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83-530: Town Creek Indian Mound ( 31 MG 2 ) is a prehistoric Native American archaeological site located near present-day Mount Gilead , Montgomery County , North Carolina , in the United States . The site, whose main features are a platform mound with a surrounding village and wooden defensive palisade , was built by the Pee Dee , a South Appalachian Mississippian culture people (a regional variation of

166-429: A carinated form of bottles and bowls. Caddo pottery is considered to be some of the finest Mississippian pottery because of its thinness, symmetry, and very smooth finish, with some of its best examples being bottle forms with extensive geometric engravings. Pieces are often dark brown and black with a glossy finish achieved by the application of a fine slip made from a mixture of sifted fine clay or paint and buffed to

249-452: A few potters working in this style at any one time and in some cases archaeologists have found signature features that suggest a specific potter made multiple known examples. Archaeologists have also dated the ceramics and found that the most expertly made pieces were done in the 14th century. These earlier pieces also show more influences from outside thematic sources, specifically early Walls phase and late Braden style shell engravings from

332-484: A high finish. The first Europeans to encounter Caddoan pottery were members of the Hernando de Soto Expedition in 1541, who described it as matching even the finest potters of their European homeland. That country is populous and abundant. Pottery is made there of clay, little differing from that of Estremoz or Montemor. The coming of Europeans and the attendant population loss, forced moves, and changing economy saw

415-611: A hoop), the hand, the skull, the ogee, concentric circles, rayed concentric circles, rayed semicircles, and rayed spirals. Pottery has been used to define phase sequences for Southern Appalachian Mississippian cultures. Limestone was initially used as a pottery temper before shell became the popular choice. Rounded bowls and spherical jars are the most common forms, sometimes with embellished rims and handles. Salt pans, platters, bottles, and effigies have also been unearthed. Cord-marked, coarse-tempered wares were for cooking, and serving wares were fine-tempered and highly polished. Pottery of

498-641: A large amount of either coarse sand or grog used as temper. Mississippian vessels generally have thinner vessel walls, obvious white flecks of shell temper, and round-bottomed pottery forms. For decades archeologists have examined, sorted, described and stored Woodland sherds from those of Mississippian vessels with relative ease. Shell tempering is a diagnostic criterion in the identification of Mississippian cultures and their ceramic artifacts, excavated site strata, and archeological site surveys in general. The record indicates that around 800 CE, early populations of Mississippian peoples produced shell-tempered pottery in

581-438: A large meandering river system are distinctive. The huge annually flooded backswamp areas create a clay that is composed of very minute clay particles (primarily silica) and a high proportion of organic content. This is caused by the slow settling or deposition of the alluvial materials after floods. The clay particles tend to measure just a few micrometres in size and in plate-like form. Large amounts of water can be tightly held in

