668–960 c. 700s–800s c. 800s–900s
107-623: [REDACTED] Look up circassian in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Circassian may refer to: Circassia , a former geographical region located in present-day European Russia, Northern Caucasus Circassian coast , on the Black Sea Circassians , also known as Adyghe people Circassian diaspora Circassian language , a Northwest Caucasian language or subgroup of languages Circassians (historical ethnonym) ,
214-412: A Parisian goldsmith. Although he had a strong Chinese contingent, Möngke relied heavily on Muslim and Mongol administrators and launched a series of economic reforms to make government expenses more predictable. His court limited government spending and prohibited nobles and troops from abusing civilians or issuing edicts without authorization. He commuted the contribution system to a fixed poll tax which
321-693: A council proclaimed as the ruler of all Mongols in 1206. The empire grew rapidly under his rule and that of his descendants, who sent out invading armies in every direction. The vast transcontinental empire connected the East with the West , and the Pacific to the Mediterranean , in an enforced Pax Mongolica , allowing the exchange of trade, technologies, commodities, and ideologies across Eurasia . The empire began to split due to wars over succession, as
428-592: A dozen principalities. Some of these principalities were divided into large feudal estates, characterized by the stability of political status. Within these territories there were numerous feudal possessions of princes (pshi). The Circassian state was a federal state consisting of four levels of government: Village council (чылэ хасэ, made up of village elders and nobles), district council (made up of representatives from 7 neighboring village councils), regional council (шъолъыр хасэ, made up from neighboring district councils), people's council (лъэпкъ зэфэс, where every council had
535-465: A millennium. It is thought that this resulted in a rapid increase in the number of war horses and other livestock, which significantly enhanced Mongol military strength. Known during his childhood as Temüjin, Genghis Khan was a son of a Mongol chieftain and rose very rapidly as a young man by working with Toghrul Khan of the Kerait. After Temujin went to war against Kurtait (also known as Wang Khan; given
642-669: A national religion, but did not abandon all elements of their indigenous religious beliefs. Circassians established many states, but could not achieve political unity. From around 400 AD wave after wave of invaders began to invade the lands of the Adyghe people , who were also known as the Kasogi (or Kassogs) at the time. They were conquered first by the Bulgars (who originated on the Central Asian steppes ). Outsiders sometimes confused
749-497: A new code of law of the empire, Ikh Zasag or Yassa ; later he expanded it to cover much of the everyday life and political affairs of the nomads. He forbade the selling of women, theft, fighting among the Mongols, and the hunting of animals during the breeding season. He appointed his stepbrother Shikhikhutug as supreme judge (jarughachi), ordering him to keep records of the empire. In addition to laws regarding family, food, and
856-512: A new great khan, Batu called a kurultai on his own territory in 1250. As it was far from the Mongol heartland , members of the Ögedeid and Chagataid families refused to attend. The kurultai offered the throne to Batu, but he rejected it, claiming he had no interest in the position. Batu instead nominated Möngke , a grandson of Genghis from his son Tolui's lineage. Möngke was leading a Mongol army in Rus,
963-503: A number of Mongol campaigns into Goryeo Korea , but Ögedei's attempt to annex the Korean Peninsula met with little success. Gojong , the king of Goryeo , surrendered but later revolted and massacred Mongol darughachis (overseers); he then moved his imperial court from Gaeseong to Ganghwa Island . In 1235, the Mongols established Karakorum as their capital lasting until 1260. During that period, Ogedei Khan ordered
1070-612: A number of European states requesting diplomatic recognition. Following this, the United Kingdom recognized Circassia. However, following the outbreak of the Russo-Circassian War, the Russian Empire did not recognize Circassia as an independent nation and instead treated it as Russian land under rebel occupation , despite having no control or ownership over the region. Russian generals often referred to
1177-539: A peace treaty with the Mongols and withdrawing from a score of forts. The Mongols then resumed attacks on the Tatars to avenge the death of their late khan, opening a long period of active hostilities. The Jin and Tatar armies defeated the Mongols in 1161. During the rise of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century, the usually cold, parched steppes of Central Asia enjoyed their mildest, wettest conditions in more than
SECTION 10
#17327659287531284-663: A possible war. Inal, who won the war in Abkhazia, officially conquered Northern Abkhazia and the Abkhaz people recognized the rule of Inal, and Inal finalized his rule in Abkhazia. One of the stars on the flag of Abkhazia represents Inal. Inal divided his lands between his sons and grandchildren in 1453 and died in 1458. Following this, Circassian tribal principalities were established. Some of these are Chemguy founded by Temruk, Besleney founded by Beslan, Kabardia founded by Qabard, and Shapsug founded by Zanoko. According to
1391-472: A representative). A central government emerged during the mid to late 1800s. Prior to that, the institute of grand prince was mostly symbolic. In 1807, Shuwpagwe Qalawebateqo self-proclaimed himself as the leader of the Circassian confederation, and divided Circassia into 12 major regions. In 1827, Ismail Berzeg officially declared the military confederation of the Circassian tribes and by 1839 united
