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67-476: The refuge has a surface area of 4,102,537 acres (16,602.4 km). It is the fourth-largest National Wildlife Refuge in the United States as well as the state of Alaska, which has all eleven of the largest NWRs. It is bordered in the southeast by Wood-Tikchik State Park , the largest state park in the United States. The Togiak Wilderness occupies 2,274,066 acres (920,282 ha) in the northern half of

134-668: A Pathway to Ecology and Spirit (2001), which focuses on the intersection of Western and Yupʼik values. Yuuyaraq or Way of life ( yuuyaraq sg yuuyarat pl in Yupʼik, cuuyaraq in Cupʼik, cuuyarar in Cupig) is the term for the Yupʼik way of life as a human being. The expression encompasses interactions with others, subsistence or traditional knowledge , environmental or traditional ecological knowledge , and understanding , indigenous psychology , and spiritual balance. Yuuyaraq defined

201-403: A major contributor to those ceremonies and provider to orphans and widows. The position of the nukalpiaq was not, however, comparable to that of the umialik (whaling captain) of northern and northwestern Alaska Iñupiaq . The captain had the power to collect the surplus of the village and much of the basic production of individual family members and later redistribute it. Traditionally, in

268-584: A tunnel. Both qasgiq and ena also served as schools and workshops for young boys and girls. Among the Akulmiut, the residential pattern of separate houses for women and children and a single residence for men and boys persisted until about 1930. The women's house or Ena ( [e]na sg nek dual net pl in Yupʼik, ena sg enet pl in Cupʼik, ena in Cupʼig) was an individual or semi-communal smaller sod house. They looked similar in construction to

335-399: Is a respected elder . The elder is defined as an individual who has lived an extended life, maintains a healthy lifestyle, and has a wealth of cultural information and knowledge. The elder has expertise based upon know-how and provides consultation to the community and family when needed. Traditionally, knowledge was passed down from the elders to the youth through storytelling . A naucaqun

402-482: Is a lesson or reminder by which the younger generation learns from the experience of the elders. Tegganeq is derived from the Yupʼik word tegge- meaning "to be hard; to be tough". Yupʼik discipline is different from Western discipline. The discipline and authority within Yupʼik child-rearing practices have at their core respect for the children. More recently, elders have been invited to attend and present at national conferences and workshops. Elders-in-residence

469-517: Is a program that involves elders in teaching and curriculum development in a formal educational setting (oftentimes a university), and is intended to influence the content of courses and the way the material is taught. The Yupʼik kinship is based on what is formally classified in academia as an Eskimo kinship or lineal kinship. This kinship system is bilateral and a basic social unit consisting of from two to four generations, including parents, offspring, and parents' parents. Kinship terminologies in

536-464: Is the Dfc climate type subarctic tundra ecosystem. The land is generally flat tundra and wetlands . The area covers about 100,000 square miles which are roughly about 1/3 of Alaska. Their lands are located in five of the 32 ecoregions of Alaska: Before European contact, the Yupʼik, like other neighboring Indigenous groups, were semi-nomadic hunter-fisher-gatherers who moved seasonally throughout

603-854: The Aleutian Islands , the Pribilof Islands , Kodiak Island , and scattered coastal locations on the mainland. Russian Orthodox missionaries went to these islands, where in 1800 priests conducted services in the local language on Kodiak Island, and by 1824 in the Aleutian Islands. An Orthodox priest translated the Holy Scripture and the liturgy into Tlingit language , which was used by other major people of Alaska Natives. The Russian period, lasting roughly 120 years, can be divided into three 40-year periods: 1745 to 1785, 1785 to 1825, and 1825 to 1865. The first phase of

670-876: The Pacific Northwest . The United States purchased Alaska from the Russian Empire on March 30, 1867. Originally organized as the Department of Alaska (1867–1884), the area was renamed as the District of Alaska (1884–1912) and the Territory of Alaska (1912–1959) before it was admitted to the Union as the State of Alaska (1959–present). During the Early American Period (1867–1939),

737-639: The Shelikhov-Golikov Company and later the Russian-American Company was organized and continued in the exploration of the lucrative north Pacific Ocean sea otter trade . During this time, they exchanged massacres for virtual enslavement and exploitation. The major portion of Alaska remained little known, and the Yupʼik of the Yukon-Kuskokwim delta were not strongly affected. The Russo-American Treaty of 1824