664-3904: A quadrangle map. AA: Alamance (AM)  · Alexander (AX)  · Alleghany (AL)  · Anson (AN)  · Ashe (AH)  · Avery (Av)  · Beaufort (BF)  · Bertie (BR)  · Bladen (BL)  · Brunswick (BW)  · Buncombe (BN)  · Burke (BK)  · Cabarrus (CA)  · Caldwell (CW)  · Camden (CM)  · Carteret (CR)  · Caswell (CS)  · Catawba (CT)  · Chatham (CH)  · Cherokee (CE)  · Chowan (CO)  · Clay (CY)  · Cleveland (CL)  · Columbus (CB)  · Craven (CV)  · Cumberland (CD)  · Currituck (CK)  · Dare (DR)  · Davidson (DV)  · Davie (DE)  · Duplin (DP)  · Durham (DH)  · Edgecombe (ED)  · Forsyth (FY)  · Franklin (FK)  · Gaston (GS)  · Gates (GA)  · Graham (GH)  · Granville (GV)  · Greene (GR)  · Guilford (GF)  · Halifax (HX)  · Harnett (HT)  · Haywood (HW)  · Henderson (HN)  · Hertford (HF)  · Hoke (HK)  · Hyde (HY)  · Iredell (ID)  · Jackson (JK)  · Johnston (JT)  · Jones (JN)  · Lee (LE)  · Lenoir (LR)  · Lincoln (LN)  · Macon (MA)  · Madison (MD)  · Martin (MT)  · McDowell (MC)  · Mecklenburg (MK)  · Mitchell (ML)  · Montgomery (MG)  · Moore (MR)  · Nash (NS)  · New Hanover (NH)  · Northampton (NP)  · Onslow (ON)  · Orange (OR)  · Pamlico (PM)  · Pasquotank (PK)  · Pender (PD)  · Perquimans (PQ)  · Person (PR)  · Pitt (PT)  · Polk (PL)  · Randolph (RD)  · Richmond (RH)  · Robeson (RB)  · Rockingham (RK)  · Rowan (RW)  · Rutherford (RF)  · Sampson (SP)  · Scotland (SC)  · Stanly (ST)  · Stokes (SK)  · Surry (SR)  · Swain (SW)  · Transylvania (TV)  · Tyrrell (TY)  · Union (UN)  · Vance (VN)  · Wake (WA)  · Warren (WR)  · Washington (WH)  · Watauga (WT)  · Wayne (WY)  · Wilkes (WK)  · Wilson (WL)  · Yadkin (YD)  · Yancey (YC) AA: Abbeville (AB) · Aiken (AK) · Allendale (AL) · Anderson (AN) · Bamberg (BA) · Barnwell (BR) · Beaufort (BU) · Berkeley (BK) · Calhoun (CL) · Charleston (CH) · Cherokee (CK) · Chester (CS) · Chesterfield (CT) · Clarendon (CR) · Colleton (CN) · Darlington (DA) · Dillon (DN) · Dorchester (DR) · Edgefield (ED) · Fairfield (FA) · Florence (FL) · Georgetown (GE) · Greenville (GV) · Greenwood (GN) · Hampton (HA) · Horry (HR) · Jasper (JA) · Kershaw (KE) · Lancaster (LA) · Laurens (LU) · Lee (LE) · Lexington (LX) · Marion (MA) · Marlboro (ML) · McCormick (MC) · Newberry (NB) · Oconee (OC) · Orangeburg (OR) · Pickens (PK) · Richland (RD) · Saluda (SA) · Spartanburg (SP) · Sumter (SU) · Union (UN) · Williamsburg (WG) · York (YK) Mississippian culture pottery Mississippian culture pottery

747-542: A sequential number series for the whole state. Delaware uses a single letter code for counties and adds a block code (A-K) within each county, with sequential numbers for each block. Hawaii uses a four-part identifier, "50" for the state, a two-digit code for the island, then a two-digit code to designate the USGS topographical quad, plus a four digit sequential site number for sites on each island. NN: One or two digit number, 1 though 16, identifying rectangles (15 ' USGS maps) in

830-417: A shape and then modeled to form smooth walls. The potter's wheel was not used by pre-contact Native Americans . Some decoration of the clay was done at this stage by incising, defenstrating, adding shapes, or stamping designs into the wet clay. After the piece had dried completely, it was fired in a wood fire. Most pottery found at Mississippian sites is of the variety known as "Mississippian Bell Plain." It

913-399: A shell temper of fine plate-like particles, some nearly powder. The hinges of the shells are discarded. Using burned shells is logical as unburned mussel shells are hard and very durable. In terms of soil technology, the addition of shell ( calcium carbonate ) has the effect of neutralizing the ionic charge of the clay particles. During the course of replicative pottery experiments, as the shell

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996-689: A team from the University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill , funded by the WPA of the President Franklin D. Roosevelt administration. Frutchey donated the mound and about an acre of surrounding land to the state of North Carolina, and it was called Frutchey State Park for several years. The name was changed to Town Creek in the 1940s, and it has been administered by the North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources . Town Creek

1079-472: Is a pattern seen at other Mississippian sites, such as Cahokia , a major center located in present-day southwestern Illinois across the Mississippi River and near Saint Louis, Missouri . A total of 563 burials have been found at Town Creek Indian Mound; they are believed to be Pee Dee people. Many of the burial sites appear to have been fairly simple and common, with the bodies casually placed in

1162-411: Is a primary means for archaeologists to learn about the lifeways, religious practices, trade, and interaction among Mississippian peoples. The value of this pottery on the illegal antiquities market has led to extensive looting of sites . Mississippian culture pottery was made from locally available clay sources, which often gives archaeologists clues as to where a specific example originated. The clay

