59-585: The Willamette Falls is a natural waterfall in the northwestern United States , located on the Willamette River between Oregon City and West Linn, Oregon . The largest waterfall in the Northwest U.S. by volume, it is the seventeenth widest in the world. Horseshoe in shape, it is 1,500 feet (455 m) wide and forty feet (12 m) high, with a flow rate of 30,850 cu ft/s (874 m/s). Located 26 miles (42 km) upriver from
118-549: A falls, so almost anything is possible given the right geological and hydrological setting. Waterfalls normally form in a rocky area due to erosion. After a long period of being fully formed, the water falling off the ledge will retreat, causing a horizontal pit parallel to the waterfall wall. Eventually, as the pit grows deeper, the waterfall collapses to be replaced by a steeply sloping stretch of river bed. In addition to gradual processes such as erosion, earth movement caused by earthquakes or landslides or volcanoes can lead to
177-465: A pioneering work on waterfalls. In 1942 Oscar von Engeln wrote of the lack of research on waterfalls: Waterfall sites more than any other geomorphic feature attract and hold the interest of the general public. Because they have such a popular approval waterfalls are not given serious attention by some students of systematic geomorphology. This attitude is not to be commended. Waterfalls are significant items for geomorphic investigation. As late as 1985
236-556: A portion of the former town site. The locks were sold by the Willamette Falls Canal and Locks Company to the United States Army Corps of Engineers in 1915. They were closed in 2011. The Willamette Falls Electric Company (later renamed Portland General Electric ) was formed in 1888 to build a hydro-electric generation facility at the falls. Four turbine-driven dynamos were built on the east end of
295-795: A role in many cultures, as religious sites and subjects of art and music. Many artists have painted waterfalls and they are referenced in many songs, such as those of the Kaluli people in Papua New Guinea . Michael Harner titled his study of the Jivaroan peoples of Ecuador The Jivaro: People of the Sacred Waterfalls. Artists such as those of the Hudson River School and J. M. W. Turner and John Sell Cotman painted particularly notable pictures of waterfalls in
354-603: A scholar felt that "waterfalls remain a very much neglected aspect of river studies". Studies of waterfalls increased dramatically in the second half of the 20th century. Numerous waterfall guidebooks exist, and the World Waterfall Database is a website cataloging thousands of waterfalls. Many explorers have visited waterfalls. European explorers recorded waterfalls they came across. In 1493, Christopher Columbus noted Carbet Falls in Guadeloupe , which
413-506: A stream or river flowing into a glacier continues to flow into a valley after the glacier has receded or melted. The large waterfalls in Yosemite Valley are examples of this phenomenon, which is referred to as a hanging valley . Another reason hanging valleys may form is where two rivers join and one is flowing faster than the other. When warm and cold water meets by a gorge in the ocean, large underwater waterfalls can form as
472-610: A tabular iceberg or ice shelf . Waterfalls can be formed in several ways, but the most common method of formation is that a river courses over a top layer of resistant bedrock before falling onto softer rock, which erodes faster, leading to an increasingly high fall. Waterfalls have been studied for their impact on species living in and around them. Humans have had a distinct relationship with waterfalls since prehistory, travelling to see them, exploring and naming them. They can present formidable barriers to navigation along rivers. Waterfalls are religious sites in many cultures. Since
531-408: Is a type of stream pool formed at the bottom of a waterfall. A waterfall may also be referred to as a "foss" or "force". Waterfalls are commonly formed in the upper course of a river where lakes flow into valleys in steep mountains. A river sometimes flows over a large step in the rocks that may have been formed by a fault line . Waterfalls can occur along the edge of a glacial trough , where
590-824: Is also no agreement how to measure the height of a waterfall, or even what constitutes one. Angel Falls in Venezuela is the tallest waterfall in the world , the Khone Phapheng Falls in Laos are the widest, and the Inga Falls on the Congo River are the biggest by flow rate , while the Dry Falls in Washington are the largest confirmed waterfalls ever. The highest known subterranean waterfall
649-466: Is fractured or otherwise more erodible. Hydraulic jets and hydraulic jumps at the toe of a falls can generate large forces to erode the bed, especially when forces are amplified by water-borne sediment. Horseshoe-shaped falls focus the erosion to a central point, also enhancing riverbed change below a waterfall. A process known as "potholing" involves local erosion of a potentially deep hole in bedrock due to turbulent whirlpools spinning stones around on
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#1732773090182708-610: Is in Vrtoglavica Cave in Slovenia . The Denmark Strait cataract is an undersea overflow which could be considered a "waterfall" under a very broad usage of that term; if so included, it is the largest known waterfall. Artificial waterfalls are water features or fountains that imitate a natural waterfall. The Cascata delle Marmore is the tallest artificially built waterfall at 541 feet (165 m). Blue Heron Paper Company The Blue Heron Paper Company