1498-683: A significant part of Circassia under his control. In 1839, the Circassians declared Bighuqal ( Anapa ) as their new capital and Hawduqo Mansur was declared the new leader of the Circassian Confederation. He kept this title until his death. In 1848, Muhammad Amin was the leader of Circassia. After learning that a warriorly scholar has arrived, thousands of families moved to the Abdzakh region to accept his rule. Seferbiy Zaneqo assumed power after Amin's departure, but died
1605-643: A term used to denominate different peoples of the Black Sea shore and the Northern Caucasus Other uses [ edit ] USS Circassian (1862) , a Union Navy steamship in the American Civil War See also [ edit ] All pages with titles containing Circassian Cerchez (disambiguation) Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with
1712-569: Is Persian . In languages spoken geographically close to the Caucasus, the native people originally had other names for the Circassia, but with Russian influence, the name has been settled as Cherkessia/Circassia . It is the same or similar in many world languages that cite these languages. Circassians themselves don't use the term "Circassia", and refer to their country as Адыгэ Хэку (Adıgə Xəku) or Адыгей (Adıgey). Another historical name for
1819-516: Is called the "Prince of Princes" by Circassians and Abkhazians , because he united all Circassian tribes and established the Circassian state. According to popular belief, Inal is the ancestor of Kabardian , Besleney , Chemguy and Hatuqwai princes. Inal, who during the 1400s owned land in the Taman peninsula, established an army consisting mostly of the Khegayk tribe and declared that his goal
1926-545: Is located in the same country in Upper Circassia, on the Don River, which separates Europe from Asia". Feudalism began to emerge in Circassians by the 4th century. As a result of Armenian, Greek and Byzantine influence, Christianity spread throughout the Caucasus between the 3rd and 5th centuries AD. During that period the Circassians (referred to at the time as Kassogs ) began to accept Christianity as
2033-415: Is that they are all warriors. Circassia developed the so-called "Culture of War". Honorable combat was a big part of this culture, during hostilities, it was considered strictly unacceptable to set fire to homes or crops, especially bread, even from enemies. It was considered inadmissible to leave the bodies of dead comrades on the battlefield. It was considered a great disgrace in Circassia to fall alive into
2140-610: The 2014 Winter Olympic village is built in an area of mass graves of Circassians after their defeat by the Russians Empire in 1864. Between 1427 and 1453, Inal the Great conquered all Circassian principalities and declared himself the Grand Prince of Circassia. Following his death, Circassia was divided again. The influential principalities of Circassia regularly met to elect a Grand Prince (Пщышхо) among them, with
2247-743: The Arctic ; eastward and southward into parts of the Indian subcontinent , mounted invasions of Southeast Asia , and conquered the Iranian Plateau ; and reached westward as far as the Levant and the Carpathian Mountains . The Mongol Empire emerged from the unification of several nomadic tribes in the Mongol heartland under the leadership of Temüjin, known by the more famous title of Genghis Khan ( c. 1162 – 1227), whom
SECTION 20
#17327659287532354-869: The Chagatayid and Ögedeid families. By the time of Kublai's death in 1294, the Mongol Empire had fractured into four separate khanates or empires , each pursuing its own interests and objectives: the Golden Horde khanate in the northwest, the Chagatai Khanate in Central Asia, the Ilkhanate in Iran, and the Yuan dynasty in China, based in modern-day Beijing . In 1304, during the reign of Temür ,
2461-662: The Eastern Xia regime and the Water Tatars . In 1230, the great Khan personally led his army in the campaign against the Jin dynasty of China. Ögedei's general Subutai captured the capital of Emperor Wanyan Shouxu in the siege of Kaifeng in 1232. The Jin dynasty collapsed in 1234 when the Mongols captured Caizhou , the town to which Wanyan Shouxu had fled. In 1234, three armies commanded by Ögedei's sons Kochu and Koten and
2568-620: The Golden Horde , and the Crimean Khanate . Their reduced borders then stretched from the Taman Peninsula to North Ossetia . Circassian lords subjugated and vassalized the neighbouring Karachays and Balkars and the Ossetians . The term Circassia is also used as the collective name of various Circassian states that were established within historical Circassian territory, such as Zichia . Legally and internationally,
2675-420: The Golden Horde , refused to come to the kurultai, claiming that he was ill and that the climate was too harsh for him. The resulting stalemate lasted more than four years and further destabilized the unity of the empire. When Genghis Khan's youngest brother Temüge threatened to seize the throne, Güyük came to Karakorum to try to secure his position. Batu eventually agreed to send his brothers and generals to
2782-838: The Grand Principality of Vladimir at the Battle of the Sit River . The Mongols captured the Alania capital Maghas in 1238. By 1240, all Kievan Rus' had fallen to the Asian invaders except for a few northern cities. Mongol troops under Chormaqan in Persia connecting his invasion of Transcaucasia with the invasion of Batu and Subutai, forced the Georgian and Armenian nobles to surrender as well. Giovanni de Plano Carpini ,
2889-653: The Hittites against the Egyptians . The Sindica Kingdom was founded in 800 BC. During this period, Greeks (Greeks) and Sindi-Meotay tribes lived in Circassia. Under the roof of this state, Sindi-Meotians in the region became the ancestors of the Circassian people. The Greek poet Hipponax, who lived in the 5th century BC, and Herodotus later mentioned the Sindis. Strabo also mentions the Capitol of Sindia, located near