1245-412: Is a vertical-sided, flat-bottomed, rectangular vessel with an eccentric rim, specifically with one side lower than the other three so as to display the containers contents. The designs painted on the rectangular vessels are similar to motifs found on other locally produced wares and include the oblong emblem with an embedded cross-in-circle motif(thought to be a graphic representation of a scalp stretched on

1328-416: Is buff colored, contains large fragments of ground mussel shell as a tempering agent, and is not as smooth and polished as finer varieties. Higher quality ceramics feature a finer ground shell as a temper – some instances being so finely ground as to look untempered. Extravagant fine serving wares and grave goods were also produced, with some examples exhibiting handles shaped like animal heads and tails, or in

1411-574: Is the ceramic tradition of the Mississippian culture (800 to 1600 CE) found as artifacts in archaeological sites in the American Midwest and Southeast. It is often characterized by the adoption and use of riverine (or more rarely marine) shell- tempering agents in the clay paste. Shell tempering is one of the hallmarks of Mississippian cultural practices. Analysis of local differences in materials, techniques, forms, and designs

1494-500: Is the "standard Mississippi jar," or a globular jar with a recurved rim and subtle should. In the Pensacola culture of Florida , broken potsherds were rounded off and reused as discoidal game pieces. Effigy pots were a mainstay of many Mississippian peoples, although they come in many different varieties. Some come in anthropomorphic shapes, some zoomorphic shapes and others in the shape of mythological creatures associated with

1577-679: The Mississippian culture ) that developed in the region as early as 980 CE . They thrived in the Pee Dee River region of North and South Carolina during the Pre-Columbian era. The Town Creek site was an important ceremonial site occupied from about 1150—1400 CE. It was abandoned for unknown reasons. It is the only ceremonial mound and village center of the Pee Dee located within North Carolina. The Pee Dee people shared

1660-496: The Moundville site and the surrounding areas of Alabama. The Hemphill style pottery is a locally produced ware with a distinctive engraving tradition. It is found in the graves of commoners and the elite alike, as well as being found in domestic settings. The other variety consists of painted vessels, many of which were not produced locally. Unlike the engraved pottery, the negative-painted pottery only seems to have been used by

1743-952: The National Museum of the American Indian in Washington D.C. , the Hampson Museum State Park in Wilson, Arkansas , the Parkin Archeological State Park in Parkin, Arkansas and in the University of Arkansas Museum in Fayetteville, Arkansas . Hooded bottles or vessels were globular containers, resembling gourds, with a rounded base and a smaller "head." One side of the head was shaped like an animal or human face, while

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1826-753: The Piedmont and Blue Ridge regions differed dramatically from surrounding traditions; potters there used crushed quartz crystal and grit as tempers. Peoples of the Pisgah phase in Western North Carolina used sand as a tempering agent. Rim lugs and handles are absent, and vessel surfaces are either plain or decorated the "Complicated Stamped" style. The stamping paddles, made of wood or pottery, were impressed into unfired clay. Many stamps were salvaged from Nacoochee Mound in Georgia . Throughout

1909-805: The Slack Farm site in Union County, Kentucky . An actual mining company was formed (the Pocola Mining Company) to loot the Spiro site, and over a couple of years time many of the more delicate contents were destroyed as the looters dynamited the mortuary mound to gain entrance to its interior. They dynamited the Great Mortuary of Spiro in 1934, and this destruction spurred preservationists to pass laws protecting American archaeological sites. In 1987 ten looters paid $ 10,000 to dig at

1992-618: The platform mounds became a cottage industry, as the value of the pots increased in demand on the art and antiquities markets. Many states as well as the US federal government now have laws prohibiting the looting of such sites, although the high prices these objects command on the black market has seen these laws ignored. Two of the most widely publicized sites to be looted were the Spiro Mounds site in Le Flore County, Oklahoma and

2075-605: The AAS Station Lab at Arkansas State University involving macroscopic, microscopic, petrographic thin-sections, atomic absorption and x-ray diffraction analyses. A member of the team, Michael G. Million, also conducted replicative experiments, perhaps the first person to do so with the exact clays, tempers and tools used by prehistoric Mississippian potters. Pastes were created using a variety of temper-to-clay percentages so that vessels as well as test-tiles could be produced for examination. Test tiles gave information about