767-700: Is no known number of individuals in the tribes, Lewis and Clark estimated that there were at least 1500 members of the Clackamas tribe before during their 1804 expedition. In 1829, the first oceangoing vessel to sail up the Willamette, the Owyhee, anchored in the Clackamas Rapids. The captain, John Dominis, had wanted to set up a fishery. Though the accounts of the interactions between Captain Dominis and
826-534: Is operated by the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife . The estimated spring chinook salmon run for 2007 was 52,000. The public can view the falls from viewpoints on the bluffs of Oregon City , from a signed viewpoint along Highway 99E , from the Oregon City Bridge , from a viewpoint on northbound I-205 , or from boats in the river. The industrialization precluded public access to
885-804: Is undoubtedly presented by the continent of Africa, the 'darkness' of which is almost entirely due to this cause." Waterfalls are often visited by people simply to see them. Hudson theorizes that they make good tourism sites because they are generally considered beautiful and are relatively uncommon. Activities at waterfalls can include bathing, swimming, photography, rafting , canyoning , abseiling , rock climbing , and ice climbing . Waterfalls can also be sites for generating hydroelectric power and can hold good fishing opportunities. Wealthy people were known to visit areas with features such as waterfalls at least as early as in Ancient Rome and China . However, many waterfalls were essentially inaccessible due to
944-477: The Gocta Cataracts were first announced to the world in 2006. Waterfalls can pose major barriers to travel. Canals are sometimes built as a method to go around them, other times things must be physically carried around or a railway built . In 1885, the geographer George Chisholm wrote that, "The most signal example of the effect of waterfalls and rapids in retarding the development of civilisation
1003-563: The Siletz Indian Reservation . Willamette Falls is an important location for many tribes. The abundance of salmon brought tribal communities from all over to fish, trade, and interact at the falls - creating an economic and cultural hub for the region. Each year many tribes harvest ceremonial salmon at Willamette Falls and collect lamprey during the summer, including the Confederated Tribes and Bands of
1062-745: The Willamette Falls . Sawmills were erected to secure the land and began producing lumber for the Hudson Bay company. In 1832, McLoughlin directed his employees to blast a mill race along the falls and begin further construction of mills and housing. Industrial expansion continued throughout the 1800s, and in 1866, Pioneer Paper Manufacturing Company was established. This was the first paper mill in Oregon. Pioneer Paper Manufacturing Company closed in 1867, and from it came two new companies: Oregon City Mills and Crown Paper Company. Oregon City Mills
1121-526: The Willamette Falls Legacy Project . This project was meant to survey the existing site and begin planning for redevelopment. In 2014 the group came to an agreement about the future of the project, and proposed to create a riverwalk in the place of the old mill. This proposal was expected to restore the surrounding environment, and create 1480 permanent jobs in the area. In 2019, the Confederated Tribes of Grand Ronde purchased
1180-541: The black swift and white-throated dipper . These species preferentially nest in the space behind the falling water, which is thought to be a strategy to avoid predation. Some waterfalls are also distinct in that they do not flow continuously. Ephemeral waterfalls only flow after a rain or a significant snowmelt. Waterfalls can also be found underground and in oceans. The geographer Andrew Goudie wrote in 2020 that waterfalls have received "surprisingly limited research." Alexander von Humboldt wrote about them in
1239-400: The 1820s. There is no name for the specific field of researching waterfalls, and in the published literature been described as "scattered", though it is popular to describe studying waterfalls as "waterfallology". An early paper written on waterfalls was published in 1884 by William Morris Davis , a geologist known as the "father of American geography". In the 1930s Edward Rashleigh published
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#17327730901821298-444: The 18th century, they have received increased attention as tourist destinations, sources of hydropower , and—particularly since the mid-20th century—as subjects of research. A waterfall is generally defined as a point in a river where water flows over a steep drop that is close to or directly vertical. In 2000 Mabin specified that "The horizontal distance between the positions of the lip and plunge pool should be no more than c 25% of
1357-703: The 19th century. One of the versions of the Shinto purification ceremony of misogi involves standing underneath a waterfall in ritual clothing. In Japan the Nachi Falls are a site of pilgrimage, as are falls near Tirupati , India, and the Saut-d'Eau , Haiti. The Otavalos use Piguchi waterfall as part of the Churru ritual which serves as a coming of age ceremony. Many waterfalls in Africa were places of worship for