2996-712: The Mamluk throne, the Burji dynasty took over and the Mamluks became a Circassian state. The Mongols, who started invading the Caucasus in 1223, destroyed some of the Circassians and most of the Alans. The Circassians, who lost most of their lands during the ensuing Golden Horde attacks, had to retreat to the back of the Kuban River. In 1395 Circassians fought violent wars against Tamerlane , Tamerlane plundered Circassia. Inal
3103-787: The Mongolian Plateau . The regime is thereafter known as the Northern Yuan dynasty in historiography, surviving as a rump state until the conquest by the Qing dynasty in the 1630s. The Golden Horde had broken into competing khanates by the end of the 15th century and its rule on Eastern Europe is traditionally considered to have ended in 1480 with the Great Stand on the Ugra River by the Grand Duchy of Moscow , while
3210-583: The Taman Peninsula in the west, to the town of Mozdok in today's North Ossetia–Alania in the east. Historically, Circassia covered the southern half of today's Krasnodar Krai , the Republic of Adygea , Karachay-Cherkessia , Kabardino-Balkaria , and parts of North Ossetia–Alania and Stavropol Krai , bounded by the Kuban River on the north which separated it from the Russian Empire . On
3317-746: The Tangut general Chagan invaded southern China. With the assistance of the Song dynasty the Mongols finished off the Jin in 1234. Many Han Chinese and Khitan defected to the Mongols to fight against the Jin. Two Han Chinese leaders, Shi Tianze , Liu Heima (劉黑馬, Liu Ni), and the Khitan Xiao Zhala defected and commanded the 3 Tumens in the Mongol army. Liu Heima and Shi Tianze served Ogödei Khan. Liu Heima and Shi Tianxiang led armies against Western Xia for
Circassian - Misplaced Pages Continue
3424-597: The Treaty of Belgrade , which was signed between Austria and the Ottoman Empire in 1739, provided for the recognition of the independence of Eastern Circassia . Both the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire recognized it under witness from the other great powers of the time. The Congress of Vienna also stipulated the recognition of the independence of Circassia. In 1837, Circassian leaders sent letters to
3531-590: The United Kingdom recognized Circassia. However, during the Russian-Circassian War , the Russian Empire did not recognize Circassia as an independent region, and treated it as Russian land under rebel occupation, despite having no control or ownership over the region. Russian generals referred to the Circassians not by their ethnic name, but as "mountaineers", "bandits", and "mountain scum". The Circassian Parliament launched large-scale foreign policy activities. First of all, an official memorandum
3638-616: The Yuan dynasty . Some sources give the full Mongol name as Dai Ön Yehe Monggul Ulus . The area around Mongolia , Manchuria , and parts of North China had been controlled by the Khitan -led Liao dynasty since the 10th century. In 1125, the Jin dynasty founded by the Jurchens overthrew the Liao dynasty and attempted to gain control over former Liao territory in Mongolia. In the 1130s
3745-426: The imperial guard , was founded and divided into day ( khorchin torghuds ) and night ( khevtuul ) guards. Genghis rewarded those who had been loyal to him and placed them in high positions, as heads of army units and households, even though many of them came from very low-ranking clans. Compared to the units he gave to his loyal companions, those assigned to his own family members were relatively few. He proclaimed
3852-585: The khagan (Emperor) of the Yekhe Mongol Ulus (Great Mongol State) at a Kurultai (general assembly/council). It was there that he assumed the title of Genghis Khan (universal leader) instead of one of the old tribal titles such as Gur Khan or Tayang Khan, marking the start of the Mongol Empire. Genghis Khan introduced many innovative ways of organizing his army: for example dividing it into decimal subsections of arbans (10 soldiers), zuuns (100), Mingghans (1000), and tumens (10,000). The Kheshig ,
3959-447: The 1260 to 1264 succession war between Kublai Khan and his brother Ariq Böke , Kublai's power became limited to the eastern part of the empire, centered on China. Kublai officially issued an imperial edict on 18 December 1271 to give the empire the Han -style dynastic name of "Great Yuan" ( Dai Yuan , or Dai Ön Ulus' ; Chinese : 大 元 ; pinyin : Dà Yuán ) and to establish
4066-795: The Abkhaz claim, Inal died in North Abkhazia. Although most sources cite this theory, researches and searches in the region have shown that Inal's tomb is not here. According to Russian explorer and archaeologist Evgeniy Dimitrievich Felitsin, Inal's tomb is not in Abkhazia. In a map published in 1882, Felitsin has shown great importance to Inal, and placed his grave in the Ispravnaya region in Karachay-Cherkessia, not in Abkhazia. He added that there are ancient sculptures, mounds, tombs, churches, castles and ramparts in this area, which would be an ideal tomb for someone like Inal. At
4173-438: The Adyghe people with the similarly named Utigurs (a branch of the Bulgars), and both peoples were sometimes conflated under misnomers such as " Utige ". Following the dissolution of the Khazar state, the Adyghe people were integrated around the end of the 1st millennium AD into the Kingdom of Alania . Between the 10th and 13th centuries Georgia had influence on the Adyghe Circassian peoples. In 1382, Circassian mamluks took
4280-419: The Black Sea coast, the climate is warm and humid, while being moderate in the lowlands and cooler in the highlands. Most of Circassia is frost free for more than half the year. There are steppe meadows in the plains, beech and oak forests in the foothills, and pine forests and alpine meadows in the mountains. Sochi is considered by many Circassians as their traditional capital city. According to Circassians,
4387-400: The Black Sea coast. Information on Sindica has been learned from Greek documents and archaeological finds, and there is not much detail. It is not known exactly when the Sindica Kingdom was established, but it is known that the Sindis had a state and trade relations with the Greeks before the establishment of the Greek colonies on the Black Sea coast. It is also known that the kingdom of Sindica
