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132-804: The Westinghouse Time Capsules are two time capsules prepared by the Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company (later Westinghouse Electric Corporation ). One was made in 1939 and the other in 1965. They are filled with contemporary articles used in the twentieth century way of life in the United States. The items are intended for people of the 7th millennium (~ year 6900 ; 4876 years' time  ( 6900 ) ) to receive for historical significance . The capsules are specially designed non-corrosive metal tubes 90 inches long and about nine inches in diameter. The tubes were made with electrical properties in mind that enhanced

264-514: A dinitrogen complex to be discovered was [Ru(NH 3 ) 5 (N 2 )] (see figure at right), and soon many other such complexes were discovered. These complexes , in which a nitrogen molecule donates at least one lone pair of electrons to a central metal cation, illustrate how N 2 might bind to the metal(s) in nitrogenase and the catalyst for the Haber process : these processes involving dinitrogen activation are vitally important in biology and in

396-567: A kewpie doll , one dollar in change, a pack of Camel cigarettes , a 15-minute RKO Pathe Pictures newsreel, a Lilly Daché hat, and millions of words of text put on microfilm rolls which included a Sears Roebuck catalog, a dictionary , and an almanac . A variety of seeds were placed in the time capsule including wheat, corn, oats, tobacco, cotton, flax, rice, soy beans, alfalfa, sugar beets, carrots, and barley. Organic items (e.g. seeds) were placed in sealed glass vials. Pendray supervised

528-473: A bridging ligand, donating all three electron pairs from the triple bond ( μ 3 -N 2 ). A few complexes feature multiple N 2 ligands and some feature N 2 bonded in multiple ways. Since N 2 is isoelectronic with carbon monoxide (CO) and acetylene (C 2 H 2 ), the bonding in dinitrogen complexes is closely allied to that in carbonyl compounds, although N 2 is a weaker σ -donor and π -acceptor than CO. Theoretical studies show that σ donation

660-426: A dilute gas it is less dangerous and is thus used industrially to bleach and sterilise flour. Nitrogen tribromide (NBr 3 ), first prepared in 1975, is a deep red, temperature-sensitive, volatile solid that is explosive even at −100 °C. Nitrogen triiodide (NI 3 ) is still more unstable and was only prepared in 1990. Its adduct with ammonia, which was known earlier, is very shock-sensitive: it can be set off by

792-708: A document with economic, political and cultural information, written by Joaquín Mínguez, chaplain of the Cathedral of Burgo de Osma in 1777. A time capsule from the era of the American Revolution , dating to 1795 and credited to Samuel Adams and Paul Revere , was temporarily removed in 2014 from the cornerstone of the Massachusetts State House in Boston. It had been previously opened in 1855, and some new items had been added before it

924-409: A draft list of the items going into the time capsule, except perhaps that of a sewing machine and noteworthy ceremonies (i.e. religious, weddings). Rose Arnold Powell , known for attempting to get Susan B. Anthony represented on Mount Rushmore, sent Pendray a telegraph requesting that he get an input from women's suffrage activist Carrie Chapman Catt . He then added the only pencil handwritten page in

1056-420: A future communist society. The 1939 New York World's Fair time capsule was created by Westinghouse as part of their exhibit. It was 90 inches (2.3 metres) long, with an interior diameter of 6.5 inches (17 cm), and weighed 800 pounds (360 kg). Westinghouse named the copper, chromium, and silver alloy " cupaloy ", claiming it had the same strength as mild steel. It contained everyday items such as

1188-545: A guest book signed by visitors to the Westinghouse pavilion at the 1964 fair. Signers received tin pins, about 1.2 inches (30 mm) across (roughly the size of an American fifty-cent piece ), stating, My name is in the Westinghouse Time Capsule for the next 5,000 years. The book's pages were photographed onto acetate microfilm and the roll of film placed into the time capsule for the people of

1320-432: A length of about 81 inches (210 cm). The interior of the glass envelope of Capsule I was filled with nitrogen . Capsule II, weighing 300 pounds, was filled with the inert gas argon . Among the 35 small, everyday items placed inside Time Capsule I were a fountain pen and an alphabet block set. Time Capsule I also contained 75 types of fabrics, metals, and plastics. Modern literature, contemporary art, and news events of

1452-498: A liquid, it is a very good solvent with a high heat of vaporisation (enabling it to be used in vacuum flasks), that also has a low viscosity and electrical conductivity and high dielectric constant , and is less dense than water. However, the hydrogen bonding in NH 3 is weaker than that in H 2 O due to the lower electronegativity of nitrogen compared to oxygen and the presence of only one lone pair in NH 3 rather than two in H 2 O. It

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1584-483: A long time, sources of nitrogen compounds were limited. Natural sources originated either from biology or deposits of nitrates produced by atmospheric reactions. Nitrogen fixation by industrial processes like the Frank–Caro process (1895–1899) and Haber–Bosch process (1908–1913) eased this shortage of nitrogen compounds, to the extent that half of global food production now relies on synthetic nitrogen fertilisers. At

1716-460: A more durable form of preservation. They have said, "We’ve come to understand that the best way to preserve digital media is to distribute it." Blockchain and cognitive learning is now used in time capsule technology. Researchers have started to study methods of preserving digital data in forms that will still be usable in the distant future. Nitrogen Nitrogen is a chemical element ; it has symbol N and atomic number 7. Nitrogen

1848-499: A particular time and place for study, they fulfill this goal very poorly in that they, by definition, are kept sealed for a particular length of time. Subsequent generations between the launch date and the target date will have no direct access to the artifacts and therefore these generations are prevented from learning from the contents directly. Therefore, time capsules can be seen, in respect to their usefulness to historians, as dormant museums, their releases timed for some date so far in

1980-494: A preference for forming multiple bonds, typically with carbon, oxygen, or other nitrogen atoms, through p π –p π interactions. Thus, for example, nitrogen occurs as diatomic molecules and therefore has very much lower melting (−210 °C) and boiling points (−196 °C) than the rest of its group, as the N 2 molecules are only held together by weak van der Waals interactions and there are very few electrons available to create significant instantaneous dipoles. This

2112-591: A problem which is only exacerbated by its low gyromagnetic ratio , (only 10.14% that of H). As a result, the signal-to-noise ratio for H is about 300 times as much as that for N at the same magnetic field strength. This may be somewhat alleviated by isotopic enrichment of N by chemical exchange or fractional distillation. N-enriched compounds have the advantage that under standard conditions, they do not undergo chemical exchange of their nitrogen atoms with atmospheric nitrogen, unlike compounds with labelled hydrogen , carbon, and oxygen isotopes that must be kept away from

2244-470: A promising ceramic if not for the difficulty of working with and sintering it. In particular, the group 13 nitrides, most of which are promising semiconductors , are isoelectronic with graphite, diamond, and silicon carbide and have similar structures: their bonding changes from covalent to partially ionic to metallic as the group is descended. In particular, since the B–N unit is isoelectronic to C–C, and carbon

