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93-539: Western Kangaroo Island Marine Park (formerly Western Kangaroo Island Commonwealth Marine Reserve ) is a marine protected area located south of South Australia in waters within the Australian Exclusive economic zone to the south-west of Kangaroo Island and ranging in depth from 15 metres (49 feet) to 165 metres (541 feet). It was gazetted in November 2012. It was renamed on 11 October 2017. It

186-506: A calving area for southern right whale and feeding areas for the following species - Australian sea lion , blue whale , Caspian tern , great white shark , short-tailed shearwater and sperm whale . The marine park consists of two zones - a marine national park zone ( IUCN Category II ) with an area of 120 square kilometres (46 square miles) and a special purpose zone ( IUCN Category VI ) with an area of 2,215 square kilometres (855 square miles). Marine protected area There are

279-764: A cetacean sanctuary in the Ligurian Sea named the Pelagos Sanctuary for Mediterranean Marine Mammals . This sanctuary includes both national and international waters. Both the CBD and IUCN recommended a variety of management systems for use in a protected area system. They advocated that MPAs be seen as one of many "nodes" in a network of protected areas. The following are the most common management systems: Seasonal and temporary management —Activities, most critically fishing, are restricted seasonally or temporarily, e.g., to protect spawning/nursing grounds or to let

372-491: A critical factor in their success. Subsequently, the range of natural resources that any one protected area may guard is vast. Many will be allocated primarily for species conservation whether it be flora or fauna or the relationship between them, but protected areas are similarly important for conserving sites of (indigenous) cultural importance and considerable reserves of natural resources such as; Annual updates on each of these analyses are made in order to make comparisons to

465-640: A global network contribute to achieving the three objectives of the Convention and the 2010 target to significantly reduce the current rate of biodiversity loss ." In 2010, protected areas were included in Target 11 of the CBD's Strategic Plan for Biodiversity , known as the Aichi Biodiversity Targets. Target 11 states: In 2018, to complement protected areas across landscapes and seascapes,

558-482: A nationwide survey that compares the biodiversity of Bhutan's protected areas versus that of intervening non-protected areas. The study indicated that Bhutan's protected areas "are effectively conserving medium and large mammal species, as demonstrated through the significant difference in mammal diversity between protected areas, biological corridors, and non-protected areas with the strongest difference between protected areas and non-protected areas". Protected areas had

651-465: A network of protected areas by 2010 within the jurisdiction of regional environmental protocols .It recommended establishing protected areas for 20 to 30% of the world's oceans by the goal date of 2012. The Convention on Biological Diversity considered these recommendations and recommended requiring countries to set up marine parks controlled by a central organization before merging them. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change agreed to

744-517: A number of global examples of large marine conservation areas. The Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument , is situated in the central Pacific Ocean, around Hawaii , occupying an area of 1.5 million square kilometers. The area is rich in wild life, including the green turtle and the Hawaiian monkfish, alongside 7,000 other species, and 14 million seabirds. In 2017 the Cook Islands passed

837-564: A preventive measure or to avoid direct disturbance to individual species. The degree to which environmental regulations affect shipping varies according to whether MPAs are located in territorial waters , exclusive economic zones , or the high seas . The law of the sea regulates these limits. Most MPAs have been located in territorial waters, where the appropriate government can enforce them. However, MPAs have been established in exclusive economic zones and in international waters . For example, Italy, France and Monaco in 1999 jointly established

930-708: A protected area or an entire network of protected areas may lie within a larger geographic zone that is recognised as a terrestrial or marine ecoregions (see Global 200 ), or a Crisis Ecoregions for example. As a result, Protected Areas can encompass a broad range of governance types. A wide variety of rights-holders and stakeholders are involved in the governance and management of protected areas, including forest protected areas, such as government agencies and ministries at various levels, elected and traditional authorities, indigenous peoples and local communities, private individuals and non-profit trusts, among others. Most protected-area and forest management institutions acknowledge

1023-662: A protected area. Scientific publications have identified 3,749 enacted PADDD events in 73 countries since 1892 which have collectively impacted an area approximately the size of Mexico. PADDD is a historical and contemporary phenomenon. 78% of PADDD events worldwide were enacted since 2000 and governments in at least 14 countries are currently considering at least 46 PADDD proposals. Proximate causes of PADDD vary widely but most PADDD events globally (62%) are related to industrial scale resource extraction and development – infrastructure, industrial agriculture, mining, oil and gas, forestry, fisheries, and industrialization. PADDD challenges