1416-527: The Clackamas people vary, they ended with the Clackamas people swimming out and cutting his anchor. In the small amount of time the Owyhee had docked, malaria had spread to the tribes along the Willamette. In the winter of 1829–1830, over nine tenths of the Clackamas and Clowewalla had died from the disease. By 1855, only 88 members of the Clackamas tribe remained, and only 13 members of the Clowewalla remained. The complete devastation brought by malaria left
1475-675: The Confederated Tribes and Bands of the Yakama Nation, Confederated Tribes of Siletz Indians, Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation and Confederated Tribes of the Warm Springs. Waterfall A waterfall is any point in a river or stream where water flows over a vertical drop or a series of steep drops. Waterfalls also occur where meltwater drops over the edge of
1534-660: The US government in exchange for a ten-year annuity of $ 2,500. The treaty was ratified March 3, 1855, and the remaining Clackamas people were to relocate to the Grand Ronde Reservation. By the summer of the same year, the US government had forcibly moved the remaining tribe members into the reservation, and refused to pay out any of the annuity. In 2000, the Blue Heron Paper Company was sued by The Northwest Environmental Defense Center, alleging that
1593-528: The Willamette's confluence with the Columbia River . Operated by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the lock was a four lock canal and was the oldest continuous operating, multiple lift navigation canal in the United States. The industrialization of the area led to diminishing salmon and steelhead runs, prompting the construction of a fish ladder in 1882. A new fish ladder , built in 1971,
1652-608: The Willamette's mouth at Portland , Willamette Falls is a culturally significant site for many tribal communities in the region. Opened in 1873 and closed since 2011, the Willamette Falls Locks allowed boat traffic on the Willamette to pass into the main Willamette Valley . Native American oral history taught that the falls were placed there by the ancient hero T'allapus (Coyote) so that their people would have fish to eat all winter.· Willamette Falls
1711-511: The Yakama Nation , the Confederated Tribes of the Grand Ronde , the Confederated Tribes of Siletz Indians , the Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation , and the Confederated Tribes of Warm Springs . European fur traders became aware of the falls in 1810. John McLoughlin established a land claim at the falls in the name of the Hudson's Bay Company in 1829. Oregon City
1770-426: The base of the waterfall by abrasion , creating a deep plunge pool in the gorge downstream. Streams can become wider and shallower just above waterfalls due to flowing over the rock shelf, and there is usually a deep area just below the waterfall because of the kinetic energy of the water hitting the bottom. However, a study of waterfalls systematics reported that waterfalls can be wider or narrower above or below
1829-593: The base of the waterfall for well over a century. As of 2017, a process to redevelop the Blue Heron Paper Mill site and provide public access to the area, including a river walk, is underway. The Willamette Falls Trust is coordinating the Willamette Falls Inter-Tribal Public Access Project that is led by a team that includes Tribal Council Members and appointees from several sovereign nations, including
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1888-441: The bed, drilling it out. Sand and stones carried by the watercourse therefore increase erosion capacity. This causes the waterfall to carve deeper into the bed and to recede upstream. Often over time, the waterfall will recede back to form a canyon or gorge downstream as it recedes upstream, and it will carve deeper into the ridge above it. The rate of retreat for a waterfall can be as high as one-and-a-half metres per year. Often,
1947-401: The cold water rushes to the bottom. The caprock model of waterfall formation states that the river courses over resistant bedrock , erosion happens slowly and is dominated by impacts of water-borne sediment on the rock, while downstream the erosion occurs more rapidly. As the watercourse increases its velocity at the edge of the waterfall, it may pluck material from the riverbed, if the bed
2006-542: The dilapidated pipes and roofs were raised, as there was a risk to the endangered salmon population. The runoff from the facility was run through a compost system to filter out excess amounts of such metals, and this process was continued for five years. After the paper mill's closure in 2011, the joining of 4 local governments (the City of Oregon City, Metro, Clackamas County and the Governor's Regional Solutions Team) formed
2065-678: The environment of the waterfall itself. A 2012 study of the Agbokim Waterfalls , has suggested that they hold biodiversity to a much higher extent than previously thought. Waterfalls also affect terrestrial species. They create a small microclimate in their immediate vicinity characterized by cooler temperatures and higher humidity than the surrounding region, which may support diverse communities of mosses and liverworts . Species of these plants may have disjunct populations at waterfall zones far from their core range. Waterfalls provide nesting cover for several species of bird, such as
2124-434: The falls. A 14-mile (23-kilometer) long transmission line to Portland was built, becoming the first long-distance transmission of electrical energy in the United States in 1889. In 1895 Portland General Electric built a second generation station on the west side of the falls. The newer plant, called the T.W.Sullivan Plant (previously Station B), is still in operation with a capacity of 16,000 kilowatts. The foundations of