2376-463: A significant dynamic surface coverage on Pluto and outer moons of the Solar System such as Triton . Even at the low temperatures of solid nitrogen it is fairly volatile and can sublime to form an atmosphere, or condense back into nitrogen frost. It is very weak and flows in the form of glaciers, and on Triton geysers of nitrogen gas come from the polar ice cap region. The first example of

2508-412: A spool of thread and doll, a book of record (description of the capsule and its creators), a vial of staple food crop seeds, a microscope, and a 15-minute RKO Pathé Pictures newsreel . Microfilm spools condensed the contents of a Sears Roebuck catalog, dictionary, almanac, and other texts. The 1939 time capsule was followed in 1965 by a second capsule at the same site, but 10 feet (3.0 m) to

2640-443: A thousand, or five thousand, years ago. Among you too the spirit will fare badly. It should never fare too well on this earth, otherwise men would need it no longer. That optimistic conception of the future is a projection into time of an endeavor which does not belong to the temporal world, the endeavor on the part of man to approximate to his idea of himself, the humanization of man. What we, in this year of Our Lord 1938, understand by

2772-537: A time capsule dating to 1726 has been found. Around 1761, some dated artifacts were placed inside the hollow copper grasshopper weathervane , itself dating from 1742, atop historic Faneuil Hall in Boston. A time capsule dating to 1777 was discovered within a religious statue in Sotillo de la Ribera . A time capsule was discovered on November 30, 2017, in Burgos, Spain . A wooden statue of Jesus had hidden inside it

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2904-606: A very high energy density, that could be used as powerful propellants or explosives. Under extremely high pressures (1.1 million  atm ) and high temperatures (2000 K), as produced in a diamond anvil cell , nitrogen polymerises into the single-bonded cubic gauche crystal structure. This structure is similar to that of diamond , and both have extremely strong covalent bonds , resulting in its nickname "nitrogen diamond". At atmospheric pressure , molecular nitrogen condenses ( liquefies ) at 77  K (−195.79 ° C ) and freezes at 63 K (−210.01 °C) into

3036-428: A whole and come together to use nuclear power for greater purposes. The film can be seen as an example of Cold War propaganda . The 2009 dramatic film Knowing involves a time capsule being placed in the ground by an elementary school in 1959. Artists such as Andy Warhol , Christian Boltanski , and Louise Bourgeois are known for compiling collections of everyday artifacts that they associate with memories of

3168-465: Is oxatetrazole (N 4 O), an aromatic ring. Nitrous oxide (N 2 O), better known as laughing gas, is made by thermal decomposition of molten ammonium nitrate at 250 °C. This is a redox reaction and thus nitric oxide and nitrogen are also produced as byproducts. It is mostly used as a propellant and aerating agent for sprayed canned whipped cream , and was formerly commonly used as an anaesthetic. Despite appearances, it cannot be considered to be

3300-439: Is ONF 3 , which has aroused interest due to the short N–O distance implying partial double bonding and the highly polar and long N–F bond. Tetrafluorohydrazine, unlike hydrazine itself, can dissociate at room temperature and above to give the radical NF 2 •. Fluorine azide (FN 3 ) is very explosive and thermally unstable. Dinitrogen difluoride (N 2 F 2 ) exists as thermally interconvertible cis and trans isomers, and

3432-543: Is a nonmetal and the lightest member of group 15 of the periodic table , often called the pnictogens . It is a common element in the universe , estimated at seventh in total abundance in the Milky Way and the Solar System . At standard temperature and pressure , two atoms of the element bond to form N 2 , a colourless and odourless diatomic gas . N 2 forms about 78% of Earth's atmosphere , making it

3564-419: Is a fuming, colourless liquid that smells similar to ammonia. Its physical properties are very similar to those of water (melting point 2.0 °C, boiling point 113.5 °C, density 1.00 g/cm ). Despite it being an endothermic compound, it is kinetically stable. It burns quickly and completely in air very exothermically to give nitrogen and water vapour. It is a very useful and versatile reducing agent and

3696-491: Is a more important factor allowing the formation of the M–N bond than π back-donation, which mostly only weakens the N–N bond, and end-on ( η ) donation is more readily accomplished than side-on ( η ) donation. Today, dinitrogen complexes are known for almost all the transition metals , accounting for several hundred compounds. They are normally prepared by three methods: Occasionally

3828-467: Is a weak base in aqueous solution ( p K b 4.74); its conjugate acid is ammonium , NH 4 . It can also act as an extremely weak acid, losing a proton to produce the amide anion, NH 2 . It thus undergoes self-dissociation, similar to water, to produce ammonium and amide. Ammonia burns in air or oxygen, though not readily, to produce nitrogen gas; it burns in fluorine with a greenish-yellow flame to give nitrogen trifluoride . Reactions with

3960-401: Is a weak diprotic acid with the structure HON=NOH (p K a1 6.9, p K a2 11.6). Acidic solutions are quite stable but above pH 4 base-catalysed decomposition occurs via [HONNO] to nitrous oxide and the hydroxide anion. Hyponitrites (involving the N 2 O 2 anion) are stable to reducing agents and more commonly act as reducing agents themselves. They are an intermediate step in

4092-399: Is a weaker base than ammonia. It is also commonly used as a rocket fuel. Hydrazine is generally made by reaction of ammonia with alkaline sodium hypochlorite in the presence of gelatin or glue: (The attacks by hydroxide and ammonia may be reversed, thus passing through the intermediate NHCl instead.) The reason for adding gelatin is that it removes metal ions such as Cu that catalyses

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4224-612: Is also evidence for the asymmetric red dimer O=N–O=N when nitric oxide is condensed with polar molecules. It reacts with oxygen to give brown nitrogen dioxide and with halogens to give nitrosyl halides. It also reacts with transition metal compounds to give nitrosyl complexes, most of which are deeply coloured. Blue dinitrogen trioxide (N 2 O 3 ) is only available as a solid because it rapidly dissociates above its melting point to give nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ), and dinitrogen tetroxide (N 2 O 4 ). The latter two compounds are somewhat difficult to study individually because of

4356-404: Is essentially intermediate in size between boron and nitrogen, much of organic chemistry finds an echo in boron–nitrogen chemistry, such as in borazine ("inorganic benzene "). Nevertheless, the analogy is not exact due to the ease of nucleophilic attack at boron due to its deficiency in electrons, which is not possible in a wholly carbon-containing ring. The largest category of nitrides are

4488-417: Is extremely vulnerable to flooding because of its topography and because of sea level rise caused by global warming . Climate scientists had predicted that parts of the park would be flooded regularly by the 2050s and that the entire park could be underwater by the 2080s. The Book of Record , a copy of which was microfilmed and put inside Time Capsule I, contains written messages from three important men of