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1116-403: A range of protection levels that are designed to meet objectives that a single reserve cannot achieve. At the 2004 Convention on Biological Diversity , the agency agreed to use " network " on a global level, while adopting system for national and regional levels. The network is a mechanism to establish regional and local systems, but carries no authority or mandate, leaving all activity within

1209-566: A rapidly reducing species recover. Multiple-use MPAs —These are the most common and arguably the most effective. These areas employ two or more protections. The most important sections get the highest protection, such as a no take zone and are surrounded with areas of lesser protections. Multiple-use MPAs can make use of very diverse fisheries regulations to balance fisheries extraction with nature protection. Community involvement and related approaches —Community-managed MPAs empower local communities to operate partially or completely independent of

1302-520: A source of aesthetic and cultural value for tourism and heritage. Such services are often overlooked by humanity, due to the ecosystem from which they originate being far from urbanized areas. The contamination of ecosystem services within a designated area ultimately degrades their use for society. For example, the protection of a water body inherently protects that water body's microorganisms and their ability to adequately filter pollutants and pathogens, ultimately protecting water quality itself. Therefore,

1395-482: A specific class of protected area. China, a megadiverse country , has begun implementing various protected areas in recent years. As of the year 2017, China has nearly 10,000 to 12,000 protected areas , 80% of which are nature reserves aiming to foster biodiversity conservation. These newly implemented reserves safeguard a range of ecosystems, from tropical forests to marine habitats. These protected areas encompass nearly 20% of China's land area. Natura 2000

1488-546: Is a private protected area , also known as a 'Private Reserve' predominantly managed for biodiversity conservation, protected without formal government recognition and is owned and stewarded by the O corporation International. O parks plays a particularly important role in conserving critical biodiversity in a section of the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor known as the Paso del Istmo , located along

1581-655: Is a 100% no take zone. Related terms include; specially protected area (SPA), Special Area of Conservation (SAC), the United Kingdom's marine conservation zones (MCZs), or area of special conservation (ASC) etc. which each provide specific restrictions. Stressors that affect oceans include the impact of extractive industries , marine pollution , and changes to the ocean's chemistry ( ocean acidification ) resulting from elevated carbon dioxide levels, due to our greenhouse gas emissions (see also effects of climate change on oceans ). MPAs have been cited as

1674-399: Is a heritage register, a list of national heritage places deemed to be of outstanding heritage significance to Australia, established in 2003. The list includes natural and historic places, including those of cultural significance to Indigenous Australians . Indigenous Protected Areas (IPAs) are formed by agreement with Indigenous Australians, and declared by Indigenous Australians, and form

1767-532: Is a network of protected areas established by the EU across all member states. It is made up of Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) and Special Protection Areas (SPAs) designated respectively under the Habitats Directive and Birds Directive . 787,767 km (304,159 sq mi) are designated as terrestrial sites and 251,564 km (97,129 sq mi) as marine sites. Overall, 18 percent of

1860-722: Is also found in Sustainable Development Goal 14 (which is part of the Convention on Biological Diversity ) and which sets this 10% goal to a later date (2020). In 2017, the UN held the United Nations Ocean Conference aiming to find ways and urge for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14. In that 2017 conference, it was clear that just between 3.6 and 5.7% of the world's oceans were protected, meaning another 6.4 to 4.3% of

1953-411: Is currently a developing country that is undergoing infrastructure development and resource collection. The country's economic progression has brought about human-wildlife conflict and increased pressure on the existence of its protected areas. In light of ongoing disputes on the topic of optimal land usage, Dorji (et al.), in a study using camera traps to detect wildlife activity, summarize the results of

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2046-512: Is limited. The term "protected area" also includes marine protected areas and transboundary protected areas across multiple borders. As of 2016, there are over 161,000 protected areas representing about 17 percent of the world's land surface area (excluding Antarctica). For waters under national jurisdiction beyond inland waters, there are 14,688 Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), covering approximately 10.2% of coastal and marine areas and 4.12% of global ocean areas. In contrast, only 0.25% of