Circassian - Misplaced Pages Continue
4494-425: The Chagatai Khanate lasted in one form or another until 1687. The Mongol Empire is also referred to as the "Mongolian Empire" or the "Mongol World Empire" in some English sources. The empire referred to itself as ᠶᠡᠬᠡ ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ yeke mongɣol ulus ( lit. 'nation of the great Mongols' or the 'great Mongol nation') in Mongol or kür uluγ ulus ( lit. the 'whole great nation') in Turkic. After
4601-405: The Chinese Taoist master Qiu Chuji to visit him in Afghanistan, and also gave his subjects the right to religious freedom, despite his own shamanistic beliefs. Genghis Khan died on 18 August 1227, by which time the Mongol Empire ruled from the Pacific Ocean to the Caspian Sea , an empire twice the size of the Roman Empire or the Muslim Caliphate at their height. Genghis named his third son,
4708-473: The Chinese title "Wang" for its meaning of King ), who was the most powerful Mongol leader at the time, he gave himself the name Genghis Khan. He then enlarged his Mongol state under himself and his kin, with the term Mongol coming to be used in reference to all Mongolic speaking tribes under the control of Genghis Khan. His most powerful allies were his father's friend, Khereid chieftain Toghrul , and Temujin's childhood anda (i.e. blood brother ) Jamukha of
4815-553: The Circassians as "mountaineers", "bandits", and "mountain scum" rather than by their ethnonym. The Russian conquest of Circassia created the Circassian diaspora ; the overwhelming majority of Circassians today live outside of their ancestral homeland, mostly in Turkey and other parts of the Middle East . Only about 14% of the global Circassian population lives in the modern-day Russian Federation . The words Circassia and Circassian ( / s ər ˈ k æ s i ə n z / sər- KASS -ee-ənz ) are exonyms , Latinized from
4922-449: The Crimean Khan and the Ottoman Sultan again to Kabardia under the leadership of the Crimean khan Kaplan-Girey to conquer the Circassians and ordered him collect the tribute. The Ottomans expected an easy victory against the Kabardinians, but the Circassians won because of the strategy set up by the Kazaniko Jabagh. The Crimean army was completely destroyed overnight. The Crimean Khan Kaplan-Giray barely managed to save his life, and
5029-433: The Jadran clan. With their help, Temujin defeated the Merkit tribe, rescued his wife Börte , and went on to defeat the Naimans and the Tatars. Temujin forbade the looting of his enemies without permission, and he implemented a policy of sharing spoils with his warriors and their families instead of giving them all to the aristocrats. These policies brought him into conflict with his uncles, who were also legitimate heirs to
5136-422: The Jin dynasty of the Jurchens and the Western Xia of the Tanguts in northern China. He also had to deal with two other powers, Tibet and Qara Khitai . Before his death, Genghis Khan divided his empire among his sons and immediate family, making the Mongol Empire the joint property of the entire imperial family who, along with the Mongol aristocracy, constituted the ruling class. Genghis Khan arranged for
5243-424: The Jin dynasty rulers, known as the Golden Kings, successfully resisted the Khamag Mongol confederation, ruled at the time by Khabul Khan , great-grandfather of Genghis Khan. The Mongolian plateau was occupied mainly by five powerful tribal confederations ( khanlig ): Keraites , Khamag Mongol , Naiman , Mergid , and Tatar . The Jin emperors, following a policy of divide and rule , encouraged disputes among
5350-409: The Koreans through both diplomacy and military force. The advance into Europe continued with Mongol invasions of Poland and Hungary. When the western flank of the Mongols plundered Polish cities, a European alliance among the Poles , the Moravians , and the Christian military orders of the Hospitallers , Teutonic Knights and the Templars assembled sufficient forces to halt, although briefly,
5457-464: The Mongol Empire. This marked a major shift in the leadership of the empire, transferring power from the descendants of Genghis's son Ögedei to the descendants of Genghis's son Tolui. The decision was acknowledged by a few of the Ögedeid and Chagataid princes, such as Möngke's cousin Kadan and the deposed khan Qara Hülëgü, but one of the other legitimate heirs, Ögedei's grandson Shiremun, sought to topple Möngke. Shiremun moved with his own forces toward
SECTION 50
#17327659287535564-420: The Mongol advance at Legnica . The Hungarian army, their Croatian allies and the Knights Templar were beaten by the Mongols at the banks of the Sajo River on 11 April 1241. Before Batu's forces could continue on to Vienna and northern Albania , news of Ögedei's death in December 1241 brought a halt to the invasion. As was customary in Mongol military tradition, all princes of Genghis's line had to attend
5671-410: The Mongol generals in Persia. Güyük appointed his best friend's father Eljigidei as chief commander of the troops in Persia and gave them the task of both reducing the strongholds of the Nizari Ismailis and conquering the Abbasids at the center of the Islamic world, Iran and Iraq . In 1248, Güyük raised more troops and suddenly marched westward from the Mongol capital of Karakorum. The reasoning
5778-499: The Mongols and helped them conquer the rest of Yunnan . Möngke's general Qoridai stabilized his control over Tibet, inducing leading monasteries to submit to Mongol rule. Subutai's son Uryankhadai reduced the neighboring peoples of Yunnan to submission and went to war with the kingdom of Đại Việt under the Trần dynasty in northern Vietnam in 1258, but they had to draw back. The Mongol Empire tried to invade Đại Việt again in 1285 and 1287 but were defeated both times. After stabilizing