4620-515: Is known. Industrially, ammonia (NH 3 ) is the most important compound of nitrogen and is prepared in larger amounts than any other compound because it contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to food and fertilisers. It is a colourless alkaline gas with a characteristic pungent smell. The presence of hydrogen bonding has very significant effects on ammonia, conferring on it its high melting (−78 °C) and boiling (−33 °C) points. As

4752-434: Is mildly toxic in concentrations above 100 mg/kg, but small amounts are often used to cure meat and as a preservative to avoid bacterial spoilage. It is also used to synthesise hydroxylamine and to diazotise primary aromatic amines as follows: Nitrite is also a common ligand that can coordinate in five ways. The most common are nitro (bonded from the nitrogen) and nitrito (bonded from an oxygen). Nitro-nitrito isomerism

4884-629: Is mostly unreactive at room temperature, but it will nevertheless react with lithium metal and some transition metal complexes. This is due to its bonding, which is unique among the diatomic elements at standard conditions in that it has an N≡N triple bond . Triple bonds have short bond lengths (in this case, 109.76 pm) and high dissociation energies (in this case, 945.41 kJ/mol), and are thus very strong, explaining dinitrogen's low level of chemical reactivity. Other nitrogen oligomers and polymers may be possible. If they could be synthesised, they may have potential applications as materials with

5016-489: Is much more common, making up 99.634% of natural nitrogen, and the second (which is slightly heavier) makes up the remaining 0.366%. This leads to an atomic weight of around 14.007 u. Both of these stable isotopes are produced in the CNO cycle in stars , but N is more common as its proton capture is the rate-limiting step. N is one of the five stable odd–odd nuclides (a nuclide having an odd number of protons and neutrons);

5148-682: Is not possible for its vertical neighbours; thus, the nitrogen oxides , nitrites , nitrates , nitro- , nitroso -, azo -, and diazo -compounds, azides , cyanates , thiocyanates , and imino -derivatives find no echo with phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, or bismuth. By the same token, however, the complexity of the phosphorus oxoacids finds no echo with nitrogen. Setting aside their differences, nitrogen and phosphorus form an extensive series of compounds with one another; these have chain, ring, and cage structures. Table of thermal and physical properties of nitrogen (N 2 ) at atmospheric pressure: Nitrogen has two stable isotopes : N and N. The first

5280-660: Is of interest for the preparation of explosives. It is a deliquescent , colourless crystalline solid that is sensitive to light. In the solid state it is ionic with structure [NO 2 ] [NO 3 ] ; as a gas and in solution it is molecular O 2 N–O–NO 2 . Hydration to nitric acid comes readily, as does analogous reaction with hydrogen peroxide giving peroxonitric acid (HOONO 2 ). It is a violent oxidising agent. Gaseous dinitrogen pentoxide decomposes as follows: Many nitrogen oxoacids are known, though most of them are unstable as pure compounds and are known only as aqueous solutions or as salts. Hyponitrous acid (H 2 N 2 O 2 )

5412-521: Is prepared by passing an electric discharge through nitrogen gas at 0.1–2 mmHg, which produces atomic nitrogen along with a peach-yellow emission that fades slowly as an afterglow for several minutes even after the discharge terminates. Given the great reactivity of atomic nitrogen, elemental nitrogen usually occurs as molecular N 2 , dinitrogen. This molecule is a colourless, odourless, and tasteless diamagnetic gas at standard conditions: it melts at −210 °C and boils at −196 °C. Dinitrogen

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5544-443: Is produced from O (in water) via an (n,p) reaction , in which the O atom captures a neutron and expels a proton. It has a short half-life of about 7.1 s, but its decay back to O produces high-energy gamma radiation (5 to 7 MeV). Because of this, access to the primary coolant piping in a pressurised water reactor must be restricted during reactor power operation. It is a sensitive and immediate indicator of leaks from

5676-474: Is significant. It is a weak acid with p K a 3.35 at 18 °C. They may be titrimetrically analysed by their oxidation to nitrate by permanganate . They are readily reduced to nitrous oxide and nitric oxide by sulfur dioxide , to hyponitrous acid with tin (II), and to ammonia with hydrogen sulfide . Salts of hydrazinium N 2 H 5 react with nitrous acid to produce azides which further react to give nitrous oxide and nitrogen. Sodium nitrite

5808-482: Is similar to that in nitrogen, but one extra electron is added to a π * antibonding orbital and thus the bond order has been reduced to approximately 2.5; hence dimerisation to O=N–N=O is unfavourable except below the boiling point (where the cis isomer is more stable) because it does not actually increase the total bond order and because the unpaired electron is delocalised across the NO molecule, granting it stability. There

5940-404: Is smaller than those of boron (84 pm) and carbon (76 pm), while it is larger than those of oxygen (66 pm) and fluorine (57 pm). The nitride anion, N , is much larger at 146 pm, similar to that of the oxide (O : 140 pm) and fluoride (F : 133 pm) anions. The first three ionisation energies of nitrogen are 1.402, 2.856, and 4.577 MJ·mol , and the sum of

6072-523: Is the most important nitrogen radioisotope, being relatively long-lived enough to use in positron emission tomography (PET), although its half-life is still short and thus it must be produced at the venue of the PET, for example in a cyclotron via proton bombardment of O producing N and an alpha particle . The radioisotope N is the dominant radionuclide in the coolant of pressurised water reactors or boiling water reactors during normal operation. It

6204-400: Is the simplest stable molecule with an odd number of electrons. In mammals, including humans, it is an important cellular signalling molecule involved in many physiological and pathological processes. It is formed by catalytic oxidation of ammonia. It is a colourless paramagnetic gas that, being thermodynamically unstable, decomposes to nitrogen and oxygen gas at 1100–1200 °C. Its bonding

6336-476: Is the strongest π donor known among ligands (the second-strongest is O ). Nitrido complexes are generally made by the thermal decomposition of azides or by deprotonating ammonia, and they usually involve a terminal {≡N} group. The linear azide anion ( N 3 ), being isoelectronic with nitrous oxide , carbon dioxide , and cyanate , forms many coordination complexes. Further catenation is rare, although N 4 (isoelectronic with carbonate and nitrate )

6468-640: Is thermodynamically stable, and most readily produced by the electrolysis of molten ammonium fluoride dissolved in anhydrous hydrogen fluoride . Like carbon tetrafluoride , it is not at all reactive and is stable in water or dilute aqueous acids or alkalis. Only when heated does it act as a fluorinating agent, and it reacts with copper , arsenic, antimony, and bismuth on contact at high temperatures to give tetrafluorohydrazine (N 2 F 4 ). The cations NF 4 and N 2 F 3 are also known (the latter from reacting tetrafluorohydrazine with strong fluoride-acceptors such as arsenic pentafluoride ), as