2139-599: Is no defined long-term goal for conservation and ecological recovery and extraction of marine resources occurs, a region is not a marine protected area. "Marine protected area (MPA)" is a term for protected areas that include marine environment and biodiversity . Other definitions by the IUCN include (2010): Any area of the intertidal or subtidal terrain, together with its overlying water and associated flora, fauna, historical and cultural features, which has been reserved by law or other effective means to protect part or all of

2232-425: Is often why many Wildlife Reserves and National Parks face the human threat of poaching for the illegal bushmeat or trophy trades, which are resorted to as an alternative form of substinence. Poaching has thus increased in recent years as areas with certain species are no longer easily and legally accessible. This increasing threat has often led governments to enforce laws and implement new policies to adhere to

2325-816: Is part of a group of Australian marine parks managed by the Department of the Environment and Energy known as the South-west Marine Parks Network. It adjoins the Western Kangaroo Island Marine Park managed by the Government of South Australia which it both bounds on its north-west side and fully encloses the portion of the state marine park surrounding Lipson Reef near its eastern extent. The marine park includes ecosystems representative of

2418-488: Is recognised not only ecologically, but culturally through further development in the arena of Indigenous and Community Conserved Areas (ICCAs). ICCAs are "natural and/or modified ecosystems containing significant bio - diversity values and ecological services, voluntarily conserved by (sedentary and mobile) indigenous and local communities, through customary laws or other effective means". As of December 2022, 17% of land territory and 10% of ocean territory were protected. At

2511-687: Is the Main Ridge Forest Reserve, established by an ordinance dated 13 April 1776. Other sources mention the 1778 approval of a protected area on then- Khan Uul , a mountain previous protected by local nomads for centuries in Mongolia, by then-ruling Qing China Tenger Tetgegch Khaan . However, the mass protected areas movement did not begin until late nineteenth-century in North America, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, when other countries were quick to follow suit. While

2604-522: Is to protect 30% of the terrestrial and marine territory of the United States by the year 2030. In the United Kingdom, the term conservation area almost always applies to an area (usually urban or the core of a village) of special architectural or historic interest, the character of which is considered worthy of preservation or enhancement. It creates a precautionary approach to the loss or alteration of buildings and/or trees, thus it has some of

2697-546: Is usually the main reason for constructing protected areas, the protection of biodiversity also protects the ecosystem services society enjoys. Some ecosystem services include those that provide and regulate resources, support natural processes, or represent culture. Provisioning services provide resources to humanity, such as fuel and water, while regulating services include carbon sequestration , climate regulation, and protection against disease. Supporting ecosystem services include nutrient cycling , while cultural services are

2790-418: The 2022 United Nations Biodiversity Conference almost 200 countries, signed onto the agreement which includes protecting 30% of land and oceans by 2030 ( 30 by 30 ). In 1992, a protected area was defined in paragraph 2 of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) as "a geographically defined area which is designated or regulated and managed to achieve specific conservation objectives." Under Article 8 of

2883-653: The Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework at the COP15, which includes the 30 by 30 initiative. Protected areas are implemented for biodiversity conservation , often providing habitat and protection from hunting for threatened and endangered species . Protection helps maintain ecological processes that cannot survive in most intensely managed landscapes and seascapes. Indigenous peoples and local communities frequently criticize this method of fortress conservation for

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2976-535: The Millennium Development Goals and several other fields of analysis are expected to be introduced in the monitoring of protected areas management effectiveness, such as freshwater and marine or coastal studies which are currently underway, and islands and drylands which are currently in planning. The effectiveness of protected areas to protect biodiversity can be estimated by comparing population changes over time. Such an analysis found that

3069-586: The Red Sea , Gulf of Aden and Mexico. To be truly representative of the ocean and its range of marine resources, marine conservation parks should encompass the great variety of ocean geological and geographical terrains, as these, in turn, influence the biosphere around them. As time progresses it would be strategically advantageous to develop parks that include oceanic features such as ocean ridges , ocean trenches , island arc systems, ocean seamounts , ocean plateaus , and abyssal plains , which occupy half

3162-795: The Ross Sea . Other large MPAs are in the Indian , Pacific , and Atlantic Oceans , in certain exclusive economic zones of Australia and overseas territories of France , the United Kingdom and the United States , with major (990,000 square kilometres (380,000 sq mi) or larger) new or expanded MPAs by these nations since 2012—such as Natural Park of the Coral Sea , Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument , Coral Sea Commonwealth Marine Reserve and South Georgia and