5885-476: The Mongols' decision to withdraw. Following the Great Khan Ögedei's death in 1241, and before the next kurultai, Ögedei's widow Töregene took over the empire. She persecuted her husband's Khitan and Muslim officials and gave high positions to her own allies. She built palaces, cathedrals, and social structures on an imperial scale, supporting religion and education. She was able to win over most Mongol aristocrats to support Ögedei's son Güyük . But Batu, ruler of
5992-465: The Mongols. There were four Han Tumens and three Khitan Tumens, with each Tumen consisting of 10,000 troops. The Yuan dynasty created a Han army 漢軍 from Jin defectors, and another of ex-Song troops called the Newly Submitted Army 新附軍. In the West Ögedei's general Chormaqan destroyed Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu , the last shah of the Khwarizmian Empire . The small kingdoms in southern Persia voluntarily accepted Mongol supremacy. In East Asia, there were
6099-403: The Pope. The letter of Pope John XXII , addressed to the Grand Prince of Zichia (Circassia) Verzacht, dates back to 1333, in which the Roman pontiff thanked the ruler for his diligence in introducing the Catholic faith among his subjects. Verzacht's power status was so high that following his example some other Circassian princes adopted Catholicism. Circassia traditionally consisted of more than
6206-453: The Taman region where he was born and raised. Although the exact location of the city of Shanjir is unknown, the most supported theory is that it is the Krasnaya Batareya district, which fits the descriptions of the city made by Klarapoth and Pallas. Although he united the Circassians, Inal still wanted to include the cousin people, the Abkhaz, in his state. Abkhaz dynasties Chachba and Achba announced that they would side with Inal in
6313-484: The Terek River. The Russian military tried to impose authority by building a series of forts, but these forts in turn became the new targets of raids and indeed sometimes the highlanders actually captured and held the forts. Under Yermolov, the Russian military began using a strategy of disproportionate retribution for raids . Russian troops retaliated by destroying villages where resistance fighters were thought to hide, as well as employing assassinations, kidnappings and
6420-409: The Turkish language except for borrowed words. According to various historians, the Circassian origin of the Sindo-Meot tribes refutes the claim that the Circassians are of Turkic ethnic origin. Miyequap (Maikop) civilization was established in 3000 BC. Circassians were known by many different names in ancient times. "Kerket" and "Sucha" are examples. In 1200 BC, Circassians fought alongside
6527-430: The army, Genghis also decreed religious freedom and supported domestic and international trade. He exempted the poor and the clergy from taxation. He also encouraged literacy and the adaptation of the Uyghur script into what would become the Mongolian script of the empire, ordering the Uyghur Tata-tonga , who had previously served the khan of Naimans , to instruct his sons. Genghis quickly came into conflict with
SECTION 60
#17327659287536634-416: The building of foreign merchants' quarters, Buddhist monasteries , mosques , and Christian churches in the Mongol capital. As construction projects continued, Karakorum was adorned with Chinese, European, and Persian architecture . One famous example was a large silver tree with cleverly designed pipes that dispensed various drinks. The tree, topped by a triumphant angel, was crafted by Guillaume Boucher ,
6741-465: The charismatic Ögedei , as his heir. According to Mongol tradition, Genghis Khan was buried in a secret location . The regency was originally held by Ögedei's younger brother Tolui until Ögedei's formal election at the kurultai in 1229. Among his first actions Ögedei sent troops to subjugate the Bashkirs , Bulgars , and other nations in the Kipchak-controlled steppes. In the east, Ögedei's armies re-established Mongol authority in Manchuria, crushing
6848-588: The construction of a palace within the surrounding of its walls. Meanwhile, in an offensive action against the Song dynasty , Mongol armies captured Siyang-yang, the Yangtze and Sichuan , but did not secure their control over the conquered areas. The Song generals were able to recapture Siyang-yang from the Mongols in 1239. After the sudden death of Ögedei's son Kochu in Chinese territory the Mongols withdrew from southern China, although Kochu's brother Prince Koten invaded Tibet immediately after their withdrawal. Batu Khan , another grandson of Genghis Khan, overran
6955-497: The country was Zichia ( Zyx or the Zygii) , who were described by the ancient Greek intellectual Strabo as a nation to the north of Colchis . Circassia was located north of Western Asia , near the northeastern Black Sea coast. Before the Russian conquest of the Caucasus (1763–1864), it covered the entire fertile plateau and the steppe of the northwestern region of the Caucasus , with an estimated population of 1 million. Circassia's historical great range extended from
7062-428: The emperor's nomadic palace with a plan for an armed attack, but Möngke was alerted by his falconer of the plan. Möngke ordered an investigation of the plot, which led to a series of major trials all across the empire. Many members of the Mongol elite were found guilty and put to death, with estimates ranging from 77 to 300, though princes of Genghis's royal line were often exiled rather than executed. Möngke confiscated
7169-613: The empire's finances, Möngke once again sought to expand its borders. At kurultais in Karakorum in 1253 and 1258 he approved new invasions of the Middle East and south China . Möngke put Hulagu in overall charge of military and civil affairs in Persia, and appointed Chagataids and Jochids to join Hulagu's army. The Muslims from Qazvin denounced the menace of the Nizari Ismailis , a well-known sect of Shiites . The Mongol Naiman commander Kitbuqa began to assault several Ismaili fortresses in 1253, before Hulagu advanced in 1256. Ismaili Grand Master Rukn al-Din Khurshah surrendered in 1257 and