6600-602: Is used as an inert (oxygen-free) gas for commercial uses such as food packaging, and much of the rest is used as liquid nitrogen in cryogenic applications. Many industrially important compounds, such as ammonia , nitric acid, organic nitrates ( propellants and explosives ), and cyanides , contain nitrogen. The extremely strong triple bond in elemental nitrogen (N≡N), the second strongest bond in any diatomic molecule after carbon monoxide (CO), dominates nitrogen chemistry. This causes difficulty for both organisms and industry in converting N 2 into useful compounds , but at

6732-512: The Greek word άζωτικός (azotikos), "no life", due to it being asphyxiant . In an atmosphere of pure nitrogen, animals died and flames were extinguished. Though Lavoisier's name was not accepted in English since it was pointed out that all gases but oxygen are either asphyxiant or outright toxic, it is used in many languages (French, Italian, Portuguese, Polish, Russian, Albanian, Turkish, etc.;

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6864-524: The Old State House in Boston. It was opened in 2014, during repairs to the sculpture and building, with plans to add new artifacts and reinstall it in its original location. The Detroit Century Box , a brainchild of Detroit mayor William C. Maybury , was created on December 31, 1900, and scheduled to be opened 100 years later. It was filled with photographs and letters from 56 prominent residents describing life in 1900 and making predictions for

6996-435: The anhydride of hyponitrous acid (H 2 N 2 O 2 ) because that acid is not produced by the dissolution of nitrous oxide in water. It is rather unreactive (not reacting with the halogens, the alkali metals, or ozone at room temperature, although reactivity increases upon heating) and has the unsymmetrical structure N–N–O (N≡N O ↔ N=N =O): above 600 °C it dissociates by breaking the weaker N–O bond. Nitric oxide (NO)

7128-575: The nucleic acids ( DNA and RNA ) and in the energy transfer molecule adenosine triphosphate . The human body contains about 3% nitrogen by mass, the fourth most abundant element in the body after oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen. The nitrogen cycle describes the movement of the element from the air, into the biosphere and organic compounds, then back into the atmosphere. Nitrogen is a constituent of every major pharmacological drug class, including antibiotics . Many drugs are mimics or prodrugs of natural nitrogen-containing signal molecules : for example,

7260-464: The 20th century were recorded on a microfilm "Micro-File" for placement in Time Capsule I; the "Micro-File" holds over ten million words and a thousand pictures, and has a small microscope for viewing. There are also instructions included on how to make both a large microfilm viewer and a motion picture projector for the newsreels . Also included in the capsule were copies of Life magazine,

7392-566: The 2s and 2p orbitals, three of which (the p-electrons) are unpaired. It has one of the highest electronegativities among the elements (3.04 on the Pauling scale), exceeded only by chlorine (3.16), oxygen (3.44), and fluorine (3.98). (The light noble gases , helium , neon , and argon , would presumably also be more electronegative, and in fact are on the Allen scale.) Following periodic trends, its single-bond covalent radius of 71 pm

7524-416: The 33 sounds of 1938 English are formed in the oral cavity in what Dr. Harrington refers to as a "mouth map." Time capsule It is widely debated when time capsules were first used, but the concept is fairly simple, and the idea and first use of time capsules could be much older than is currently documented. The term "time capsule" appears to be a relatively recent coinage dating from 1938. In Poland

7656-400: The 70th century that open the capsule and find all the contents from the 20th century. There were an estimated 750,000 signatures collected. The first one was that of United States President Lyndon B. Johnson . The signature of Pope Paul VI was among the signatures of notable people that signed the Westinghouse guest book. The contents of Time Capsule I were recorded in a Book of Record of

7788-633: The French nitrogène , coined in 1790 by French chemist Jean-Antoine Chaptal (1756–1832), from the French nitre ( potassium nitrate , also called saltpetre ) and the French suffix -gène , "producing", from the Greek -γενής (-genes, "begotten"). Chaptal's meaning was that nitrogen is the essential part of nitric acid , which in turn was produced from nitre . In earlier times, nitre had been confused with Egyptian "natron" ( sodium carbonate ) – called νίτρον (nitron) in Greek ;– which, despite

7920-535: The German Stickstoff similarly refers to the same characteristic, viz. ersticken "to choke or suffocate") and still remains in English in the common names of many nitrogen compounds, such as hydrazine and compounds of the azide ion. Finally, it led to the name " pnictogens " for the group headed by nitrogen, from the Greek πνίγειν "to choke". The English word nitrogen (1794) entered the language from

8052-744: The Middle Ages. Alchemists knew nitric acid as aqua fortis (strong water), as well as other nitrogen compounds such as ammonium salts and nitrate salts. The mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids was known as aqua regia (royal water), celebrated for its ability to dissolve gold , the king of metals. The discovery of nitrogen is attributed to the Scottish physician Daniel Rutherford in 1772, who called it noxious air . Though he did not recognise it as an entirely different chemical substance, he clearly distinguished it from Joseph Black's "fixed air" , or carbon dioxide. The fact that there

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8184-860: The N anion, although charge separation is not actually complete even for these highly electropositive elements. However, the alkali metal azides NaN 3 and KN 3 , featuring the linear N 3 anion, are well-known, as are Sr(N 3 ) 2 and Ba(N 3 ) 2 . Azides of the B-subgroup metals (those in groups 11 through 16 ) are much less ionic, have more complicated structures, and detonate readily when shocked. Many covalent binary nitrides are known. Examples include cyanogen ((CN) 2 ), triphosphorus pentanitride (P 3 N 5 ), disulfur dinitride (S 2 N 2 ), and tetrasulfur tetranitride (S 4 N 4 ). The essentially covalent silicon nitride (Si 3 N 4 ) and germanium nitride (Ge 3 N 4 ) are also known: silicon nitride, in particular, would make

8316-450: The N≡N bond may be formed directly within a metal complex, for example by directly reacting coordinated ammonia (NH 3 ) with nitrous acid (HNO 2 ), but this is not generally applicable. Most dinitrogen complexes have colours within the range white-yellow-orange-red-brown; a few exceptions are known, such as the blue [{Ti( η -C 5 H 5 ) 2 } 2 -(N 2 )]. Nitrogen bonds to almost all

8448-420: The Time Capsule of Cupaloy . The purpose of this book is to preserve knowledge of the existence of the time capsule for 5,000 years, and to provide assistance to the people of the year 6939 in locating and recovering it. More than 3000 copies of the book were distributed to museums, monasteries, and libraries worldwide. In order to avoid confusion about the 1965 time capsule, a supplement announcing Time Capsule II

8580-418: The ability to form coordination complexes by donating its lone pairs of electrons. There are some parallels between the chemistry of ammonia NH 3 and water H 2 O. For example, the capacity of both compounds to be protonated to give NH 4 and H 3 O or deprotonated to give NH 2 and OH , with all of these able to be isolated in solid compounds. Nitrogen shares with both its horizontal neighbours

