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37-569: The Tauranga Eastern Link ( TEL ) is a four lane motorway in the Bay of Plenty region in New Zealand, covering 23 km from Te Maunga junction in Tauranga to Paengaroa . It was officially opened on 30 July 2015. It replaced a section of State Highway 2 , improving access to Tauranga from the east ( Te Puke , Whakatāne , Ōpōtiki , Gisborne ) and south ( Rotorua and Taupō ). It became

74-430: A few days to a few years. Of observed cinder cone eruptions, 50% have lasted for less than 30 days, and 95% stopped within one year. In case of Parícutin, its eruption lasted for nine years from 1943 to 1952. Rarely do they erupt either two, three, or more times. Later eruptions typically produce new cones within a volcanic field at separation distances of a few kilometers and separate by periods of 100 to 1,000 years. Within

111-532: A linear fissure, lava fountaining will create broad embankments of spatter, called spatter ramparts, along both sides of the fissure. Spatter cones are more circular and cone shaped, while spatter ramparts are linear wall-like features. Spatter cones and spatter ramparts are typically formed by lava fountaining associated with mafic , highly fluid lavas, such as those erupted in the Hawaiian Islands. As blobs of molten lava, spatter, are erupted into

148-426: A nearly continuous stage of releasing volcanic gas at least since it was sighted by James Cook in 1769. Whakaari erupted continually from December 1975 until September 2000, marking the world's longest historic eruption episode, according to GeoNet , as well as in 2012, 2016, and 2019. The latter of these resulted in 22 deaths and 25 serious injuries, primarily of tourists from a nearby cruise ship who were exploring

185-1026: A single, typically cylindrical, vent. As the gas-charged lava is blown violently into the air, it breaks into small fragments that solidify and fall as either cinders, clinkers, or scoria around the vent to form a cone that often is noticeably symmetrical; with slopes between 30 and 40°; and a nearly circular ground plan. Most cinder cones have a bowl-shaped crater at the summit. The basal diameters of cinder cones average about 800 meters (2,600 ft) and range from 250 to 2,500 meters (820 to 8,200 ft). The diameter of their craters ranges between 50 and 600 meters (160 and 1,970 ft). Cinder cones rarely rise more than 50–350 meters (160–1,150 ft) or so above their surroundings. Cinder cones most commonly occur as isolated cones in large basaltic volcanic fields. They also occur in nested clusters in association with complex tuff ring and maar complexes. Finally, they are also common as parasitic and monogenetic cones on complex shield and stratovolcanoes. Globally, cinder cones are

222-399: A stratocone is commonly dominated by a central core of intrusive rocks that range from around 500 meters (1,600 ft) to over several kilometers in diameter. This central core is surrounded by multiple generations of lava flows, many of which are brecciated , and a wide range of pyroclastic rocks and reworked volcanic debris. The typical stratocone is an andesitic to dacitic volcano that

259-399: A tuff cone have commonly been altered, palagonitized , by either its interaction with groundwater or when it was deposited warm and wet. The pyroclastic deposits of tuff cones differ from the pyroclastic deposits of spatter cones by their lack or paucity of lava spatter, smaller grain-size, and excellent bedding. Typically, but not always, tuff cones lack associated lava flows. A tuff ring

296-525: A volcanic field, eruptions can occur over a period of a million years. Once eruptions cease, being unconsolidated, cinder cones tend to erode rapidly unless further eruptions occur. Rootless cones , also called pseudocraters , are volcanic cones that are not directly associated with a conduit that brought magma to the surface from a deep-seated magma reservoir. Generally, three types of rootless cones, littoral cones , explosion craters , and hornitos are recognized. Littoral cones and explosion craters are

333-571: Is a large bight along the northern coast of New Zealand 's North Island . It stretches 260 kilometres (160 mi) from the Coromandel Peninsula in the west to Cape Runaway in the east. Called Te Moana-a-Toitehuatahi (the Ocean of Toitehuatahi) in the Māori language after Toi-te-huatahi , an early ancestor, the name 'Bay of Plenty' was bestowed by James Cook in 1769 when he noticed