2158-461: The Caddoan culture emerged from local woodland cultures such as Fourche Maline , a distinctive pottery tradition emerged, unmistakable because of its designs, materials and fine execution. These early pots were often grog tempered, although sometimes finely ground bone was used. Two main forms emerged that would become Caddoan pottery standards for the next 1000 years, a long slender necked bottle and

2241-856: The Central Mississippi Valley at sites, such as the Fairmont Phase at Cahokia and the Early Mississippian strata excavated at the Zebree Site (3MS20) at Big Lake in northeastern Arkansas. In the early 1970s, archeologists working in Northeast Arkansas for the Arkansas Archeological Survey began research into causes of Mississippi Valley potters' relatively sudden shift to shell temper. The team conducted research at

2324-485: The Central Mississippi Valley. As the 15th century progressed, less competency is shown by the potters, which may indicate that less importance was attached to this particular artform. A variety of bichrome and polychrome vessels have also been found at Moundville. Stylistically they closely resemble pottery found along the Tennessee , Cumberland , the lower Ohio River and the central Mississippi Valleys. This pottery

2407-465: The Mississippian culture that was characterized in part by building large, earthwork mounds for spiritual and political purposes. They participated in a widespread network of trading that stretched from Georgia through South Carolina , eastern Tennessee , and the mountain and Piedmont regions of North Carolina. The Town Creek site is not large by Mississippian standards. The earthwork mound

2490-494: The Mississippian potter by collecting then burning freshwater mussel shells, which were originally most likely a byproduct of harvesting the meat for food. The x-ray diffraction of a sample from an unfired lump of pottery clay excavated at the Zebree (3MS20) site confirmed that the shell was burned before being added to the raw clay. Burning the shells eliminates the organic binder and the cooled, burnt shells are easily crushed into

2573-541: The Pee Dee people are based in South Carolina , where the state has recognized four bands and one group. The Pee Dee people built their mound on a low bluff at the confluence of Town Creek and the Little River . The Town Creek site was a major center of Pee Dee habitation, religion and trade. Discussions regarding trade among the local clans were held at Town Creek. Many of the highest-ranking members of

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2656-476: The Powell Plain has an unadorned surface, Ramey Incised are burnished and decorated with a series of incised motifs decorating the upper shoulders of the jar most often interpreted as having underworld or water connections. The incised decoration is added when the clay is still wet by tracing a design with a blunt-ended tool. The specific shapes and incised motifs are used to place the artifacts securely into

2739-819: The Slack Farm property. After two months complaints by local people led to the arrest of the perpetrators for the misdemeanor of "desecrating a venerable object" (a charge which is now a felony , in part due to the controversy over Slack Farm). Prosecution on this charge was difficult in the late 1980s, in part because this predated the passage of the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act and related state legislation, which made it clearer that such activities were illegal. The illegal digging of such objects destroys much of their archaeological value, as it removes its association from its surroundings. The situation in which an article

2822-608: The Southeastern Ceremonial Complex. Head pots are jars shaped like human heads, typical male, and the figures commonly appear to be deceased. They are typically 3–8 inches tall, with smaller vessels found in the Arkansas River Valley . The polychrome pots feature red, cream, and black slip on buff clay. Most were made between 1200 and 1500 CE in the Central Mississippi Valley area of Arkansas and Missouri . They are considered to be

2905-494: The Stirling Phase, and are considered two of the most important local varieties. A distinctive trait of this period is the shell temper. The cores of the sherds are typically a range of greys to buffs and creams. Some have slips of liquid clay and pigment with common colors being red, grey, and black and the surfaces polished to a high sheen. Although their attributes are nearly identical, there are major differences. While

2988-542: The Town Creek Mound. The ceremonies included fasting, bathing, the ingestion of cathartic medicine, and ritual scratching of the skin with the teeth of the garfish . The busk gathering concluded with a celebration known as a poskito , in which the neighboring tribes feasted on new corn. (It is often referred to as the Green Corn Ceremony.) The clans would return to their villages with embers from

3071-515: The available backswamp clay is its extreme stickiness, which is called plasticity in ceramic terminology. All but the coarsest of clays are somewhat plastic and malleable in the presence of water; however, the minute, clay plate-like particles of backswamp clay are so small that they are influenced by the ionic charges at their edges. The collective ionic charge acts to cause the clay plates to repel each other and thus slip and slide against each other. The shell particles, also plate-like, were produced by