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804-541: The United States Fish and Wildlife Service . Wood-Tikchik State Park Wood-Tikchik State Park is a state park in the U.S. state of Alaska north of Dillingham . Over 1,600,000 acres (650,000 ha) (6,500 km ) in area—about the size of the state of Delaware —, comprising more than half of all state park land in Alaska and 15% of the total state park land in the country. Despite being

871-740: The Yukon and Kuskokwim —around 1400 C.E., eventually reaching as far upriver as Paimiut on the Yukon and Crow Village ( Tulukarugmiut ) on the Kuskokwim. For centuries, the Yup'ik had fought amongst each other in the Bow and Arrow Wars. According to oral traditions, they may have begun a thousand or 300 years ago, with various different theories as to how the wars begun. Yup'ik tribes constantly raided each other and destroyed villages, These wars ultimately ended in

938-598: The postbase -pik (or -piaq ), meaning 'real' or 'genuine'; thus, Yupʼik literally means 'real person'. The ethnographic literature sometimes refers to the Yupʼik people or their language as Yuk or Yuit . In the Hooper Bay-Chevak and Nunivak dialects of Yupʼik, both the language and the people are given the name Cupʼik . The use of an apostrophe in the name Yupʼik , compared to Siberian Yupik , exemplifies Central Yupʼik orthography: "The apostrophe represents gemination [or lengthening] of

1005-629: The 'p' sound." The following are names given to them by their neighbors. The common ancestors of the Yupik and the Aleut (as well as various Paleo-Siberian groups) are believed by archaeologists to have their origin in eastern Siberia . Migrating east, they reached the Bering Sea area about 10,000 years ago. Research on blood types and linguistics suggests that the ancestors of American Indians reached North America in waves of migration before

1072-462: The 1830s and 1840s with the establishment of Russian colonialism . Before a Russian colonial presence emerged in the area, the Aleut and Yupik spent most of their time sea-hunting animals such as seals, walruses, and sea lions. They used mainly wood, stone, or bone weapons and had limited experience fishing. Families lived together in large groups during the winter and split up into smaller huts during

1139-582: The Nushagak Peninsula and the Mulchatna, make use of refuge lands, which they share with wolf packs, moose , brown and black bear , coyote , Canadian lynx , Arctic fox , muskrat , wolverine , red fox , marmot , beaver , marten , two species of otter , and porcupine , among other land mammals. Seals , sea lions , walrus and whales are found at various times of year along the refuge's 600 miles (970 km) of coastline. Within

1206-653: The Russian period (1745 to 1785) affected only the Aleut (Unangan) and Alutiiq (Sugpiaq) profoundly. During this period, large sectors of the Bering Sea coast were mapped by the English explorer James Cook , rather than by the Russians. In 1778, Cook discovered and named Bristol Bay and then sailed northward around Cape Newenham into Kuskokwim Bay . During the second phase of the Russian period (1785 to 1825),

1273-555: The Russo-Japanese war cut off contact with Russia. The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) was signed into law on December 18, 1971. The ANCSA is central to both Alaska's history and current Alaska Native economies and political structures. Before European contact (until the 1800s), the history of the Yupʼik, like that of other Alaska Natives , was oral tradition . Each society or village had storytellers ( qulirarta ) who were known for their memories, and those were

1340-715: The Yukon-Kuskokwim Indigenous people in the 1980s; she melded Yupʼik voices with traditional anthropology and history in an unprecedented fashion. The historiography of western Alaska has few Yupʼik scholars contributing writings. Harold Napoleon , an elder of Hooper Bay , presents an interesting premise in his book Yuuyaraq: The Way of the Human Being (1988). A more scholarly, yet similar, treatment of cultural change can be found in Angayuqaq Oscar Kawagley 's A Yupiaq Worldview:

1407-415: The Yupʼik societies exhibit a Yuman type of social organization with bilateral descent , and Iroquois cousin terminology. Bilateral descent provides each individual with his or her own unique set of relatives or kindred: some consanguineal members from the father's kin group and some from the mother's, with all four grandparents affiliated equally with the individual. Parallel cousins are referenced by

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1474-552: The abundant fish and game of the Y-K Delta and Bering Sea coastal areas permitted for a more settled life than for many of the more northerly Iñupiaq people. Under normal conditions, there was little need for interregional travel, as each regional group had access to enough resources within its own territory to be completely self-sufficient. However, fluctuations in animal populations or weather conditions sometimes necessitated travel and trade between regions. The homeland of Yupʼik