370-408: Is a related type of small monogenetic volcano that is also produced by phreatic (hydrovolcanic) explosions directly associated with magma brought to the surface through a conduit from a deep-seated magma reservoir. They are characterized by rims that have a low, broad topographic profiles and gentle topographic slopes that are 25 degrees or less. The maximum thickness of the pyroclastic debris comprising

407-666: Is a small monogenetic volcanic cone produced by phreatic (hydrovolcanic) explosions directly associated with magma brought to the surface through a conduit from a deep-seated magma reservoir. They are characterized by high rims that have a maximum relief of 100–800 meters (330–2,620 ft) above the crater floor and steep slopes that are greater than 25 degrees. They typically have a rim to rim diameter of 300–5,000 meters (980–16,400 ft). A tuff cone consists typically of thick-bedded pyroclastic flow and surge deposits created by eruption-fed density currents and bomb-scoria beds derived from fallout from its eruption column. The tuffs composing

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444-441: Is associated with subduction zones . They are also known as either stratified volcano, composite cone, bedded volcano, cone of mixed type or Vesuvian-type volcano. A spatter cone is a low, steep-sided hill or mound that consists of welded lava fragments, called spatter, which has formed around a lava fountain issuing from a central vent. Typically, spatter cones are about 3–5 meters (9.8–16.4 ft) high. In case of

481-559: The Mātaatua tribes. Early Māori settlement also gave rise to many of the town and city names used today. The first recorded European contact came when James Cook sailed through the Bay of Plenty in 1769. Cook noted the abundance of food supplies, in comparison to Poverty Bay further back along the eastern coast of the North Island. Further reports of European contact are scarce prior to

518-549: The 1950s, as kiwifruit did later. On 5 October 2011, the MV Rena ran aground on the Astrolabe Reef in the bay causing a large oil spill , described as New Zealand's worst ever environmental disaster. A volcanic eruption occurred on Whakaari / White Island at 14:11 on 9 December 2019, which resulted in twenty fatalities and twenty-seven injuries, most suffering severe burns. Forty-seven people were reportedly on

555-719: The Tauranga iwi, including at the famous Battle of Gate Pā in 1864. Further conflict with the government arose in 1865 when German missionary Carl Völkner and interpreter James Fulloon were killed by local Māori at Ōpōtiki and Whakatāne, respectively. The ensuing conflict resulted in the confiscation of considerable land from several Bay of Plenty iwi by the government. Confiscation of Māori land deprived local iwi of economic resources (among other things), and also provided land for expanding European settlement. The government established fortified positions, including at Tauranga, Whakatāne and Ōpōtiki. European settlers arrived throughout

592-646: The abundant food supplies at several Māori villages there, in stark contrast to observations he had made earlier in Poverty Bay . The bay is defined by 259 kilometres (161 mi) of open coastline used for economic, recreational and cultural purposes. The coastline from Waihi Beach in the west to Opape is defined as sandy coast, while the coast from Opape to Cape Runaway is rocky shore. Sizeable harbours are located at Tauranga, Whakatāne and Ohiwa. Major estuaries include Maketu , Little Waihi, Whakatāne, Waiotahe and Waioeka / Ōtara . Eight major rivers empty into

629-437: The air by a lava fountain, they can lack the time needed to cool completely before hitting the ground. Consequently, the spatter are not fully solid, like taffy , as they land and they bind to the underlying spatter as both often slowly ooze down the side of the cone. As a result, the spatter builds up a cone that is composed of spatter either agglutinated or welded to each other. A tuff cone , sometimes called an ash cone ,

666-553: The arrival of missionary Samuel Marsden to the Tauranga area in 1814. Bay whaling stations operated in the bay during the 19th century. During the 1820s and 1830s, northern iwi including Ngā Puhi invaded the Bay of Plenty during their campaign throughout the North Island, fighting local Māori tribes in what became known as the Musket Wars . However, the 1830s and 1840s saw increased contact between Bay of Plenty Māori and Europeans through trade, although few Europeans settled in