3154-422: The county code. Arizona uses a five-part identifier based on USGS maps, specifying quadrangles, then rectangles within a quadrangle, a sequential number within the rectangle, and a code identifying the agency issuing the sequential number. California uses a three-letter abbreviation for counties. Connecticut and Rhode Island do not use any sub-state codes, with site identifiers consisting of the state abbreviation and

3237-457: The daily life, religion, social relationships, and trade with other groups. As Europeans began to settle in the lush river valleys of the Midwest and Southeast, they discovered the abandoned village sites and monumental architecture left behind by the former Mississippian culture inhabitants of the region. Many were leveled for fields or dug into by treasure hunters. In some areas exploitation of

3320-443: The development of deep knowledge about the past of Town Creek. Traditionally, historic excavations have taken place over a much shorter period of time, and artifacts are often moved to a distant research facility. Coe maintained his center of operations at Town Creek for over 50 years, allowing him to establish a consistent plan of research and study. The state has developed several facilities at Town Creek Indian Mound that are open to

3403-603: The dried but as yet unfired pieces to engrave. Sharpened reeds or fingernails were also used to punch small marks. Ornate designs and motifs are common decorative elements, which archaeologists use to track the spread of influences from one culture onto another culture. Many of the designs have symbolic meanings, usually associated with aspects of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex . Slips using such materials as galena for white, hematite for red, and sometimes graphite for black were used to paint

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3486-406: The drying and firing stages for inexperienced potters and ineffective technologies. Woodland potters attempted to remedy the high shrinkage by using large amounts (up to 33%) of coarse sand and/or grog temper in their efforts to render the clay usable for vessel construction. Moreover, their vessel shapes were necessarily confined to either a flat or conical-bottomed vessel. A thick-walled construction

3569-514: The elites at the Moundville site itself, and have not been found outside of the site. The Hemphill style pottery found at the Moundville site is categorized as Moundville Engraved, variety Hemphill . They are usually thin-walled bottles and bowls, tempered with finely ground mussel shell, and polished to a glossy black surface. About 150 whole and restored examples of this style are known. Although most have been found as grave goods, some show

3652-511: The end of the Caddo pottery tradition in the 18th century, and by the end of the 19th century only vestiges of the tradition survived. The last of the original tradition of Caddo pottery was made in the late 19th century in Oklahoma. Beginning in the 1990s, Jereldine Redcorn (Caddo) single-handedly revived her tribe's ceramic traditions. There are two major varieties of pottery associated with

3735-802: The exotic wares, albeit usually with less technical skill. Examples of Cahokian made or inspired wares have been found as far away as Aztalan in Wisconsin , the Winterville site in Mississippi . and Fort Ancient sites in Ohio . Pottery produced by the Caddoan Mississippian culture is some of the finest known in North America. It is usually found in the areas of Arkansas, Louisiana, Texas and Oklahoma. About 1200 CE as

3818-425: The fine funerary effigies and other vessels placed as grave goods within mounds and surrounding village areas. Early professional surveys in the valley noted the preponderance of shell-tempered wares in large village sites throughout the valley alluvial plains. Mississippian pottery is easily distinguished from earlier Woodland period pottery. Woodland vessels tend to have thicker walls, flat or conical bases and

3901-490: The finest and most widely spread ceramics. Pottery from the Cahokia site was especially fine, exhibiting smooth surfaces, very thin walls, and distinctive tempering, slips and coloring. Archaeologists have recorded how these qualities changed and evolved through time, and most examples can be pinpointed very accurately within the phases of the sites chronology . Ramey Incised and Powell Plain are two varieties that emerged during

3984-413: The food more effectively. A round vessel bottom allows easy stirring of the contents, a more even dissipation of the cooking heat and also permits a more even dispersion of the shock of impacts reducing breakage. The benefits of shell-tempered pottery vessels to the Mississippian household were much more efficient utility containers for cooking, particularly the increasing amounts of maize being grown in