3255-549: The United Nations Environment Programme , the United States had a total of 6770 terrestrial nationally designated (federal) protected areas. These protected areas cover 2,607,131 km (1,006,619 sq mi), or 27.08 percent of the land area of the United States. This is also one-tenth of the protected land area of the world. According to a report from the Center for American Progress ,

3348-668: The World Charter for Nature in 1982, the Rio Declaration at the Earth Summit in 1992, and the Johannesburg Declaration 2002. Recently, the importance of protected areas has been brought to the fore at the threat of human-induced global heating and the understanding of the necessity to consume natural resources in a sustainable manner. The spectrum of benefits and values of protected areas

3441-436: The bioregion known as the "Spencer Gulf Shelf Province", two "key ecological features" consisting of firstly of a feature known as the "Kangaroo Island Pool" and the associated "Eyre Peninsula upwelling" both notable for their "high productivity, breeding and feeding aggregations" and secondly of a feature described as "Ancient coastline" within a depth range of 90–120 metres (300–390 ft) and as being of "high productivity",

3534-444: The " system ". No take zones (NTZs), are areas designated in a number of the world's MPAs, where all forms of exploitation are prohibited and severely limits human activities. These no take zones can cover an entire MPA, or specific portions. For example, the 1,150,000 square kilometres (440,000 sq mi) Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument , the world's largest MPA (and largest protected area of any type, land or sea),

3627-534: The 12-mile-wide isthmus between Lake Nicaragua and the Pacific Ocean. On 21 May 2019, The Moscow Times cited a World Wildlife Fund report indicating that Russia now ranks first in the world for its amount of protected natural areas with 63.3 million hectares of specially protected natural areas. However, the article did not contain a link to WWF's report and it may be based on previously gathered data. As of 31 January 2008 , according to

3720-457: The 17th and 18th centuries, protected areas were mostly hunting grounds of rulers and thus, on the one hand, an expression of the absolute personal authority of a monarch, and on the other hand, they were concentrated in certain places and diminished with increasing spatial distance from the seat of power. In the late 19th century, modern territorial states emerged which, thanks to the transport and communication technologies of industrialisation and

3813-603: The Antarctic Treaty and CCAMLR, make up part the broader system of international agreements called the Antarctic Treaty System. Since 1982, the CCAMLR meets annually to implement binding conservations measures like the creation of 'protected areas' at the suggestion of the convention's scientific committee. In 2009, the CCAMLR created the first 'high-seas' MPA entirely within international waters over

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3906-646: The CBD, parties who entered the treaty agreed to, among other things, "establish a system of protected areas." In 2004, the CBD's Conference of the Parties (COP) adopted the Program of Work on Protected Areas (PoWPA) to further develop and promote protected areas. PoWPA's objective was the "establishment and maintenance by 2010 for terrestrial and by 2012 for marine areas of comprehensive, effectively managed, and ecologically representative national and regional systems of protected areas that collectively, inter alia through

3999-498: The Convention and the 2010 target to significantly reduce the current late of biodiversity loss at the global, regional, national, and sub-national levels and contribute to poverty reduction and the pursuit of sustainable development ." The UN later endorsed another decision, Decision VII/15, in 2006: Effective conservation of 10% of each of the world's ecological regions by 2010. – United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Decision VII/15 The 10% conservation goal

4092-521: The EU land mass is designated. Protected areas of India include National parks , Wildlife sanctuaries , biosphere reserves , reserved and protected forests , conservation and community reserves , communal forests , private protected areas and conservation areas . Lebanon, home to one of the highest densities of floral diversity in the Mediterranean basin , hosts tree species with critical biogeographical locations (southernmost limit) on

4185-531: The Federated States of Micronesia, Marshall Islands, and Cook Islands who have individual EEZ areas of between 1.9 and 3.5 million km . The national EEZ's are the ones where governance is easier, and agreements to create marine parks are within national jurisdictions, such as is the case with Marae Moana and the Cook Islands. One alternative to imposing MPAs on an indigenous population is through

4278-537: The Great Lakes of North America. The form of marine protected areas trace the origins to the World Congress on National Parks in 1962. In 1976, a process was delivered to the excessive rights to every sovereign state to establish marine protected areas at over 200 nautical miles. Over the next two decades, a scientific body of evidence marked the utility in the designation of marine protected areas. In