8712-417: The atmosphere. The N: N ratio is commonly used in stable isotope analysis in the fields of geochemistry , hydrology , paleoclimatology and paleoceanography , where it is called δ N . Of the thirteen other isotopes produced synthetically, ranging from N to N, N has a half-life of ten minutes and the remaining isotopes have half-lives less than eight seconds. Given the half-life difference, N

8844-435: The beta hexagonal close-packed crystal allotropic form. Below 35.4 K (−237.6 °C) nitrogen assumes the cubic crystal allotropic form (called the alpha phase). Liquid nitrogen , a colourless fluid resembling water in appearance, but with 80.8% of the density (the density of liquid nitrogen at its boiling point is 0.808 g/mL), is a common cryogen . Solid nitrogen has many crystalline modifications. It forms

8976-482: The capsule is dug up in the distant future. Many buried time capsules are lost, as interest in them fades and the exact location is forgotten, or they are destroyed within a few years by groundwater . The 1947 docudrama The Beginning or the End is a semi-historical account of the creation of the first atomic bomb during World War II . The film begins with staged newsreel footage of the scientists and officers involved in

9108-781: The capsule was buried by computing backward from their time. Time Capsule I was lowered at noon on September 23, 1938, the precise moment of the Autumnal Equinox . The latitude and longitude coordinates of its burying place, as determined by the U.S. National Geodetic Survey , was recorded in the Book of Record as 40°44′34.09″N 73°50′43.84″W  /  40.7428028°N 73.8455111°W  / 40.7428028; -73.8455111 within 1 inch (2.5 cm). The coordinates lead to The Westinghouse Time Capsule. The time capsule will likely move vertically or horizontally for geological reasons, so an alternate electromagnetic field method

9240-635: The capsule's articles resides at the Heinz History Center beside a replica capsule of Time Capsule I. The Book of Record requests that its contents be translated into new languages as they develop. It contains a key with illustrations devised by Dr. John P. Harrington of the Smithsonian Institution to help future archaeologists with the English language, since it was felt that existing languages could be lost. It also includes an illustration showing exactly where each of

9372-505: The capsule's opening and a preceding ceremony, its contents (which included notebooks, newspaper clippings, and community council papers) were met with disappointment. The Crypt of Civilization (1936) at Oglethorpe University , intended to be opened in 8113 , is claimed to be the first "modern" time capsule, although it was not called one at the time. During the socialist period in the USSR , many time capsules were buried with messages to

9504-562: The capsule, listing items that were represented by 20th century women, such as culinary preparation tracts and women's exploits noted in World Almanacs and film. Care was taken to select items that are not reactive and do not decompose into harmful gases or acids. Five categories of objects were placed inside Time Capsule I. Five main categories of objects were placed in Capsule II: The "other" category included images of

9636-516: The characteristics of each tube's unique metal chemical make-up. Each was formulated to resist corrosion over time, rather than being allowed to waste away to dust. The capsules were buried fifty feet in the ground at Flushing Meadows-Corona Park in New York City and are positioned about ten feet apart. There were record books about these time capsules given to thousands of libraries, museums, and other depositories worldwide to preserve

9768-416: The conjugate acid of the azide anion, and is similarly analogous to the hydrohalic acids . All four simple nitrogen trihalides are known. A few mixed halides and hydrohalides are known, but are mostly unstable; examples include NClF 2 , NCl 2 F, NBrF 2 , NF 2 H, NFH 2 , NCl 2 H , and NClH 2 . Nitrogen trifluoride (NF 3 , first prepared in 1928) is a colourless and odourless gas that

9900-555: The continuity of bonding types instead of the discrete and separate types that it implies. They are normally prepared by directly reacting a metal with nitrogen or ammonia (sometimes after heating), or by thermal decomposition of metal amides: Many variants on these processes are possible. The most ionic of these nitrides are those of the alkali metals and alkaline earth metals , Li 3 N (Na, K, Rb, and Cs do not form stable nitrides for steric reasons) and M 3 N 2 (M = Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba). These can formally be thought of as salts of

10032-417: The destruction of hydrazine by reaction with monochloramine (NH 2 Cl) to produce ammonium chloride and nitrogen. Hydrogen azide (HN 3 ) was first produced in 1890 by the oxidation of aqueous hydrazine by nitrous acid. It is very explosive and even dilute solutions can be dangerous. It has a disagreeable and irritating smell and is a potentially lethal (but not cumulative) poison. It may be considered

10164-734: The elements in the periodic table except the first two noble gases , helium and neon , and some of the very short-lived elements after bismuth , creating an immense variety of binary compounds with varying properties and applications. Many binary compounds are known: with the exception of the nitrogen hydrides, oxides, and fluorides, these are typically called nitrides . Many stoichiometric phases are usually present for most elements (e.g. MnN, Mn 6 N 5 , Mn 3 N 2 , Mn 2 N, Mn 4 N, and Mn x N for 9.2 < x < 25.3). They may be classified as "salt-like" (mostly ionic), covalent, "diamond-like", and metallic (or interstitial ), although this classification has limitations generally stemming from

10296-467: The equilibrium between them, although sometimes dinitrogen tetroxide can react by heterolytic fission to nitrosonium and nitrate in a medium with high dielectric constant. Nitrogen dioxide is an acrid, corrosive brown gas. Both compounds may be easily prepared by decomposing a dry metal nitrate. Both react with water to form nitric acid . Dinitrogen tetroxide is very useful for the preparation of anhydrous metal nitrates and nitrato complexes, and it became

10428-436: The fact that the intelligence and character of the masses are incomparably lower than the intelligence and character of the few who produce some thing valuable for the community. I trust that posterity will read these statements with a feeling of proud and justified superiority. Robert Andrews Millikan 's message, At this moment, August 22, 1938, the principles of representative ballot government, such as are represented by

10560-421: The first gases to be identified: N 2 O ( nitrous oxide ), NO ( nitric oxide ), N 2 O 3 ( dinitrogen trioxide ), NO 2 ( nitrogen dioxide ), N 2 O 4 ( dinitrogen tetroxide ), N 2 O 5 ( dinitrogen pentoxide ), N 4 O ( nitrosylazide ), and N(NO 2 ) 3 ( trinitramide ). All are thermally unstable towards decomposition to their elements. One other possible oxide that has not yet been synthesised

10692-413: The first of January was Right Ascension , 1 hour, 41 minutes, 59 seconds; North Polar distance, 1 degree, 1 minute, and 33.8 seconds. Astronomers of the early twentieth century determined that such a combination of astronomical events is unlikely to recur for many thousands of years. It is thought that this information will allow people of the future to determine the number of years that have elapsed since