7276-482: The end of the 15th century, a detailed description of Circassia and of its inhabitants was made by Genovese traveller and ethnographer Giorgio Interiano . In 1708, Circassians paid a great tribute to the Ottoman sultan in order to prevent Tatar raids, but the sultan did not fulfill the obligation and the Tatars raided all the way to the center of Circassia, robbing everything they could. For this reason, Kabardian Circassians announced that they would never pay tribute to
7383-463: The estates of the Ögedeid and the Chagatai families and shared the western part of the empire with his ally Batu Khan. After the bloody purge, Möngke ordered a general amnesty for prisoners and captives, but thereafter the power of the great khan's throne remained firmly with the descendants of Tolui. Möngke was a serious man who followed the laws of his ancestors and avoided alcoholism. He was tolerant of outside religions and artistic styles, leading to
7490-472: The execution of whole families. Because the resistance was relying on sympathetic villages for food, the Russian military also systematically destroyed crops and livestock and killed Circassian civilians. Circassians responded by creating a tribal federation encompassing all tribes of the area. In 1840 Karl Friedrich Neumann estimated the Circassian casualties at around one and a half million. Some sources state that hundreds of thousands of others died during
7597-440: The exodus. Several historians use the phrase "Circassian massacres" for the consequences of Russian actions in the region. Mongol Empire The Mongol Empire of the 13th and 14th centuries was the largest contiguous empire in history . Originating in present-day Mongolia in East Asia , the Mongol Empire at its height stretched from the Sea of Japan to parts of Eastern Europe , extending northward into parts of
7704-599: The forces of Inal's new state. Inal, who ruled Western Circassia, established the Kabarda region in Eastern Circassia in 1434 and drove the Crimean Tatar tribes in the Circassian lands to the north of the Kuban River in 1438, and as a result of his effective expansions, he was ruling all of the Circassian land. The capital of this new Circassian state founded by Inal became the city of Shanjir, built in
7811-584: The full support of public organizations, so the Circassian Committee of Istanbul and London supported Circassia. Thus, if not de jure, then de facto Circassia acquired the features of a subject of international law. In the 16th century, the English traveler Edmund Spencer, who traveled to the shores of the Caucasus, quotes a Circassian saying about the Ottoman sultan: Circassian blood flows in
7918-466: The grandchildren of Genghis Khan disputed whether the royal line should follow from his son and initial heir Ögedei or from one of his other sons, such as Tolui , Chagatai , or Jochi . The Toluids prevailed after a bloody purge of Ögedeid and Chagatayid factions, but disputes continued among the descendants of Tolui. The conflict over whether the Mongol Empire would adopt a sedentary, cosmopolitan lifestyle or continue its nomadic, steppe-based way of life
8025-596: The ground. Kiev had been a very large and thickly populated town, but now it has been reduced almost to nothing, for there are at the present time scarce two hundred houses there and the inhabitants are kept in complete slavery. Despite the military successes, strife continued within the Mongol ranks. Batu's relations with Güyük , Ögedei's eldest son, and Büri , the beloved grandson of Chagatai Khan , remained tense and worsened during Batu's victory banquet in southern Kievan Rus'. Nevertheless, Güyük and Buri could not do anything to harm Batu's position as long as his uncle Ögedei
8132-675: The hands of the enemy, so Russian officers who later fought in Circassia noted that it was very rare to succeed in capturing Circassians, as they would go as far as suicide. Johann von Blaramberg noted: When they see that they are surrounded, they give their lives dearly, never surrendering. The Russian army, after invading Circassia and ethnically cleansing the Circassians in the Circassian genocide , adopted some parts of Circassian military uniforms - from weapons ( Shashka and Circassian sabers, daggers, Circassian saddles, Circassian horses) to uniforms (Cherkeska, burqa, papaha). Known rulers of
8239-586: The kurultai convened by Töregene in 1246. Güyük by this time was ill and alcoholic, but his campaigns in Manchuria and Europe gave him the kind of stature necessary for a great khan. He was duly elected at a ceremony attended by Mongols and foreign dignitaries from both within and without the empire — leaders of vassal nations, representatives from Rome, and other entities who came to the kurultai to show their respects and conduct diplomacy. Güyük took steps to reduce corruption, announcing that he would continue
8346-403: The kurultai to elect a successor. Batu and his western Mongol army withdrew from Central Europe the next year. Today researchers doubt that Ögedei's death was the sole reason for the Mongols withdrawal. Batu did not return to Mongolia, so a new khan was not elected until 1246. Climatic and environmental factors, as well as the strong fortifications and castles of Europe, played an important role in
8453-473: The main city of this country Matrega, located on the Taman Peninsula. In Matrega, the embassy received a good reception from the Grand Prince. In the 14th and 15th centuries Italian documents concerning the relationship between the consul of Kafa and Circassia clearly indicate the absolutely special status of the ruler of Circassia. This status allowed the senior prince of Circassia to correspond with
8560-517: The medieval era, Circassia was nominally ruled by an elected Grand Prince, but individual principalities and tribes were autonomous. In the 18th–19th centuries, a central government began to form . The Circassians also dominated the northern end of the Kuban River , but were eventually pushed back to the south of the Kuban after suffering losses to military raids conducted by the Mongol Empire ,