4371-681: The Marae Moana Act designating the whole of the country's marine exclusive economic zone , which has an area of 1.9 million square kilometers as a zone with the purpose of protecting and conserving the "ecological, biodiversity and heritage values of the Cook Islands marine environment". Other large marine conservation areas include those around Antarctica, New Caledonia, Greenland, Alaska, Ascension Island, and Brazil. As areas of protected marine biodiversity expand, there has been an increase in ocean science funding, essential for preserving marine resources . In 2020, only around 7.5 to 8% of

4464-600: The Ross Sea after several years of failed negotiations. Establishment of the Ross Sea MPA required unanimity of the commission members and enforcement will begin in December 2017. However, due to a sunset provision inserted into the proposal, the new marine park will only be in force for 35 years. Many countries have established national targets, accompanied by action plans and implementations. The UN Council identified

4557-790: The South Sandwich Islands Marine Protected Area . When counted with MPAs of all sizes from many other countries, as of April 2023 there are more than 16,615 MPAs, encompassing 7.2% of the world's oceans (26,146,645 km ), with less than half of that area – encompassing 2.9% of the world's oceans – assessed to be fully or highly protected according to the MPA Guide Framework. Several types of compliant MPA can be distinguished: IUCN offered seven categories of protected area , based on management objectives and four broad governance types. Related protected area categories include

4650-520: The United Nations. The categories provide international standards for defining protected areas and encourage conservation planning according to their management aims. IUCN Protected Area Management Categories : Protected areas are cultural artifacts, and their story is entwined with that of human civilization. Protecting places and natural resources is by no means a modern concept, whether it be indigenous communities guarding sacred sites or

4743-455: The abundance of 2,239 terrestrial vertebrate populations changed at slower rate in protected areas. On average, vertebrate populations declined five times more slowly within protected areas (−0.4% per year) than at similar sites lacking protection (−1.8% per year). Along with providing important stocks of natural resources, protected areas are often major sources of vital ecosystem services , unbeknownst to human society. Although biodiversity

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4836-401: The administration of Joe Biden reached a record in conservation. In 3 years of ruling it conserved or in the process of conserving more than 24 millions acres of public land and in 2023 alone more than 12.5 million acres of public land became protected area. It is doing it together with the indigenous people as 200 agreements of co-stewardship with them were signed in 2023 alone. The goal of Biden

4929-619: The aftermath of the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro , an international target was established with the encompassment of ten percent of the world's marine protected areas. On 28 October 2016 in Hobart , Australia , the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources agreed to establish the first Antarctic and largest marine protected area in the world encompassing 1.55 million km (600,000 sq mi) in

5022-473: The closely meshed and well-connected administrative apparatus that came with it, could actually assert claims to power over large contiguous territories. The establishment of nature reserves in mostly peripheral regions thus became possible and at the same time underpinned the new state claim to power. Initially, protected areas were recognised on a national scale, differing from country to country until 1933, when an effort to reach an international consensus on

5115-543: The convention of European hunting reserves. Over 2000 years ago, royal decrees in India protected certain areas. In Europe, rich and powerful people protected hunting grounds for a thousand years. Moreover, the idea of protection of special places is universal: for example, it occurs among the communities in the Pacific ("tapu" areas) and in parts of Africa (sacred groves). The oldest legally protected reserve recorded in history

5208-531: The draft Global Biodiversity Framework, which is due to be agreed at the 15th Conference of the Parties to the UN Convention on Biological Diversity, which will be held 5 to 17 December in Montreal , Canada. How to manage areas protected for conservation brings up a range of challenges – whether it be regarding the local population, specific ecosystems or the design of the reserve itself – and because of

5301-902: The earth's surface. Another factor that will influence the development of marine conservation areas is ownership. Who owns the world's oceans? Approximately 64% of the world's oceans are " international waters " and subject to regulations such as the Law of the Sea and the governance of UN bodies such as the International Seabed Authority . The remaining 36% of the ocean is under the governance of individual countries within their Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs). Some individual national EEZ's cover very large areas , such as France and USA (>11 million km ), and Australia, Russia, UK, and Indonesia (>6 million km ). Some states have very small land areas but extremely large EEZ's such as Kiribati,