10824-496: The fourth and fifth is 16.920 MJ·mol . Due to these very high figures, nitrogen has no simple cationic chemistry. The lack of radial nodes in the 2p subshell is directly responsible for many of the anomalous properties of the first row of the p-block , especially in nitrogen, oxygen, and fluorine. The 2p subshell is very small and has a very similar radius to the 2s shell, facilitating orbital hybridisation . It also results in very large electrostatic forces of attraction between

10956-408: The future that the building in question is no longer intact. Historians also concede that there are many preservation issues surrounding the selection of the media to transmit this information to the future. Some of these issues include the obsolescence of technology and the deterioration of electronic and magnetic storage media (known as the digital dark age ), and possible language problems if

11088-526: The future, and included a letter by Maybury to the mayor of Detroit in 2000. The capsule was opened by city officials on December 31, 2000, in a ceremony presided over by mayor Dennis Archer . A time capsule labelled "Kan aabnes i 2012" ("Can open in 2012" in Norwegian) was sealed in 1912 in Otta, Norway . The capsule was opened as part of a ceremony 100 years later in 2012. Despite the large excitement over

11220-408: The future, the future history of mankind will repeat the sad story of war and oppression as in the past. Thomas Mann 's message, We know now that the idea of the future as a "better world" was a fallacy of the doctrine of progress. The hopes we center on you, citizens of the future, are in no way exaggerated. In broad outline, you will actually resemble us very much as we resemble those who lived

11352-512: The governments of the Anglo-Saxon, French, and Scandinavian countries, are in deadly conflict with the principles of despotism, which up to two centuries ago had controlled the destiny of man throughout practically the whole of recorded history. If the rational, scientific, progressive principles win out in this struggle there is a possibility of a warless, golden age ahead for mankind. If the reactionary principles of despotism triumph now and in

11484-437: The head of group 15 in the periodic table, its chemistry shows huge differences from that of its heavier congeners phosphorus , arsenic , antimony , and bismuth . Nitrogen may be usefully compared to its horizontal neighbours' carbon and oxygen as well as its vertical neighbours in the pnictogen column, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth. Although each period 2 element from lithium to oxygen shows some similarities to

11616-505: The interstitial nitrides of formulae MN, M 2 N, and M 4 N (although variable composition is perfectly possible), where the small nitrogen atoms are positioned in the gaps in a metallic cubic or hexagonal close-packed lattice. They are opaque, very hard, and chemically inert, melting only at very high temperatures (generally over 2500 °C). They have a metallic lustre and conduct electricity as do metals. They hydrolyse only very slowly to give ammonia or nitrogen. The nitride anion (N )

11748-576: The items in the capsule that were selected to chronicle 20th-century life in the United States . During packaging of the contents, under the direction of representatives of the United States National Bureau of Standards , each object was examined to determine whether it could be expected to endure 5,000 years. Pendray was sent a letter by anthropologist Clark David Wissler that he felt most things were well represented in

11880-458: The knowledge that they exist. Included was the information that they shouldn't be opened before the seventh millennium and where they can be located. Duplicates of the contents of the objects held for these people of the future are currently held in a history museum of the United States. Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company prepared time capsules for two world's fairs. They are both buried 50 feet below Flushing Meadows–Corona Park ,

12012-485: The most abundant chemical species in air. Because of the volatility of nitrogen compounds, nitrogen is relatively rare in the solid parts of the Earth. It was first discovered and isolated by Scottish physician Daniel Rutherford in 1772 and independently by Carl Wilhelm Scheele and Henry Cavendish at about the same time. The name nitrogène was suggested by French chemist Jean-Antoine-Claude Chaptal in 1790 when it

12144-525: The name, contained no nitrate. The earliest military, industrial, and agricultural applications of nitrogen compounds used saltpetre ( sodium nitrate or potassium nitrate), most notably in gunpowder , and later as fertiliser . In 1910, Lord Rayleigh discovered that an electrical discharge in nitrogen gas produced "active nitrogen", a monatomic allotrope of nitrogen. The "whirling cloud of brilliant yellow light" produced by his apparatus reacted with mercury to produce explosive mercury nitride . For

12276-611: The nineteenth of April, the path of annular eclipse grazing the North Pole of the earth , and a total eclipse on the twelfth of October, the total path crossing near the South Pole . The heliocentric longitudes of the planets on the first of January at zero-hours Greenwich time were as follows: degrees minutes seconds The mean position of the North Star Polaris (Alpha Ursae Minoris) on

12408-574: The nitryl halides (XNO 2 ). The first is very reactive gases that can be made by directly halogenating nitrous oxide. Nitrosyl fluoride (NOF) is colourless and a vigorous fluorinating agent. Nitrosyl chloride (NOCl) behaves in much the same way and has often been used as an ionising solvent. Nitrosyl bromide (NOBr) is red. The reactions of the nitryl halides are mostly similar: nitryl fluoride (FNO 2 ) and nitryl chloride (ClNO 2 ) are likewise reactive gases and vigorous halogenating agents. Nitrogen forms nine molecular oxides, some of which were

12540-674: The north of the original. Both capsules are buried 50 feet (15 m) below Flushing Meadows Park , site of the Fair. Both the 1939 and 1965 Westinghouse Time Capsules are meant to be opened in 6939 . There is documentation of at least three physical time capsules at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in Cambridge, Massachusetts , as well as a "virtual" or digital time capsule. As of 2019 , four time capsules are "buried" in space. The two Pioneer Plaques and

12672-436: The nucleus and the valence electrons in the 2s and 2p shells, resulting in very high electronegativities. Hypervalency is almost unknown in the 2p elements for the same reason, because the high electronegativity makes it difficult for a small nitrogen atom to be a central atom in an electron-rich three-center four-electron bond since it would tend to attract the electrons strongly to itself. Thus, despite nitrogen's position at

12804-410: The organic nitrates nitroglycerin and nitroprusside control blood pressure by metabolising into nitric oxide . Many notable nitrogen-containing drugs, such as the natural caffeine and morphine or the synthetic amphetamines , act on receptors of animal neurotransmitters . Nitrogen compounds have a very long history, ammonium chloride having been known to Herodotus . They were well-known by

12936-412: The other four are H , Li, B, and Ta. The relative abundance of N and N is practically constant in the atmosphere but can vary elsewhere, due to natural isotopic fractionation from biological redox reactions and the evaporation of natural ammonia or nitric acid . Biologically mediated reactions (e.g., assimilation , nitrification , and denitrification ) strongly control nitrogen dynamics in

13068-421: The other nonmetals are very complex and tend to lead to a mixture of products. Ammonia reacts on heating with metals to give nitrides. Many other binary nitrogen hydrides are known, but the most important are hydrazine (N 2 H 4 ) and hydrogen azide (HN 3 ). Although it is not a nitrogen hydride, hydroxylamine (NH 2 OH) is similar in properties and structure to ammonia and hydrazine as well. Hydrazine