703-530: The bay from inland catchments, including the Wairoa , Kaituna , Tarawera , Rangitaiki , Whakatane , Waioeka , Motu and Raukokore rivers. The bay contains numerous islands, notably the active andesite stratovolcano Whakaari / White Island . Whakaari is New Zealand's most active cone volcano , and has been built up by continuous volcanic activity over the past 150,000 years. The nearest mainland towns are Whakatāne and Tauranga . The island has been in

740-426: The calderas and volcanic cones of Ulysses Patera , Ulysses Colles and Hydraotes Chaos are argued to be cinder cones. Cinder cones typically only erupt once like Parícutin. As a result, they are considered to be monogenetic volcanoes and most of them form monogenetic volcanic fields . Cinder cones are typically active for very brief periods of time before becoming inactive. Their eruptions range in duration from

777-422: The crater of a tuff ring generally has been excavated below the existing ground surface. As a result, water commonly fills a tuff ring's crater to form a lake once eruptions cease. Both tuff cones and their associated tuff rings were created by explosive eruptions from a vent where the magma is interacting with either groundwater or a shallow body of water as found within a lake or sea. The interaction between

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814-422: The descendent iwi maintain their traditional homelands ( rohe ) in the region, including Te Whānau-ā-Apanui , Te Whakatōhea , Ngāi Tai , Ngāi Tūhoe , Ngāti Awa , Ngāti Tūwharetoa ki Kawerau, Te Arawa , Ngāi Te Rangi , Ngāti Ranginui and Ngāti Pūkenga . Māori named the bay Te Moana-a-Toitehuatahi (the Ocean of Toitehuatahi), or Te Moana-a-Toi for short, after Toi-te-huatahi , an early ancestor of

851-405: The end of the century the population had started to dwindle. But after experimenting with different crops, settlers found success with dairy production. Dairy factories sprang up across the Bay of Plenty in the 1900s, with butter and cheese feeding economic prosperity throughout the early 20th century; local Māori continued to live on the fringe of this prosperity. Timber also became a major export in

888-399: The island at the time. Whakaari / White Island is roughly circular, about 2 km (1.2 mi) in diameter, and rises to a height of 321 m (1,053 ft) above sea level. It covers an area of approximately 325 ha (800 acres). The exposed island is only the peak of a much larger submarine volcano , which rises up to 1,600 m (5,249 ft) above the nearby seafloor. Sulphur

925-505: The island when it erupted. A second eruption closely followed the first. Volcanic cone Stratocones are large cone-shaped volcanoes made up of lava flows , explosively erupted pyroclastic rocks, and igneous intrusives that are typically centered around a cylindrical vent. Unlike shield volcanoes , they are characterized by a steep profile and periodic, often alternating, explosive eruptions and effusive eruptions . Some have collapsed craters called calderas . The central core of

962-517: The latter half of the 19th century, establishing settlements in Katikati , Te Puke and the Rangitaiki area. In 1876, settlements were incorporated into counties following the nationwide dissolution of the provincial system. Initial settlements in the region struggled: the climate was ill-suited to sheep farming and the geography was inaccessible, further hindered by a lack of infrastructure. By

999-638: The magma, expanding steam, and volcanic gases resulted in the production and ejection of fine-grained pyroclastic debris called ash with the consistency of flour . The volcanic ash comprising a tuff cone accumulated either as fallout from eruption columns, from low-density volcanic surges and pyroclastic flows, or combination of these. Tuff cones are typically associated with volcanic eruptions within shallow bodies of water and tuff rings are associated with eruptions within either water saturated sediments and bedrock or permafrost . Next to spatter (scoria) cones, tuff cones and their associated tuff rings are among