5394-498: The effectiveness of most of them remains unclear. Scientists advocate that 50% of global land and seas be converted to inter-connected protected areas to sustain these benefits. The Asian country Bhutan achieved this high-reaching target by reserving 51.4% of the country's area as protected areas interconnected through biological corridors . Although these networks are well regulated (local communities are aware of their importance and actively contribute to their maintenance), Bhutan

5487-538: The enclosed environment. United States Executive Order 13158 in May 2000 established MPAs, defining them as: Any area of the marine environment that has been reserved by federal, state, tribal, territorial, or local laws or regulations to provide lasting protection for part or all of the natural and cultural resources therein. The Convention on Biological Diversity defined the broader term of marine and coastal protected area (MCPA): Any defined area within or adjacent to

5580-488: The fabric of nation states. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) defines a protected area as: A clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values. This definition is intended to make it more difficult to claim MPA status for regions where exploitation of marine resources occurs. If there

5673-504: The following; While "area" refers to a single contiguous location, terms such as " network ", " system ", and " region " that group MPAs are not always consistently employed." System " is more often used to refer to an individual MPA, whereas " region " is defined by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre as: A collection of individual MPAs operating cooperatively, at various spatial scales and with

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5766-533: The generally violent processes by which the regulations of the areas are enforced. The definition that has been widely accepted across regional and global frameworks has been provided by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in its categorisation guidelines for protected areas. The definition is as follows: A clearly defined geographical space, recognized, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve

5859-652: The global ocean area falls under a conservation designation. This area is equivalent to 27 million square kilometres, equivalent to the land areas of Russia and Canada combined, although some argue that the effective conservation zones (ones with the strictest regulations) occupy only 5% of the ocean area (about equivalent to the land area of Russia alone). Marine conservation zones, as with their terrestrial equivalents, vary in terms of rules and regulations. Few zones rule out completely any sort of human activity within their area, as activities such as fishing, tourism, and transport of essential goods and services by ship, are part of

5952-505: The governmental jurisdictions they occupy. Empowering communities to manage resources can lower conflict levels and enlist the support of diverse groups that rely on the resource such as subsistence and commercial fishers, scientists, recreation, tourism businesses, youths and others. Mistrust between fishermen and regulating authorities is of central importance there, and needs to be addressed. Recent evidence from regions like Scandinavia, Spain, Portugal or Canada reveals success stories based on

6045-446: The highest levels of mammal biodiversity. This is made possible by the restriction of commercial activity and regulation of consumptive uses (firewood, timber, etc.). The regulation of such practices has allowed Bhutan's protected areas to thrive with high carnivore diversity and other rare mammals such as Chinese pangolin , Indian pangolin , mountain weasel ( Mustela altaica ) , small-toothed ferret badger , Asian small clawed otter ,

6138-509: The idea of protected areas spread around the world in the twentieth century, the driving force was different in different regions. Thus, in North America, protected areas were about safeguarding dramatic and sublime scenery; in Africa, the concern was with game parks; in Europe, landscape protection was more common. The designation of protected areas often also contained a political statement. In

6231-541: The implementation of protected areas is vital to maintaining the quality and consistency of ecosystem services, ultimately allowing human society to function without the interference of human infrastructure or policies. Through its World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA), the IUCN has developed six Protected Area Management Categories that define protected areas according to their management objectives, which are internationally recognised by various national governments and

6324-453: The importance of recognizing the rights of indigenous peoples and local communities, sharing the costs and benefits of protected areas and actively involving them in their governance and management. This has led to the recognition of four main types of governance, defined on the basis of who holds authority, responsibility, and who can be held accountable for the key decisions for protected areas. Indeed, governance of protected areas has emerged

6417-585: The infrastructure and networking needed to substitute consumable resources and substantively protect the area from development or misuse. The soliciting of protected areas may require regulation to the level of meeting demands for food, feed, livestock and fuel, and the legal enforcement of not only the protected area itself but also 'buffer zones' surrounding it, which may help to resist destabilisation. Protected area downgrading, downsizing, and degazettement (PADDD) Protected area downgrading, downsizing, and degazettement (PADDD) events are processes that change

6510-713: The initial goal of protected areas, though many illegal activities are often overlooked. There is increasing pressure to take proper account of human needs when setting up protected areas and these sometimes have to be "traded off" against conservation needs. Whereas in the past governments often made decisions about protected areas and informed local people afterwards, today the emphasis is shifting towards greater discussions with stakeholders and joint decisions about how such lands should be set aside and managed. Such negotiations are never easy but usually produce stronger and longer-lasting results for both conservation and people. In some countries, protected areas can be assigned without