1541-630: The ancestors of the Eskimo and Aleut; there were three major waves of migration from Siberia to the Americas by way of the Bering land bridge . This causeway became exposed between 20,000 and 8,000 years ago during periods of glaciation. By about 3,000 years ago the progenitors of the Yupiit had settled along the coastal areas of what would become western Alaska, with migrations up the coastal rivers—notably

1608-558: The area that remained active until the Alaska Purchase in 1867. The National Park Service at one point considered managing the area, but the Alaska State Legislature voted in 1978 to make it a state park. Due to its remote location, the park is not accessible from the contiguous road system. The only road access is from Dillingham, which has an airport with regularly scheduled flights. Many visitors to

1675-633: The coast of the Bering Sea on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta (including living on Nelson and Nunivak Islands ) and along the northern coast of Bristol Bay as far east as Nushagak Bay and the northern Alaska Peninsula at Naknek River and Egegik Bay . They are also known as Cupʼik by the Chevak Cupʼik dialect-speaking people of Chevak and Cupʼig for the Nunivak Cupʼig dialect-speaking people of Nunivak Island. The Yupiit are

1742-501: The correct way of handling all fish and game caught by the hunter in order to honor and appease the spirits and maintain a harmonious relationship with the fish and game. Although unwritten, this way can be compared to Mosaic law because it governed all aspects of a human being's life. An Alaska Native elder ( tegganeq sg tegganrek dual tegganret pl in Yupʼik, teggneq sg teggnerek ~ teggenrek dual teggneret ~ teggenret pl in Cupʼik, taqnelug in Cupʼig)

1809-405: The correct way of thinking and speaking about all living things, especially the great sea and land mammals on which the Yupʼik relied for food, clothing , shelter, tools, kayaks, and other essentials. These great creatures were sensitive; they were believed able to understand human conversations, and they demanded and received respect. Yuuyaraq prescribed the correct method of hunting and fishing and

1876-831: The earliest scholars to undertake significant archaeological research in the Yupʼik region. VanStone demonstrates the ethnographic approach to cultural history in Eskimos of the Nushagak River: An Ethnographic History (1967). Wendell Oswalt published a comprehensive ethnographic history of the Yukon–Kuskokwim delta region, the longest and most detailed work on Yupʼik history to date in Bashful No Longer: An Alaskan Eskimo ethnohistory, 1778–1988 (1988). Ann Fienup-Riordan (born 1948) began writing extensively about

1943-449: The early American period, native languages were forbidden in mission schools, where only English was permitted. The economy of the islands also took a hit under American ownership. Hutchinson, Cool & Co., an American trading company, took advantage of its position as the only trader in the area and charged the natives as much as possible for its goods. The combination of high costs and low hunting and fishing productivity persisted until

2010-532: The establishment of the park. The park is bounded on the west by Togiak National Wildlife Refuge and on the northwest by the Yukon Delta National Wildlife Refuge , providing an extremely large area of remote wilderness on public lands. The park is considered a critical habitat for a variety of wildlife, however a primary reason for the park’s existence is to preserve salmon spawning areas. All five major salmon species breed in

2077-489: The federal government generally neglected the territory, other than using positions in territorial government for political patronage. There was an effort to exploit the natural resources in the years following the purchase of Alaska. Moravian Protestant (1885) and Jesuit Catholic (1888) missions and schools were established along the Kuskokwim and lower Yukon rivers, respectively. The Qasgiq , ceremonial buildings for Yup'ik men, disappeared due to missionary coercion. During

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2144-486: The field of other subject areas. American anthropologist Margaret Lantis (1906–2006) published The Social Culture of the Nunivak Eskimo in 1946; it was the first complete description of any Alaskan indigenous group. She began Alaskan Eskimo Ceremonialism (1947) as a broad study of Alaskan Indigenous people. James W. VanStone (1925–2001), an American cultural anthropologist , and Wendell H. Oswalt were among

2211-433: The form Yupiaq was used in the southern area (Kuskokwim, Canineq [around Kwigillingok , Kipnuk , Kongiganak , and Chefornak ], Bristol Bay). Certain places (Chevak, Nunivak, Egegik ) have other forms: Cupʼik , Cupʼig , and Tarupiaq . The form Yupʼik is now used as a common term (though not replacing Cupʼik and Cupʼig ). Yupʼik comes from the Yupʼik word yuk , meaning 'person', plus