4067-461: The form "nnAAnnnn", but some specify a space or dash between parts of the identifier, i.e., "nn AA nnnn" or "nn-AA-nnnn". Some states use variations of the trinomial system. Arizona, California, Connecticut, Maine, Rhode Island, and Vermont use two-letter abbreviations of the state name instead of the Smithsonian number. Alaska uses three-letter abbreviations for USGS map quadrangles in place of

4150-481: The formation of the advanced chiefdom societies populating the Eastern United States. These interacting chiefdoms were observed by the earliest of European contacts during the mid-16th century. Many Mississippian ceramics are decorated by incising or engraving . Implements such as sticks, reeds, or bone fragments, were dragged through wet clay to incise it, or they were scratched into the surface of

4233-452: The graves. Some of the remains were found buried with the bodies fully extended, while others may have been re-buried in a bundle of bones. The remains of young children and infants have been found tightly wrapped in deerskins and placed within large pottery vessels which archeologists have called burial urns. Coe served as the lead archaeologist for Town Creek Indian Mound for more than 50 years. His extensive work at Town Creek has resulted in

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4316-408: The grounds. Group tours are available with advance scheduling. Groups are led through some hands-on activities. Various special events held throughout the year focus on the lifestyle of the Pee Dee. Self-guided tours of the rebuilt structures and mound occur during normal operational hours, and admission to Town Creek Indian Mound is free. Smithsonian trinomial Most states use trinomials of

4399-401: The interspace between the clay particles. Add to this the organic ooze, and one has what is known colloquially as "gumbo" clay. Such clay has a high "shrink-swell" ratio depending upon the amount of water present. As it dries from a saturated to a dry state, it shrinks greatly – as seen in the cracked clay deposits of drying flooded areas – and this characteristic presents a serious problem to

4482-566: The local chronology. Most have been found in association with high status items fashioned from exotic materials and associated with specialized structures such as mortuaries and temples, and were almost certainly vessels used exclusively by the elites and for ritual purposes. As the influence of the Cahokian religion, lifestyle and trade network expanded outward from its American Bottom origins, examples of its high status pottery went with it. Numerous examples have been found of local imitations of

4565-621: The marks of domestic use. The Hemphill style , while similar to engraved pottery from the Tennessee Valley, the Mississippi Valley, and the Gulf Coast, reflects a distinctive local interpretation of S.E.C.C. themes . Five major themes have been identified as part of the style. Hemphill style pottery spans most of the 14th and the first half of the 15th century CE In this time period there were more than likely only

4648-510: The most common form. A hollow reed or sourwood stem would be inserted into the pipe for smoking. Used to process salt, salt pans were large, ovular, shallow clay pans that could hold from 10 to 26 liters. A heavy slip made them more waterproof. They were most likely formed from a mold, possibly a basket. They were lined with grass or textiles to keep from sticking to each other or the mold before firing. Cahokia, Pre-Columbian North Americas largest civic center north of Mexico , produced some of

4731-496: The only objects that survive in great enough quantities to establish such insights. Combined with other evidence, the study of pottery artifacts is helpful in the development of theories on organisation, economic conditions and cultural development. Although the vast majority of Mississippian pottery was produced for daily utilitarian uses, the finer varieties seem to have been made specifically for trade or for ritual use. The study of this pottery has allowed inferences to be drawn about

4814-404: The other side was a black, hollow opening. They were slipped on their exterior surface. A theory is that these were used to store seed grain, and unfired clay plugs, such as Kersey Clay Objects, sealed the opening. Another theory is that the bottles were used for liquids. Owls and opossums are often featured on hooded vessels. Ceramic pipes often featured animal effigies. L-shaped elbow pipes were

4897-528: The pinnacle of the Mississippian culture ceramics and are some of the rarest and most unusual clay vessels in North America. In 1880 an expedition sponsored by the Peabody Museum at an archaeological dig in Cross County, Arkansas found the first reported example. Approximately 200 whole and fragmentary head pots are in private and public collections. Each is unique and it is thought because of

4980-497: The potter. As the vessel is fired, any water left in the clay will tend to quickly turn to steam and explode the vessel wall in a spawl. It takes care and time to dry these vessels before they can be fired safely. Moreover, as even a well-tempered vessel dries, shrinkage rates vary around the contours of the form and will create strains that will crack an air-drying vessel if the drying is not slowed and controlled. A high shrinkage rate probably meant much effort lost to broken pots in both