6603-528: The legal status of national parks and other protected areas in both terrestrial and marine environments. Downgrading is a decrease in legal restrictions on human activities within a protected area, downsizing is a decrease in protected area size through a legal boundary change, and degazettement is the loss of legal protection for an entire protected area. Collectively, PADDD represents legal processes that temper regulations, shrink boundaries, or eliminate legal protections originally associated with establishment of

6696-686: The long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values. Protected Areas alleviate climate change effects in a variety of ways: The objective of protected areas is to conserve biodiversity and to provide a way for measuring the progress of such conservation. Protected areas will usually encompass several other zones that have been deemed important for particular conservation uses, such as Important Bird Areas (IBA) and Endemic Bird Areas (EBA), Centres of Plant Diversity (CPD), Indigenous and Community Conserved Areas (ICCA), Alliance for Zero Extinction Sites (AZE) and Key Biodiversity Areas (KBA) among others. Likewise,

6789-430: The longstanding assumption that protected areas are permanent fixtures and highlights the need for decision-makers to consider protected area characteristics and the socioeconomic context in which they are situated to better ensure their permanence. A main goal of protected areas is to prevent loss of biodiversity . However, their effectiveness is limited by their small size and isolation from each other (which influence

6882-424: The maintenance of species), their restricted role in preventing climate change , invasive species , and pollution, their high costs, and their increasing conflict with human demands for nature's resources. In addition, the type of habitat, species composition, legal issues and governance, play important roles. One major problem is that only 18% of the area covered by protected areas have been assessed, hence

6975-479: The many unpredicatable elements in ecology issues, each protected area requires a case-specific set of guidelines. Enforcing protected area boundaries is a costly and labour-heavy endeavour, particularly if the allocation of a new protected region places new restrictions on the use of resources by the native people which may lead to their subsequent displacement. This has troubled relationships between conservationists and rural communities in many protected regions and

7068-418: The marine environment, together with its overlying water and associated flora, fauna, historical and cultural features, which has been reserved by legislation or other effective means, including custom, with the effect that its marine and/or coastal biodiversity enjoys a higher level of protection than its surroundings. An apparently unique extension of the meaning is used by NOAA to refer to protected areas on

7161-481: The need for countries to collaborate with each other to establish effective regional conservation plans. Some national targets are listed in the table below Protected area Protected areas or conservation areas are locations which receive protection because of their recognized natural or cultural values. Protected areas are those areas in which human presence or the exploitation of natural resources (e.g. firewood, non-timber forest products , water, ...)

7254-710: The networks that hold regular revisions for the succinct categorisations that have been developed to regulate and record protected areas. In 1972, the Stockholm Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment endorsed the protection of representative examples of all major ecosystem types as a fundamental requirement of national conservation programmes. This has become a core principle of conservation biology and has remained so in recent resolutions – including

7347-549: The ocean's single greatest hope for increasing the resilience of the marine environment to such stressors. Well-designed and managed MPAs developed with input and support from interested stakeholders can conserve biodiversity and protect and restore fisheries . MPAs can help sustain local economies by supporting fisheries and tourism. For example, Apo Island in the Philippines made protected one quarter of their reef, allowing fish to recover, jump-starting their economy. This

7440-476: The perspective of resource users, intended to address both environmental and socio-economic needs, complementary ecological and social goals and designs need greater research and policy support". Filipino communities connect with one another to share information about MPAs, creating a larger network through the social communities' support. Emerging or established MPA networks can be found in Australia , Belize,

7533-562: The region while protecting ecosystem integrity south of the Antarctic Convergence and 60 S latitude . In so doing, it also established a commission of the original signatories and acceding parties called the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) to advance these aims through protection, scientific study, and rational use, such as harvesting, of those marine resources. Though separate,

7626-629: The southern shelf of the South Orkney Islands . This area encompasses 94,000 square kilometres (36,000 sq mi) and all fishing activity including transshipment, and dumping or discharge of waste is prohibited with the exception of scientific research endeavors. On 28 October 2016, the CCAMLR, composed of 24 member countries and the European Union at the time, agreed to establish the world's largest marine park encompassing 1.55 million km (600,000 sq mi) in