2278-769: The four Yupik peoples of Alaska and Siberia , closely related to the Sugpiaq ~ Alutiiq (Pacific Yupik) of south-central Alaska, the Siberian Yupik of St. Lawrence Island and Russian Far East, and the Naukan of Russian Far East. The Yupʼik combine a contemporary and a traditional subsistence lifestyle in a blend unique to the Southwest Alaska . Today, the Yupʼik generally work and live in western style but still hunt and fish in traditional subsistence ways and gather traditional foods. Most Yupʼik people still speak

2345-590: The fur traders were Russians , such as promyshlenniki from various European parts of the Russian Empire or from Siberia. After the Bering expedition in 1741, Russians raced to explore the Aleutian Islands and gain control of its resources. The Indigenous peoples were forced to pay taxes in the form of beaver and seal fur and opted to do so rather than fight the ever-growing stream of Russian hunters. Grigory Shelikhov led attacks on Kodiak Island against

2412-470: The indigenous Alutiiq (Sugpiaqs) in 1784, known as the Awa'uq Massacre . According to some estimates, Russian employees of the trading company killed more than 2,000 Alutiiq. The company then took over control of the island. By the late 1790s, its trading posts had become the centers of permanent settlements of Russian America (1799–1867). Until about 1819, Russian settlement and activity were largely confined to

2479-457: The individuals of the group. Villages ranged in size from just two to more than a dozen sod houses ( ena ) for women and girls, one (or more in large villages) qasgiq for men and boys, and warehouses . Formerly, social status was attained by successful hunters who could provide food and skins. Successful hunters were recognized as leaders by members of the social group. Although there were no formally recognized leaders, informal leadership

2546-415: The lake systems as long as 60 miles (97 km), all within park boundaries. Wood-Tikchik is one of only two state parks in Southwest Alaska . The other is Lake Aleknagik State Recreation Site at 59°16′46″N 158°37′29″W  /  59.27944°N 158.62472°W  / 59.27944; -158.62472 , a small 11-acre (4.5 ha) park whose primary purpose is to serve as a jumping off point for

2613-399: The language. The Yupʼik had the greatest number of people who identified with one tribal grouping and no other race (29,000). In that census, nearly half of American Indians and Alaska Natives identified as being of mixed race. Yupʼik, Cupʼik, and Cupʼig speakers can converse without difficulty, and the regional population is often described using the larger term of Yupʼik . They are one of

2680-719: The larger Wood-Tikchik park. It is referred to by locals as "first lake" as it provides access to the various lakes upstream. The site has a boat launch, gas and aviation fuel sales, and ranger headquarters for both state parks. 59°44′44″N 158°45′09″W  /  59.74556°N 158.75250°W  / 59.74556; -158.75250 Yup%27ik The Yupʼik or Yupiaq (sg & pl) and Yupiit or Yupiat (pl), also Central Alaskan Yupʼik, Central Yupʼik, Alaskan Yupʼik ( own name Yupʼik sg Yupiik dual Yupiit pl ; Russian : Юпики центральной Аляски), are an Indigenous people of western and southwestern Alaska ranging from southern Norton Sound southwards along

2747-419: The largest state park in the nation, the park had no staff whatsoever for its first five years, and even now at times only a single ranger is in charge of patrolling the entire park, usually by aircraft . Yup'ik people inhabited the area that is now the park for centuries before contact with Europeans . In 1818 a Russian expedition explored the area and its rivers and established a fur trading post in

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2814-446: The males in the qasgiq by young women and girls. The qasgiq served as a school and workshop for young boys, where they could learn the art and craft of mask making, tool making, and kayak construction. It was also a place for learning hunting and fishing skills. At times, the men created a firebath , where hot fires and rocks produced heat to aid in body cleansing. Thus, the qasgiq was a residence, bathhouse, and workshop for all but

2881-501: The mid-19th century, the time of Russian exploration and presence in the area, the Yupiit were organized into at least twelve, and perhaps as many as twenty, territorially distinct regional or socio-territorial groups (their native names will generally be found ending in -miut postbase which signifies "inhabitants of ..." tied together by kinship —hence the Yupʼik word tungelquqellriit , meaning "those who share ancestors (are related)". These groups included: While Yupiit were nomadic,

2948-632: The most numerous of the various Alaska Native groups and speak the Central Alaskan Yupʼik language , a member of the Eskimo–Aleut family of languages. As of the 2010 U.S. Census, the Yupiit population in the United States numbered over 34,000 people, of whom over 22,000 lived in Alaska. The vast majority of these live in the seventy or so communities in the traditional Yupʼik territory of western and southwestern Alaska. About 10,000 speak