5063-505: The pottery, with red and white spirals, fylfots , and stripped bottles being particularly popular at sites in the Central Mississippi valley. Widely available ochre produced red, orange, and brown slips. Vegetal pigments included roots, barks, and berries. A technique of "negative painting" involved painting the background and allowing the natural buff or grey of the clay to create the positive image. Beeswax or bear grease

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5146-445: The public. It built a reconstructed ceremonial center, restoring the platform mound and reconstructing a temple on it. It also reconstructed a minor temple and the mortuary. The visitor center houses interpretive exhibits, audiovisual programs, and a gift shop. The visitor center, minor temple, and mortuary are handicapped accessible. Several trails and outdoor monuments are located on the property. Fourteen picnic tables are located on

5229-429: The remains of a defensive wooden palisade that once surrounded the town and mound. Evidence suggests this palisade was rebuilt at least five times. Further excavations revealed that the mound, which had not been destroyed over the years despite widespread farming in the area, was the site of three separate structures. The earliest structure was a rectangular earth lodge that had collapsed with age. The second structure

5312-507: The sacred fire to stoke their hearths. Scholars believe that the sharing of the fire symbolized unity among the Pee Dee. Archaeologic excavation began at Town Creek in 1927 on an amateur basis,. In 1937 professional archaeologists began a Works Progress Administration (WPA)-funded project during the Great Depression . The scholarly excavations continued regularly until 1987. In the years prior to 1927, local residents had known

5395-564: The shapes of animal or human forms. Women were probably the makers of pottery, as they were in most other Native American cultures. Archaeologists found 11 polishing pebbles and a mushroom-shaped pottery anvil in the grave of a woman at the Nodena site . Both amateur collectors as well as professional archeologists have long known that shell-tempered pottery is characteristic of the middle and lower Mississippi Valley. "Grave diggers" and amateur collectors have plundered many Mississippian mounds for

5478-412: The shapes of their eyes and half opened mouths that they are representations of deceased individuals, a death mask of sorts, although it is unclear if they are meant to be the trophy heads of enemies or of their own honored dead. The pots often have painted surfaces, engraved lines representing tattooing and in some cases holes representing ear and nose piercing. Several fine examples are on display at

5561-473: The shrinkage rates of various clay/temper combinations to the 'green' state and yielded further information upon firing. Simple, round-bottom cooking jars were built using coil construction and the Mississippian pottery tool set, including a pottery anvil, wooden paddle, mussel shell scrapers and polishing stones. The research discovered that there were very good reasons for using shell tempering for Mississippi Valley clays. The nature of clays formed by such

5644-456: The site as a place to collect Indian arrowheads and other relics. With little knowledge of archaeological practices, they likely caused some permanent damage to the site. The amateur group used a scraper pulled by a mule to uncover artifacts, including animal and human bones, and shards of pottery . Today excavations continue on a limited basis. During the 1930s the land was owned by L. D. Frutchey. He allowed exploratory work to begin in 1937 by

5727-526: The southeast, samples of negative pottery can be found, featuring circles, crosses, and rings of dark slip on lighter backgrounds. Chronologies based on pottery have been essential for dating Mississippian cultures. Along with anthropologists and historians , archaeologists study of the pottery has provided one of the best insights into the culture. Because pottery is durable and often survives long after artifacts made from less durable materials have decayed past recognition, ceramics and stone tools are often

5810-578: The textiles used for the imprints were older fabrics that were past their use as garments. Corncobs were also used to create texture on pots. Mississippian ceramics took many forms, from earplugs, beads, smoking pipes, discs, to cooking pots, serving dishes, bottles or ollas for liquids, figurative sculpture, and uniquely Mississippian forms such as head pots or hooded vessels. Funeral urns were either crafted specifically to hold human remains or were large utilitarian jars fitted with elaborately decorated lids. The most ubiquitous form of Mississippian pottery

5893-560: The tribe lived, died, and were buried at Town Creek; the elite served both political and religious roles. The site in Montgomery County was the location of important religious ceremonies and tribal feasts. The clans in the surrounding area would gather at Town Creek for periodic gatherings known as "busks" . During a busk, the temple, homes, and grounds of the village were cleaned and repaired as needed. Debts and grievances were resolved. Ritual purification ceremonies took place at