7719-477: The spillover of the marine protected area. Typical MPAs restrict fishing , oil and gas mining and/or tourism . Other restrictions may limit the use of ultrasonic devices like sonar (which may confuse the guidance system of cetaceans ), development, construction and the like. Some fishing restrictions include "no-take" zones, which means that no fishing is allowed. Less than 1% of US MPAs are no-take. Ship transit can also be restricted or banned, either as

7812-821: The standards and terminology of protected areas took place at the International Conference for the Protection of Fauna and Flora in London. At the 1962 First World Conference on National Parks in Seattle the effect the Industrial Revolution had had on the world's natural environment was acknowledged, and the need to preserve it for future generations was established. Since then, it has been an international commitment on behalf of both governments and non-government organisations to maintain

7905-653: The term ' other effective area-based conservation measures ' was defined as "a geographically defined area other than a Protected Area, which is governed and managed in ways that achieve positive and sustained long-term outcomes for the in situ conservation of biodiversity, with associated ecosystem functions and services and where applicable, cultural, spiritual, socio-economic, and other locally relevant values." Other effective area-based conservation measures complement protected areas across landscapes, seascapes, and river basins. Protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures are referenced together in Target 3 of

7998-403: The terms laid out by the convention, and in 2004, its member nations committed to the following targets; "The establishment by 2010 of terrestrial and by 2012 for marine areas of comprehensive, effectively managed, and ecologically representative national and regional systems of protected areas that collectively, inter alia through a global network, contribute to achieving the three objectives of

8091-448: The tested cooperation between marine scientists and fishermen in jointly managing coastal marine reserves. Marine Protected Area Networks or MPA networks have been defined as "A group of MPAs that interact with one another ecologically and/or socially form a network". These networks are intended to connect individuals and MPAs and promote education and cooperation among various administrations and user groups. "MPA networks are, from

8184-506: The tiger, dhole ( Cuon alpinus ), Binturong , clouded leopard and Tibetan fox ( Vulpes ferrilata ) . Also found to be prevalent were the large herbivore species: Asiatic water buffalo Bubalus arnee , golden langur , musk deer , and Asian elephant . The maintenance of these charismatic megafauna and other threatened species can be attributed to the intensity of Bhutan's management of its protected areas and its local communities' commitment to preserving them. The National Heritage List

8277-817: The use of Indigenous Protected Areas , such as those in Australia. The 17th International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) General Assembly in San Jose , California, the 19th IUCN assembly and the fourth World Parks Congress all proposed to centralise the establishment of protected areas. The World Summit on Sustainable Development in 2002 called for the establishment of marine protected areas consistent with international laws and based on scientific information, including representative networks by 2012. The Evian agreement, signed by G8 Nations in 2003, agreed to these terms. The Durban Action Plan, developed in 2003, called for regional action and targets to establish

8370-527: The western slopes of Mount Lebanon’s mountain range and has passed laws to protect environmental sites at the national level, including nature reserves, forests, and Hima (local community-based conservation), with some of these sites having acquired one or more international designations: There are three biosphere reserves in Lebanon that have been designated by the UNESCO : O Parks, Wildlife, and Recreation

8463-576: The world's oceans beyond national jurisdiction are covered by MPAs. In recent years, the 30 by 30 initiative has targeted to protect 30% of ocean territory and 30% of land territory worldwide by 2030; this has been adopted by the European Union in its Biodiversity Strategy for 2030 , Campaign for Nature which promoted the goal during the Convention on Biodiversity 's COP15 Summit and the G7 . In December 2022, Nations have reached an agreement with

8556-616: The world's oceans needed to be protected within 3 years. The 10% protection goal is described as a "baby step" as 30% is the real amount of ocean protection scientists agree on that should be implemented. On 7 April 1982, the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CAMLR Convention) came into force after discussions began in 1975 between parties of the then-current Antarctic Treaty to limit large-scale exploitation of krill by commercial fisheries. The Convention bound contracting nations to abide by previously agreed upon Antarctic territorial claims and peaceful use of

8649-538: Was shown in the film, Resources at Risk: Philippine Coral Reef . A 2016 report by the Center for Development and Strategy found that programs like the United States National Marine Sanctuary system can develop considerable economic benefits for communities through Public–private partnerships . They can be self-financed through a surrounding "conservation finance area" in which a limited number licenses are granted to benefit from

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