating an orthography for Adyghe was started. In Tbilisi in 1853, a document titled " Primer of the Circassian Language " ( Archive ) was published, in which an Arabic-based orthography influenced by the Ottoman Turkish alphabet was developed. This document became the first ever publication in Adyghe. In this document, several new letters were introduced to represent the consonants that exist in Adyghe language. This proposed orthography, although with many shortcomings, received widespread approval and usage. And thus, Arabic script became
3528-511: The richness of the consonantal systems and the poverty of the vocalic systems may be the result of a historical process, whereby vowel features such as labialization and palatalization were reassigned to adjacent consonants. For example, ancestral */ki/ may have become /kʲə/ and */ku/ may have become /kʷə/ , losing the old vowels */i/ and */u/ but gaining the new consonants /kʲ/ and /kʷ/ . The linguist John Colarusso has further postulated that some instances of this may also be due to
3591-528: The same language, but each preserves phonemes which the other has lost. Abkhaz is characterised by unusual consonant clusters and one of the world's smallest vowel inventories: It has only two distinctive vowels, an open vowel /a/ and a mid vowel /ə/. Next to palatalized or labialized consonants, /a/ is realized as [e] or [o], and /ə/ as [i] or [u]. There are three major dialects : Abzhuy and Bzyp in Abkhazia and Sadz in Turkey. Abaza has some 45,000 speakers, 35,000 in Russia and 10,000 in Turkey . It
3654-419: The specific letter used varies from language to language. These modifications tend to fall into groups: Indian and Turkic languages written in the Arabic script tend to use the Persian modified letters , whereas the languages of Indonesia tend to imitate those of Jawi . The modified version of the Arabic script originally devised for use with Persian is known as the Perso-Arabic script by scholars. When
3717-426: The use of the Latin script would sever the ties with the homeland. Despite the criticism, the CLA has obtained a €40,000 funding from the European Union for the recording of the Circassian language with a Latin script and the preparation of multi-media learning materials for the language, and the materials created by ABX were accepted by the Ministry of National Education to be taught in Secondary Schools. This decision
3780-471: The verb comes at the end of the sentence and modifiers such as relative clauses precede a noun. Northwest Caucasian languages do not generally permit more than one finite verb in a sentence, which precludes the existence of subordinate clauses in the Indo-European sense. Equivalent functions are performed by extensive arrays of nominal and participial non-finite verb forms, though Abkhaz appears to be developing limited subordinate clauses, perhaps under
3843-399: The wıçüpe (ş`, ĺ`). Another use of wıçüpe is to show that an U at the end of a word represents a labialized consonant and not a labialized consonant + [ə] combination. For example, джэгу in Cyrillic is written cegu` to make sure that it is pronounced [d͡ʒɜgʷ] as a single syllable but wıçüpe is removed when the word takes a suffix and the allophonic [u] is audible, as in cegum [d͡ʒɜgum]. Adyghe
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#17327725825213906-431: Was protested and legally objected by the Federation of Caucasian Associations (Turkish: Kafkas Dernekleri Federasyonu ; KAFFED) who created the materials for Circassian and Abaza languages with the Cyrillic script; however, the court ruled in favour of the Latin alphabet created by the CLA and continued the use of their alphabet in Circassian courses. Some glyphs in the Temirgoy-based Cyrillic alphabet have no equivalent in
3969-424: Was the only Northwest Caucasian language never to have a literary form. A number of factors make the reconstruction of the Northwest Caucasian proto-language problematic: For these reasons, Proto–Northwest Caucasian is widely accepted as being one of the most difficult proto-languages to deal with, and it is therefore more difficult than most to relate to other families. Some scholars have seen affinities between
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