5976-514: The valley, and thus sustaining larger and healthier populations in evidence in the archeological record. Around 800 CE, shell-tempered pottery spread widely and rapidly from the middle Mississippi River valley to become an integral part of the expanding Mississippian culture and its improved set of technologies for horticulture, hunting and crafting. The bow and arrow, improved corn domestication and shell-tempered pottery wares were major technical advances which, along with widespread trade, contributed to

6059-475: The vicinity of the plaza, including a burial and mortuary house. It is believed that the burial house was significant for a specific clan . The mound, burial, mortuary houses and many family homes were surrounded by a protective palisade. The remains of two gates and guard towers have been discovered on the north and south ends of the palisade, with archaeological evidence pointing to the successive construction and destruction of at least five protective walls. This

6142-497: Was added to the clay in the presence of water, distinct and immediate changes took place in the feel of the clay. With the valence neutral, the clay-temper combination produces a very satisfactory pottery clay. This modification of backswamp clay – particles now clumping instead of constantly slipping – into a well-behaved modeling clay would have been immediately noticed by the experienced prehistoric potter. Adding as little as 10–15% shell temper created an excellent pottery paste that

6225-430: Was built over the fallen lodge; it was a temple. After the temple burned, the Pee Dee built another ceremonial structure on the same spot on top of the mound. This building had an eastward-facing ramp that provided access to the surrounding plaza. The flat, graded plaza in front of the mound served as the site for ceremonies and other public meetings. The archaeologists discovered the remains of several support buildings in

6308-572: Was built over the remains of a rectangular-shaped earth lodge . The site was declared a National Historic Landmark on October 15, 1966, and is identified as reference number 66000594. The site is the only national historic landmark in North Carolina to commemorate American Indian culture. It is owned by the North Carolina Department of Natural and Cultural Resources and is operated by the Division of State Historic Sites. Today

6391-447: Was lighter, stronger and more able to withstand the drying process, and the clay's originally high plasticity was subdued. The calcium carbonate of the freshwater mussels also acts as a binding agent and created a stronger vessel. Thinner coils to make thinner walled vessel were a natural consequence. As the potter was probably also the cook, she was now able to construct a more effective cooking pot. Thinner walls allowed heat to transfer to

6474-406: Was long thought to have been imported from these other areas as trade items, and modern chemical analysis has shown that much of it is. The same analysis has also proved that some of the pottery was made locally in the Moundville polity. The polychrome pottery has representational motifs painted with red, white, and black pigments. The red and white are applied as slips of colored clay, while the black

6557-414: Was made from carbon and applied with a negative or resist technique. Similar in manufacture to the engraved ceramics, the painted pottery has thin walls, was tempered with finely ground mussel shell and was given a polished exterior. This style comes in two major shapes, a bottle with a spherical body and a narrow curving neck and a terraced rectangular bowl that is a Moundville specialty. The rectangular bowl

6640-413: Was required in order for the vessel to stand, in an unfired state, without collapsing during the air-drying process in preparation for firing. Non-backswamp clays used in many parts of the world could use grog and/or sand and create a round-bottomed vessel, favored by the cook, but not so with the "gumbo" clays of the Mississippi Valley. Another and perhaps even more immediate challenge to the potter using

6723-441: Was sometimes used as a resist to define the image, and it would melt away in the firing process. Sometimes paint was worked into incised lines. Hematite could be heated to increase its spectrum from warm red to deep violet. Some Mississippian culture pottery was decorated with textile imprints on them. Vegetal cordage or netting was impressed sometimes over the entire external surface of a vessel. Some archaeologists theorize that

6806-416: Was tempered with an additive to keep it from shrinking and cracking in the drying and firing process, usually with ground mussel shells. In some locations the older tradition of grog tempering (use of crushed-up potsherds) persisted into Mississippian times. The potters used slab-built construction and the "coiling" method, which involved working the clay into a long string which was wound round to form

6889-407: Was the first state historic site to be developed for interpretation for visitors. The Pee Dee left no written record, so the archaeology work has been vital in uncovering and interpreting their history. Joffre Coe of the University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill was the lead archaeologist at Town Creek beginning in 1937. Coe and his team uncovered various artifacts and burial vaults, and also found

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