13200-478: The oxidation of ammonia to nitrite, which occurs in the nitrogen cycle . Hyponitrite can act as a bridging or chelating bidentate ligand. Nitrous acid (HNO 2 ) is not known as a pure compound, but is a common component in gaseous equilibria and is an important aqueous reagent: its aqueous solutions may be made from acidifying cool aqueous nitrite ( NO 2 , bent) solutions, although already at room temperature disproportionation to nitrate and nitric oxide

13332-608: The past, which are preserved in museums and archives. The 1955 Warner Bros. cartoon One Froggy Evening involves a singing and dancing frog extricated from (and eventually replaced within) a time capsule. Filmmaker Steven Spielberg , in the PBS Chuck Jones biographical documentary Extremes & Inbetweens: A Life in Animation , called One Froggy Evening "the Citizen Kane of animated shorts". In 1994, it

13464-411: The people of the time. Many time capsules today contain only artifacts of limited value to future historians. Historians suggest that items which describe the daily lives of the people who created them, such as personal notes, pictures, videos and documents, would greatly increase the value of the time capsule to future historians. If time capsules have a museum -like goal of preserving the culture of

13596-704: The period 3 element in the next group (from magnesium to chlorine; these are known as diagonal relationships ), their degree drops off abruptly past the boron–silicon pair. The similarities of nitrogen to sulfur are mostly limited to sulfur nitride ring compounds when both elements are the only ones present. Nitrogen does not share the proclivity of carbon for catenation . Like carbon, nitrogen tends to form ionic or metallic compounds with metals. Nitrogen forms an extensive series of nitrides with carbon, including those with chain-, graphitic- , and fullerenic -like structures. It resembles oxygen with its high electronegativity and concomitant capability for hydrogen bonding and

13728-583: The primary coolant system to the secondary steam cycle and is the primary means of detection for such leaks. Atomic nitrogen, also known as active nitrogen, is highly reactive, being a triradical with three unpaired electrons. Free nitrogen atoms easily react with most elements to form nitrides, and even when two free nitrogen atoms collide to produce an excited N 2 molecule, they may release so much energy on collision with even such stable molecules as carbon dioxide and water to cause homolytic fission into radicals such as CO and O or OH and H. Atomic nitrogen

13860-407: The production and distribution of commodities is entirely unorganised so that everybody must live in fear of being eliminated from the economic cycle, in this way suffering for the want of everything. Further more, people living in different countries kill each other at irregular time intervals, so that also for this reason any one who thinks about the future must live in fear and terror. This is due to

13992-522: The production of fertilisers. Dinitrogen is able to coordinate to metals in five different ways. The more well-characterised ways are the end-on M←N≡N ( η ) and M←N≡N→M ( μ , bis- η ), in which the lone pairs on the nitrogen atoms are donated to the metal cation. The less well-characterised ways involve dinitrogen donating electron pairs from the triple bond, either as a bridging ligand to two metal cations ( μ , bis- η ) or to just one ( η ). The fifth and unique method involves triple-coordination as

14124-543: The project (played by actors) burying a time capsule in Redwood National Forest in California . The capsule contained a copy of the film, along with a projector to view it on, and instructions for its operation set on a metal sheet. The purpose of the capsule was in line with the film's title, about whether humanity will destroy itself now that it has the ability to, or whether it will rise above war as

14256-599: The same time it means that burning, exploding, or decomposing nitrogen compounds to form nitrogen gas releases large amounts of often useful energy. Synthetically produced ammonia and nitrates are key industrial fertilisers , and fertiliser nitrates are key pollutants in the eutrophication of water systems. Apart from its use in fertilisers and energy stores, nitrogen is a constituent of organic compounds as diverse as aramids used in high-strength fabric and cyanoacrylate used in superglue . Nitrogen occurs in all organisms, primarily in amino acids (and thus proteins ), in

14388-583: The same time, use of the Ostwald process (1902) to produce nitrates from industrial nitrogen fixation allowed the large-scale industrial production of nitrates as feedstock in the manufacture of explosives in the World Wars of the 20th century. A nitrogen atom has seven electrons. In the ground state, they are arranged in the electron configuration 1s 2s 2p x 2p y 2p z . It, therefore, has five valence electrons in

14520-426: The site of the fairs. Time Capsule I was created for the 1939 New York World's Fair and Time Capsule II was created for the 1964 New York World's Fair . The second capsule is placed ten feet north of the first capsule. The capsules are filled with physical objects of that time period of social and scientific interest. They are to be opened at the same time in the year 6939 . New York publicist George Edward Pendray

14652-451: The soil. These reactions typically result in N enrichment of the substrate and depletion of the product . The heavy isotope N was first discovered by S. M. Naudé in 1929, and soon after heavy isotopes of the neighbouring elements oxygen and carbon were discovered. It presents one of the lowest thermal neutron capture cross-sections of all isotopes. It is frequently used in nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to determine

14784-457: The storable oxidiser of choice for many rockets in both the United States and USSR by the late 1950s. This is because it is a hypergolic propellant in combination with a hydrazine -based rocket fuel and can be easily stored since it is liquid at room temperature. The thermally unstable and very reactive dinitrogen pentoxide (N 2 O 5 ) is the anhydride of nitric acid , and can be made from it by dehydration with phosphorus pentoxide . It

14916-489: The structures of nitrogen-containing molecules, due to its fractional nuclear spin of one-half, which offers advantages for NMR such as narrower line width. N, though also theoretically usable, has an integer nuclear spin of one and thus has a quadrupole moment that leads to wider and less useful spectra. N NMR nevertheless has complications not encountered in the more common H and C NMR spectroscopy. The low natural abundance of N (0.36%) significantly reduces sensitivity,

15048-399: The term "culture" a notion held in small esteem today by certain nations of the western world is simply this endeavor. What we call the spirit is identical with it, too. Brothers of the future, united with us in the spirit and in this endeavor, we send our greetings. The term "time capsule" was coined by Pendray for the 1939 World's Fair Westinghouse exhibit in New York City for objects of

15180-667: The time placed in a tube for people of the future. The exterior of the 1938 time capsule is die-stamped with this message to anyone who might stumble upon it prior to the scheduled opening year of 6939. TIME CAPSULE OF CUPALOY, DEPOSITED ON THE SITE OF THE NEW YORK WORLD'S FAIR ON SEPTEMBER 23,1938, BY THE WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC & MANUFACTURING COMPANY. IF ANYONE SHOULD COME UPON THIS CAPSULE BEFORE THE YEAR A. D. 6939 LET HIM NOT WANTONLY DISTURB IT, FOR TO DO SO WOULD BE TO DEPRIVE THE PEOPLE OF THAT ERA OF THE LEGACY HERE LEFT THEM. CHERISH IT THEREFORE IN A SAFE PLACE. The 1965 time capsule exterior has no message. An exact duplicate of