8667-525: The nation. Legally and internationally, the Treaty of Belgrade 1739 provided for the recognition of the independence of Eastern Circassia ( Kabarda ), where both the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire recognized it, and the great powers at the time witnessed the treaty. The Congress of Vienna held in the period between 1814 and 1815 also stipulated the recognition of the independence of Circassia. In 1837, Circassian leaders sent letters to European countries requesting legal recognition. Following this,
8774-416: The next year. In June 1860, at a congress of representatives of Circassians, a parliament was formed as the highest legislative body of Circassia. Being a political resistance council and the legislature of Circassia, the parliament was established in the capital of Sochi ( Adyghe : Шъачэ , romanized: Ş̂açə ) on June 13, 1860 and Qerandiqo Berzeg was elected as the head of the parliament and
8881-431: The northern Caucasus and Hungary. The pro-Tolui faction supported Batu's choice, and Möngke was elected; though given the kurultai's limited attendance and location, it was of questionable validity. Batu sent Möngke, under the protection of his brothers, Berke and Tukhtemur, and his son Sartaq to assemble a more formal kurultai at Kodoe Aral in the heartland. The supporters of Möngke repeatedly invited Oghul Qaimish and
8988-555: The only condition being that the prince can trace descent from Inal the Great . The existence of such an institute is confirmed by foreign sources. In the eyes of foreign observers, the Grand Prince was considered the king of the Circassians. However, the individual tribes were greatly autonomous and the title was mostly symbolic. In 1237, the Dominican monks Richard and Julian, as part of the Hungarian embassy, visited Circassia and
9095-483: The other major Ögedeid and Chagataid princes to attend the kurultai, but they refused each time. The Ögedeid and Chagataid princes refused to accept a descendant of Genghis's son Tolui as leader, demanding that only descendants of Genghis's son Ögedei could be great khan. When Möngke's mother Sorghaghtani and their cousin Berke organized a second kurultai on 1 July 1251, the assembled throng proclaimed Möngke great khan of
9202-732: The policies of his father Ögedei, not those of Töregene. He punished Töregene's supporters, except for governor Arghun the Elder . He also replaced young Qara Hülëgü , the khan of the Chagatai Khanate , with his favorite cousin Yesü Möngke , to assert his newly conferred powers. He restored his father's officials to their former positions and was surrounded by Uyghur, Naiman and Central Asian officials, favoring Han Chinese commanders who had helped his father conquer Northern China. He continued military operations in Korea, advanced into Song China in
9309-588: The pope's envoy to the Mongol great khan, travelled through Kiev in February 1246 and wrote: They [the Mongols] attacked Russia, where they made great havoc, destroying cities and fortresses and slaughtering men; and they laid siege to Kiev, the capital of Russia; after they had besieged the city for a long time, they took it and put the inhabitants to death. When we were journeying through that land we came across countless skulls and bones of dead men lying about on
9416-407: The region include: Turkish nationalist groups and proponents of modern day Pan-Turkism have claimed that the Circassians are of Turkic origin, but no scientific evidence has been published to support this claim and it has been strongly denied by ethnic Circassians, impartial research, linguists and historians around the world. The Circassian language does not share notable similarities to
9523-640: The south, and into Iraq in the west, and ordered an empire-wide census. Güyük also divided the Sultanate of Rum between Izz-ad-Din Kaykawus and Rukn ad-Din Kilij Arslan , though Kaykawus disagreed with this decision. Not all parts of the empire respected Güyük's election. The Hashshashins , former Mongol allies whose Grand Master Hasan Jalalud-Din had offered his submission to Genghis Khan in 1221, angered Güyük by refusing to submit. Instead he murdered
9630-591: The southern part of the empire he continued his predecessors' struggle against the Song dynasty. In order to outflank the Song from three directions, Möngke dispatched Mongol armies under his brother Kublai to Yunnan , and under his uncle Iyeku to subdue Korea and pressure the Song from that direction as well. Kublai conquered the Dali Kingdom in 1253 after the Dali King Duan Xingzhi defected to
9737-513: The territories of the Bulgars , the Alans , the Kypchaks, Bashkirs, Mordvins , Chuvash , and other nations of the southern Russian steppe. By 1237 the Mongols were encroaching upon Ryazan , the first Kievan Rus' principality they were to attack. After a three-day siege involving fierce fighting, the Mongols captured the city and massacred its inhabitants. They then proceeded to destroy the army of
9844-618: The three western khanates accepted the suzerainty of the Yuan dynasty. The part of the empire that fell first was the Ilkhanate, which disintegrated in the period of 1335–1353. Next, the Yuan dynasty lost control of the Tibetan Plateau and China proper in 1354 and 1368, respectively, and collapsed after its capital of Dadu was taken over by Ming forces . The Genghisid rulers of the Yuan then retreated north and continued to rule
9951-410: The throne; they regarded Temujin not as a leader but as an insolent usurper. This dissatisfaction spread to his generals and other associates, and some Mongols who had previously been allies broke their allegiance. War ensued, and Temujin and the forces still loyal to him prevailed, defeating the remaining rival tribes between 1203 and 1205 and bringing them under his sway. In 1206, Temujin was crowned as