2183-531: The falls. Large groups of men would use dip-nets or spears to catch fish, and these fish would then be preserved by drying or smoking. The fish were so plentiful that neighboring tribes would frequently come to trade and request fishing rights to the falls. In addition, the tribes were expert boatmen and were relied on heavily for river transportation. The villages of these tribes were made to be permanent. They build lodges out of cedar planks, and these lodges frequently housed upwards of 20 individuals. Though there
2242-415: The formation of waterfalls. Waterfalls are an important factor in determining the distribution of lotic organisms such as fish and aquatic invertebrates, as they may restrict dispersal along streams. The presence or absence of certain species can have cascading ecological effects, and thus cause differences in trophic regimes above and below waterfalls. Certain aquatic plants and insects also specialize in
2301-520: The mill could no longer remain in operation due to the rising paper prices and lack of investors. The confederated Tribes of Grande Ronde acquired control of the land in 2019 for $ 15.25 million, and are now planning a cultural and community center. Four other tribes cite ancestral connections to the area. In 1829, under the employment of the Hudson Bay Company , British fur trader John McLoughlin claimed two square miles of land around
2360-661: The native peoples and got their names from gods in the local religion. "In Chinese tradition, the waterfall represents" the season of autumn , yin , and the Chinese dragon 's power over water that comes from the former two. There are thousands of waterfalls in the world, though no exact number has been calculated. The World Waterfall Database lists 7,827 as of 2013, but this is likely incomplete; as noted by Hudson, over 90% of their listings are in North America. Many guidebooks to local waterfalls have been published. There
2419-723: The old plant still remain. The falls have been home to several paper mills beginning with the Oregon City Paper Manufacturing Co. in 1866. The Willamette Pulp and Paper Co. opened on the West Linn side during 1889. The ownership of the mills has changed several times. The last two remaining mills in 2011 were owned by the West Linn Paper Company and the Blue Heron Paper Company . West Linn Paper Company announced it
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2478-540: The paper waste needed to produce paper increased by 70 percent. This increase was widely attributed to overseas competition. In 2009, the company filed for chapter 11 bankruptcy protection. In 2011, Blue Heron Paper Company permanently closed citing rising paper costs and lack of investors. The Clackamas and Clowewalla tribes resided above and below the Willamette Falls. These tribes were not hunter gatherers, nor practiced agriculture, but survived by fishing
2537-728: The rise of Romanticism , and increased importance of hydropower with the Industrial Revolution . European explorers often preferred to give waterfalls names in their own language; for instance, David Livingstone named Victoria Falls after Queen Victoria , though it was known by local peoples as Mosi-oa-Tunya. Many waterfalls have descriptive names which can come from the river they are on, places they are near, their features, or events that happened near them. Some countries that were colonized by European nations have taken steps to return names to waterfalls previously renamed by European explorers. Exploration of waterfalls continues;
2596-504: The rock stratum just below the more resistant shelf will be of a softer type, meaning that undercutting due to splashback will occur here to form a shallow cave-like formation known as a rock shelter under and behind the waterfall. Eventually, the outcropping , more resistant cap rock will collapse under pressure to add blocks of rock to the base of the waterfall. These blocks of rock are then broken down into smaller boulders by attrition as they collide with each other, and they also erode
2655-562: The sale of the site itself was announced in June 2013, but later fell apart. In May 2014, another developer, George Heidgerken, purchased the property. Heidgerken then sold the property to the Confederated Tribes of Grand Ronde in August 2019. The falls is a horseshoe -shaped, block waterfall caused by a basalt shelf in the river floor. The 40 ft (12 m) high and 1500 ft (457 m) wide falls occur 26 river miles (42 km) upstream from
2714-587: The site of the mill for $ 15.25 million. The Tribes of Grand Ronde brought forth their own proposal for the redevelopment of the site, and began communications with Willamette Falls Legacy Project. This budding partnership gained interest from the Willamette Falls Trust, which is a non-profit which represents four confederated tribes (Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation, Confederated Tribes of Siletz Indians, Yakama Nation and Confederated Tribes of Warm Springs) who have history within
2773-469: The towns was fierce until the Great Flood of 1862 . Oregon City was inundated and badly damaged, while Linn City was obliterated. Navigating past the falls was not possible until the completion of the Willamette Falls Locks in 1873. During construction of the locks, channels were blasted from the rocks that formerly supported the town of Linn City. Along with the locks, the city of West Linn sits on