15312-405: The time: Albert Einstein 's message, Our time is rich in inventive minds, the inventions of which could facilitate our lives considerably. We are crossing the seas by power and utilise power also in order to relieve humanity from all tiring muscular work. We have learned to fly and we are able to send messages and news without any difficulty over the entire world through electric waves. However,

15444-420: The touch of a feather, shifting air currents, or even alpha particles . For this reason, small amounts of nitrogen triiodide are sometimes synthesised as a demonstration to high school chemistry students or as an act of "chemical magic". Chlorine azide (ClN 3 ) and bromine azide (BrN 3 ) are extremely sensitive and explosive. Two series of nitrogen oxohalides are known: the nitrosyl halides (XNO) and

15576-454: The two Voyager Golden Records have been attached to spacecraft for the possible benefit of spacefarers in the distant future. A fifth time capsule, the KEO satellite, was scheduled to be launched in 2015–16. However, it has been delayed several times and an actual launch date has not been given. After launch, it will carry individual messages from Earth's inhabitants addressed to earthlings around

15708-456: The vicinity. At the close of the 1965 World's Fair, a seven-ton "permanent sentinel" granite monument, made by the Rock of Ages Corporation , was installed. The 50-foot-long (15 m) shaft was filled using pitch, concrete and earth, and the monument placed to mark the position where the two time capsules are buried. Flushing Meadows is approximately 7 feet (2.1 m) above sea level. The park

15840-505: The wall cavities of buildings can survive as long as the building is used and maintained. In 2016, the art collective Ant Farm displayed a show, The Present Is the Form of All Life: The Time Capsules of Ant Farm and LST , at the art center Pioneer Works, in Brooklyn, New York . The artists had previous experiences with failed time capsules, and were now exploring "digital time capsules" as

15972-837: The year 52,000, when it is due to return to Earth. As of July 2019 , the satellite had not been launched. The International Time Capsule Society was created in 1990 to maintain a global database of all known time capsules. The Not Forgotten Digital Preservation Library maintains a current map and register of domestic and commercial time capsules. "Earth's Black Box"—a city bus-sized structure with steel walls, battery storage and solar panels located at remote site in Tasmania—will accumulate and electronically store comprehensive climate research and related data, including land and sea temperature changes, ocean acidification , atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations, human population, energy consumption, military spending, and policy changes. The box

16104-412: Was a component of air that does not support combustion was clear to Rutherford, although he was not aware that it was an element. Nitrogen was also studied at about the same time by Carl Wilhelm Scheele , Henry Cavendish , and Joseph Priestley , who referred to it as burnt air or phlogisticated air . French chemist Antoine Lavoisier referred to nitrogen gas as " mephitic air " or azote , from

16236-994: Was conceived to tell future civilizations how humankind created the climate crisis , and how it failed or succeeded to address it. On February 22, 2024, the Arch Mission Foundation landed the Lunar Library on the Moon, containing the English Misplaced Pages and other content, with the GLL Lunaprise mission , on the Intuitive Machines IM-1 mission. According to time capsule historian William Jarvis, most intentional time capsules usually do not provide much useful historical information: they are typically filled with "useless junk", new and pristine in condition, that tells little about

16368-691: Was editor for Literary Digest when in 1936 he interviewed Thornwell Jacobs , organizer of Oglethorpe University 's millennia-spanning time crypt of objects preserved for the people of 8113 AD. He then published an article about this in his October magazine. Westinghouse then took this concept and started developing in 1938 their Time Capsule of Cupaloy for the 1939 New York World's Fair . The time capsules are bullet-shaped, measure 90 inches (2.3 m) in length, and have an exterior casing of about 8.75 inches (22.2 cm) in diameter. Time Capsule I weighs about 800 pounds (360 kg), while Time Capsule II weighs about 400 pounds (180 kg). Time Capsule I

16500-442: Was first found as a product of the thermal decomposition of FN 3 . Nitrogen trichloride (NCl 3 ) is a dense, volatile, and explosive liquid whose physical properties are similar to those of carbon tetrachloride , although one difference is that NCl 3 is easily hydrolysed by water while CCl 4 is not. It was first synthesised in 1811 by Pierre Louis Dulong , who lost three fingers and an eye to its explosive tendencies. As

16632-566: Was found that nitrogen was present in nitric acid and nitrates . Antoine Lavoisier suggested instead the name azote , from the Ancient Greek : ἀζωτικός "no life", as it is an asphyxiant gas ; this name is used in a number of languages, and appears in the English names of some nitrogen compounds such as hydrazine , azides and azo compounds . Elemental nitrogen is usually produced from air by pressure swing adsorption technology. About 2/3 of commercially produced elemental nitrogen

16764-502: Was made of a stainless steel metal called Kromarc. Westinghouse Research Laboratories determined, with extensive chemical testing, that this new super-stainless steel alloy would resist corrosion, much like the alloy used for Time Capsule I. Kromarc is an alloy of iron, nickel, chromium, manganese, molybdenum, and trace amounts of other elements. The contents of the time capsules were sealed inside an insulated, airtight, glass envelope with an interior diameter of 6.5 inches (17 cm) and

16896-481: Was made of a non- ferrous alloy called Cupaloy, created especially for this project. Designed to resist corrosion for 5,000 years, the alloy was made of 99.4% copper , 0.5% chromium , and 0.1% silver . Westinghouse claims that Cupaloy has the same strength as steel, yet will resist most corrosion over thousands of years because it becomes an anode in electrolytic reactions, receiving deposits instead of wasting away like most iron-bearing metals. Time Capsule II

17028-433: Was provided. This method involves constructing a loop of wire 10 feet (3.0 m) in diameter and putting an alternating current (between 1,000 and 5,000 hertz ) through it with a power of at least 200 watts . A secondary loop of wire, about 1 foot (0.30 m) in diameter, will detect a "distortion field", thus indicating the exact location of the two metal alloy time capsules, assuming no other large metal objects are in

17160-524: Was reinstalled. It was ceremonially reopened in January 2015 at the Museum of Fine Arts Boston , with specific restrictions on media coverage, to preserve the fragile artifacts. The contents were displayed there briefly, and then reinstalled in their original location. It is the oldest known time capsule in the United States. In 1901, a time capsule was placed inside the head of the copper lion ornamenting

17292-404: Was sent to the original 3,000 depositories of the 1938 edition. If present-day methods of determining time are lost, future generations will be able to calculate the age of the time capsules using astronomical data. In the year 1939, there were two eclipses of the moon , falling on the third of May and the twenty-eighth of October. There were also two eclipses of the sun , an annular eclipse on

17424-419: Was voted No.  5 of the 50 Greatest Cartoons of all time by members of the animation profession. Commercially manufactured sealable containers are sold for protection of personal time capsules; some of the more durable waterproof containers used for geocaching may also be suitable. Many underground time capsules are destroyed by groundwater infiltration after short periods of time; caches stored within

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