10058-524: The time, possibly to pay homage, or perhaps with other plans in mind. Before the forces of Batu and Güyük met, Güyük, sick and worn out by travel, died en route at Qum-Senggir (Hong-siang-yi-eulh) in Xinjiang , possibly a victim of poison. Güyük's widow Oghul Qaimish stepped forward to take control of the empire, but she lacked the skills of her mother-in-law Töregene, and her young sons Khoja and Naku and other princes challenged her authority. To decide on
10165-722: The title Circassian . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Circassian&oldid=1180079734 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Language and nationality disambiguation pages Circassia Khazar rule Lawristan (Khazar vassal) Weche (Khazar vassal) Surviving Destroyed or barely existing Circassia ( / s ɜːr ˈ k æ ʃ ə / sir-KASH-ə ), also known as Zichia ,
10272-487: The tribes, especially between the Tatars and the Mongols, in order to keep the nomadic tribes distracted by their own battles and thereby away from the Jin. Khabul's successor was Ambaghai Khan , who was betrayed by the Tatars, handed over to the Jurchen, and executed. The Mongols retaliated by raiding the frontier, resulting in a failed Jurchen counter-attack in 1143. In 1147, the Jin somewhat changed their policy, signing
10379-461: The veins of the Sultan. His mother, his harem are Circassian; his slaves are Circassians, his ministers and generals are Circassians. He is the head of our faith and also of our race. Circassia for centuries lived under the threat of external invasions, so the whole way of life of the Circassians was militarized. The governor of Astrakhan wrote to Peter I: One thing I can praise about the Circassians
10486-458: The word Cherkess , which is of debated origin. One view is that its root stems from Turkic languages, and that the term means "head choppers" or "warrior killers" accounting for the successful battle practices of the Circassians. There are those who argue that the term comes from Mongolian Jerkes , meaning "one who blocks a path". Some believe it comes from the ancient Greek name of the region, Siraces . According to another view, its origin
10593-543: Was a busy trading state where artists and merchants were accommodated. Circassians could not establish a union for a long time after this state. The most detailed description of medieval Circassia was made by Johannes de Galonifontibus in 1404. From his writing it follows that at the turn of the XIV and XV centuries, Circassia expanded its borders to the north to the mouth of the Don , and he notes that “the city and port of Tana
10700-659: Was a country and a historical region in Eastern Europe . It spanned the western coastal portions of the North Caucasus , along the northeastern shore of the Black Sea . Circassia was conquered by the Russian Empire during the Russo-Circassian War (1763–1864), after which approximately 99.5-99.8% of the Circassian people were either exiled or massacred in the Circassian genocide . In
10807-486: Was a major factor in the breakup. After Möngke Khan died (1259), rival kurultai councils simultaneously elected different successors, the brothers Ariq Böke and Kublai Khan , who fought each other in the Toluid Civil War (1260–1264) and also dealt with challenges from the descendants of other sons of Genghis. Kublai successfully took power, but war ensued as he sought unsuccessfully to regain control of
10914-557: Was collected by imperial agents and forwarded to units in need. His court also tried to lighten the tax burden on commoners by reducing tax rates. He also centralized control of monetary affairs and reinforced the guards at the postal relays. Möngke ordered an empire-wide census in 1252 that took several years to complete and was not finished until Novgorod in the far northwest was counted in 1258. In another move to consolidate his power, Möngke assigned his brothers Hulagu and Kublai to rule Persia and Mongol-held China respectively. In
11021-525: Was drafted addressed to Tsar Alexander II. The text of the memorandum was presented to the tsar by the leaders of the Parliament during the latter's visit to Circassia in September 1861. The Parliament also accepted an appeal to the Ottoman and European governments. Special envoys were sent to Istanbul and London to seek diplomatic and military support. The activities of the Circassian government received
11128-408: Was humiliated, all the way to his shoes taken, leaving his brother, son, field tools, tents and personal belongings. In 1714, Peter I established a plan to occupy the Caucasus. Although he was unable to implement this plan, he laid the political and ideological foundation for the occupation to take place. Catherine II started putting this plan into action. The Russian army was deployed on the banks of
11235-643: Was still alive. Ögedei continued with offensives into the Indian subcontinent , temporarily investing Uchch , Lahore , and Multan of the Delhi Sultanate and stationing a Mongol overseer in Kashmir , though the invasions into India eventually failed and were forced to retreat. In northeastern Asia, Ögedei agreed to end the conflict with Goryeo by making it a client state and sent Mongol princesses to wed Goryeo princes. He then reinforced his kheshig with
11342-504: Was to unite the Circassians, which were divided into many states at that time, under a single state, and after declaring his own princedom, conquered all of Circassia one by one. Circassian nobles and princes tried to prevent Inal's rise, but in a battle near the Msimta River, 30 Circassian lords were defeated by Inal and his supporters. Ten of them were executed, while the remaining twenty lords took an oath of allegiance and joined
11449-645: Was unclear. Some sources wrote that he sought to recuperate at his personal estate, Emyl; others suggested that he might have been moving to join Eljigidei to conduct a full-scale conquest of the Middle East, or possibly to make a surprise attack on his rival cousin Batu Khan in Rus. Suspicious of Güyük's motives, Sorghaghtani Beki , the widow of Genghis's son Tolui, secretly warned her nephew Batu of Güyük's approach. Batu had himself been traveling eastward at
#752247