3015-493: The native language and bilingual education has been in force since the 1970s. The neighbours of the Yupʼik are the Iñupiaq to the north, Aleutized Alutiiq ~ Sugpiaq to the south, and Alaskan Athabaskans , such as Yupikized Holikachuk and Deg Hitʼan , non-Yupikized Koyukon and Denaʼina , to the east. Originally, the singular form Yupʼik was used in the northern area (Norton Sound, Yukon , some Nelson Island) while

3082-668: The northern and northwestern Alaskan Iñupiaq built snow houses for temporary shelter during their winter hunting trips. The word iglu means "house" in Iñupiaq. This word is the Iñupiaq cognate of the Yupʼik word ngel'u (" beaver lodge , beaver house"), which it resembled in shape. Among the Yupʼik of southwestern Alaska, societies (regional or socio-territorial groups), like those of the Iñupiat of northwestern Alaska, were differentiated by territory, speech patterns, clothing details, annual cycles, and ceremonial life. Prior to and during

3149-494: The old literature; qasgi ~ qasgiq sg qasgik dual qasgit pl in Yupʼik, qaygiq sg qaygit pl in Cupʼik, kiiyar in Cupʼig; qasgimi "in the qasgi") is a communal larger sod house. The qasgiq was used and occupied from November through March. The qasgiq housed all adult males in the community and male youth about seven years and older. The women prepared meals in their houses, known as ena. These were taken to

3216-464: The park arrive by charted floatplane and land on one of the many lakes , all of which are open to floatplane landings. Marine access to the Wood River lake system is via the Wood River itself. There are a few privately owned remote lodges within the park, by reservation only. The entire park is open to camping, but a few areas do require a permit. Leave No Trace camping is heavily emphasized by

3283-485: The park managers and fires are only permitted on beaches or gravel bars, or one of the few provided fire pits . The park is deliberately mostly undeveloped wilderness, with various conservation groups working to purchase publicly available parcels within the park, either to hold in trust or to sell back to the park system. This has created some friction with pro-development groups, including Yupik natives who would like to develop on land claims they have that predate

3350-413: The park, with sockeye considered the most important for subsistence fisheries in the area. Other wildlife in the park include whitefish , black and brown bears , moose , caribou , wolverines , marmots , porcupines , otters and foxes. Both sport and subsistence hunting of large game is allowed in the park with proper permits. The name of the park refers to two different lake systems within

3417-771: The park. The southern lake system eventually forms the Wood River, which flows into Bristol Bay , and the more northern Tikchik lakes empty into the Nuyakuk River , a tributary of the Nushagak River which also flows into Bristol Bay. The Wood River system of lakes are all directly connected to one another by streams, forming a water trail of over 85 miles (137 km). The lakes of these two systems are large and deep, ranging from 15 to 45 miles (24 to 72 km) long and maximum depths of 342 to 940 feet (104 to 287 m). A dozen of these lakes have over 1,000 acres (400 ha) of surface area. There are rivers connecting

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3484-415: The people who told the young about the group's history. Their stories (traditional legends qulirat and historical narratives qanemcit ) express crucial parts of Alaska's earliest history. The historiography of the Yupʼik ethnohistory , as a part of Eskimology , is slowly emerging. The first academic studies of the Yupʼik tended to generalize all "Eskimo" cultures as homogeneous and changeless. While

3551-433: The permanent Russian trading posts . A third influence was the early Russian Orthodox missionaries, who sought to convert the peoples to their form of Christianity. The missionaries learned native languages, and conducted services in those languages from the early decades of the 19th century. The Treaty of Saint Petersburg of 1825 defined the boundaries between Russian America and British Empire claims and possessions in

3618-504: The personal experiences of non-natives who visited the Indigenous people of what is now called Alaska formed the basis of early research, by the mid-20th century archaeological excavations in southwestern Alaska allowed scholars to study the effects of foreign trade goods on 19th-century Eskimo material culture. Also, translations of pertinent journals and documents from Russian explorers and the Russian-American Company added breadth to

3685-541: The primary source base. The first ethnographic information about the Yupʼik of the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta was recorded by the Russian explorer Lieutenant Lavrenty Zagoskin , during his explorations for the Russian-American Company in 1842–1844. The first academic cultural studies of southwestern Alaskan Indigenous people were developed only in the late 1940s. This was due in part to a dearth of English-language documentation, as well as competition in