2832-546: The treacherous terrain surrounding them until improvements began to be made such as paths to the falls, becoming common across the United Kingdom and America in the 1800s and continuing through the 1900s and into the 21st century. Remote waterfalls are now often visited by air travel. Human development has also threatened many waterfalls. For instance, the Guaíra Falls , once one of the most powerful waterfalls in
2891-400: The tribes of the Willamette Falls unable to stop their land from being stolen by English settlers. Infrastructure and housing created by the settlers began to overtake the falls, and in 1848 the last lodge that had been built by the Clowewalla was deliberately burned down. With no where left to go, the last 88 Clackamas people signed a treaty on January 10, 1855, which ceded all of their land to
2950-463: The wastewater produced by the paper mill was too warm and violated the Clean Water Act . This warm wastewater was argued to be too hot for the endangered salmon that reside within the Willamette River . After the 2011 closure and subsequent abandonment of the property, multiple clean-up projects have been carried out. In 2013, concerns about copper and zinc leaking into the environment from
3009-423: The waterfall height." There are various types and methods to classify waterfalls. Some scholars have included rapids as a subsection. What actually constitutes a waterfall continues to be debated. Waterfalls are sometimes interchangeably referred to as "cascades" and "cataracts", though some sources specify a cataract as being a larger and more powerful waterfall and a cascade as being smaller. A plunge pool
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#17327730901823068-677: The world, were submerged in 1982 by a human-made dam, as were the Ripon Falls in 1952. Conversely, other waterfalls have seen significantly lower water levels as a result of diversion for hydroelectricity , such as the Tyssestrengene in Norway. Development of the areas around falls as tourist attractions has also destroyed the natural scene around many of them. Waterfalls are included on thirty-eight World Heritage Sites and many others are protected by governments. Waterfalls play
3127-600: Was a flour mill in operation until 1880, where it was purchased and then later absorbed into the Portland Flour Mills Co. Portland Flour Mills Co. was successful and stayed in operation until 1907, when it was purchased by W. P. Hawley and converted back into a paper mill, becoming The Hawley Paper Company. In 1948, The Hawley Paper Company was sold to Publishers Paper Co, who then became Smurfit Newsprint Corp in 1986. In 1998, Smurfit acquired Stone Container Corporation and became Smurfit-Stone. This acquisition
3186-600: Was a paper mill at Willamette Falls in Oregon City, Oregon , on the southeast bank of the river across from the Willamette Falls Paper Company , the T.W. Sullivan hydroelectric plant , and the Willamette Falls Locks and canal. In its operation from 2000 to 2011, the mill produced recycled paper products ranging from newsprint to paper bags. Facing increased competition from China, the company filed for chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2009. By 2011,
3245-536: Was established in 1842 near the east end of the falls. The town of Linn City was founded on the western shore one year later in 1843. The two towns competed economically, vying for the lucrative steamboat traffic and the trade it generated. With the falls representing the end of the line for boat traffic, river boat captains were forced to choose a side of the river on which they would dock to unload their passengers and goods; some of which would continue their upriver journey on winding portage toll roads. Competition between
3304-405: Was expensive and to help alleviate debts, the paper division of the company was sold to KPS Special Situations Fund LF of New York and mill employees in 2000. Under the title of Blue Heron Paper Company, production continued. By 2006, the company was completely employee owned and operated. In the years following the shift to employee ownership, Blue Heron's financial situation worsened. Prices for
3363-551: Was likely the first waterfall Europeans recorded seeing in the Americas. In the late 1600s, Louis Hennepin visited North America, providing early descriptions of Niagara Falls and the Saint Anthony Falls . The geographer Brian J. Hudson argues that it was uncommon to specifically name waterfalls until the 1700s. The trend of Europeans specifically naming falls was in tandem with increased scientific focus on nature,
3422-686: Was once the home to the Charcowah village of the Clowewalla band of Tumwaters or Willamette Band of Tumwaters, an upper Chinookan speaking people. These lands were ceded to the United States Government under the Willamette Valley Treaty of 1855 (signed on January 22, 1855; ratified on March 3, 1855). Tribal members were then removed from these ancestral lands to the Grand Ronde Reservation and
3481-594: Was shutting down in October 2017, and reopened in November 2019 as Willamette Falls Paper Company . Blue Heron Paper Company closed its mill in February 2011. The Blue Heron site has subsequently been auctioned off for redevelopment. The milling facilities were sold to a Canadian investment firm, NRI Global, Inc., which has begun work removing the old machinery and cleaning the grounds of contamination. An agreement for
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