3752-617: The qasgiqs but were only about half the size. Women and children lived in houses that served as residences for two to five women and their children. Raising children was the women's responsibility until young boys left the home to join other males in the qasgiq to learn discipline and how to make a living. The ena also served as a school and workshop for young girls, where they could learn the art and craft of skin sewing , food preparation, and other important survival skills. Men's house or Qasgiq (is pronounced as "kaz-geek" and often referred to as kashigi, kasgee, kashim, kazhim , or casine in

3819-460: The refuge, along with murres , seven species of owls , peregrine falcons , dowitchers , Lapland longspurs and a rich variety of other seabirds , waterfowl , shorebirds , songbirds and raptors . Refuge staff and volunteers have also documented more than 500 species of plants, demonstrating a high degree of biodiversity for a sub-arctic area. [REDACTED]  This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of

3886-607: The refuge, the waters produce over 3 million Chinook , sockeye , coho , pink , and chum salmon. Not including the five species of salmon that inhabit the region, there are 27 species found in the waters, including Dolly Varden , Arctic grayling , and rainbow trout . The region's salmon are a primary subsistence source for locals, and provide a very important commercial and recreational fishery. Some 201 species of birds have been sighted on Togiak Refuge. Threatened species can occasionally be found here, including Steller's and spectacled eiders. Several arctic goose species frequent

3953-564: The refuge. It protects pristine rivers, lakes, and steep-sloped mountains, including the rugged Ahklun Mountains and Wood River Range, which are located partly within the wilderness. Parts of the Kanektok , Goodnews , and Togiak drainages are also located within the boundaries of the Togiak Wilderness. The refuge is home to 48 mammal species, 31 of which are terrestrial and 17 marine. More than 150,000 caribou from two herds,

4020-509: The same terms as siblings, and cross cousins are differentiated. Marriages were arranged by parents. Yupʼik societies (regional or socio-territorial groups) were shown to have a band organization characterized by extensive bilaterally structured kinship with multifamily groups aggregating annually. The Yupʼik created larger settlements in winter to take advantage of group subsistence activities. Villages were organized in certain ways. Cultural rules of kinship served to define relationships among

4087-430: The socio-territorial and neighboring groups) took place in the qasgiq. During the early 20th century, Christian church services were held in the qasgiq before churches were constructed. Virtually all official business, within the group, between groups and villages, and between villagers and non-Yupʼik (such as early missionaries) was conducted in the qasgiq. The Yupʼik Eskimo did not live in igloos or snow houses. But,

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4154-435: The summer. The Russian colonization of the Americas lasted from 1732 to 1867. The Russian Empire supported ships traveling from Siberia to America for whaling and fishing expeditions. Gradually the crews established hunting and trading posts of the Shelikhov-Golikov Company in the Aleutian Islands and northern Alaska indigenous settlements. (These were the basis for the Russian-American Company ). Approximately half of

4221-418: The winter the Yupʼik lived in semi-permanent subterranean houses , with some for the men and others for the women (with their children). The Yupʼik men lived together in a larger communal house ( qasgiq ), while women and children lived in smaller, different sod houses ( ena ). Although the men and women lived separately, they had many interactions. Depending on the village, qasgiq and ena were connected by

4288-404: The year within a reasonably well-defined territory to harvest sea and land mammals, fish, bird, berry and other renewable resources. The economy of Yupʼik is a mixed cash-subsistence system, like other modern foraging economies in Alaska. The primary use of wild resources is domestic. Commercial fishing in Alaska and trapping patterns are controlled primarily by external factors. On the coast, in

4355-446: The youngest male community members who still lived with their mothers. Although there were no formally recognized leaders or offices to be held, men and boys were assigned specific places within the qasgiq that distinguished the rank of males by age and residence. The qasgiq was a ceremonial and spiritual center for the community. In primary villages, all ceremonies (and Yupʼik dancing ) and gatherings (within and between villages among

4422-451: Was practiced by or in the men who held the title Nukalpiaq ("man in his prime; successful hunter and good provider"). The nukalpiaq , or good provider, was a man of considerable importance in village life. This man was consulted in any affair of importance affecting the village in general, particularly in determining participation in the Kevgiq and Itruka'ar ceremonies. He was said to be

4489-550: Was signed in St. Petersburg between representatives of the Russian Empire and the United States on April 17, 1824, and went into effect on January 12, 1825. During the last phase of the Russian period (1825 to 1865), the Alaska Natives began to suffer the effects of introduced infectious diseases, to which they had no acquired immunity. In addition, their societies were disrupted by increasing reliance on European trade goods from

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