1036-607: The main route for trucks heading to the Port of Tauranga from Rotorua and the eastern Bay of Plenty, and connected the Central Plateau forestry industry with the port to facilitate lumber export. The Tauranga Eastern Link is a four lane, dual carriageway, providing a safer and more direct route between Tauranga to Paengaroa. Construction of the Tauranga Eastern Link officially started on 19 November 2010 and

1073-756: The most common types of volcanoes on Earth. An example of a tuff cone is Diamond Head at Waikīkī in Hawaiʻi . Clusters of pitted cones observed in the Nephentes/Amenthes region of Mars at the southern margin of the ancient Utopia impact basin are currently interpreted as being tuff cones and rings. Cinder cones , also known as scoria cones and less commonly scoria mounds , are small, steep-sided volcanic cones built of loose pyroclastic fragments, such as either volcanic clinkers, cinders, volcanic ash, or scoria . They consist of loose pyroclastic debris formed by explosive eruptions or lava fountains from

1110-712: The most typical volcanic landform found within continental intraplate volcanic fields and also occur in some subduction zone settings as well. Parícutin , the Mexican cinder cone which was born in a cornfield on February 20, 1943, and Sunset Crater in Northern Arizona in the US Southwest are classic examples of cinder cones, as are ancient volcanic cones found in New Mexico's Petroglyph National Monument . Cone-shaped hills observed in satellite imagery of

1147-457: The railway line and terminating at a roundabout, intersecting SH 33 , north of Paengaroa. Since official opening in August 2015, the Tauranga Eastern Link has been a tolled highway. In December 2017 it became one of the first two sections of highway in New Zealand to be given a speed limit of 110 km/h. Bay of Plenty The Bay of Plenty ( Māori : Te Moana-a-Toitehuatahi )

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1184-585: The region. Missionary activity in the region also increased during this time. In 1853, New Zealand was subdivided into provinces , with the Bay of Plenty incorporated into Auckland Province . Conflict returned to the Bay of Plenty during the 1860s with the New Zealand Wars . Initially this stemmed from Tauranga iwi supporting the Waikato iwi in their conflict with the government. In retaliation, British Crown and government-allied Māori forces attacked

1221-494: The result of mild explosions that were generated locally by the interaction of either hot lava or pyroclastic flows with water. Littoral cones typically form on the surface of a basaltic lava flow where it has entered into a body of water, usually a sea or ocean. Explosion craters form where either hot lava or pyroclastic flows have covered either marshy ground or water-saturated ground of some sort. Hornitos are rootless cones that are composed of welded lava fragments and were formed on

1258-421: The rim of a typical tuff ring is generally thin, less than 50 meters (160 ft) to 100 meters (330 ft) thick. The pyroclastic materials that comprise their rim consist primarily of relatively fresh and unaltered, distinctly and thin-bedded volcanic surge and air fall deposits. Their rims also can contain variable amounts of local country rock (bedrock) blasted out of their crater. In contrast to tuff cones,

1295-757: The route of the existing SH 2 to Domain Road, with junctions at Sandhurst Road /Mangatawa Road and Domain Road/Tara Road. The route then runs across rural land, parallel to Tara Road, before crossing Parton Road and running along the sandhills to the Kaituna River. At this point the highway crosses the river on a 150-metre-long (490 ft) bridge and runs past the Kaituna Wildlife Management Reserve. It then heads south east across dairy farms and orchards before crossing

1332-585: Was due for completion in 2016, however construction ran six months ahead of schedule and the project was officially opened in late July 2015. Tolling received significant community support (92% both conditional and unconditional) and as a result the NZTA submitted a tolling proposal to the Cabinet who approved it. The Tauranga Eastern Link begins at the Te Maunga Roundabout in Tauranga and follows

1369-519: Was mined on the island until the 1930s. Ten miners were killed in 1914 when part of the crater wall collapsed. The Bay of Plenty has a temperate , maritime climate, with warm, humid summers and mild winters. According to local Māori traditions , the Bay of Plenty was the landing point of several migration canoes that brought Māori settlers to New Zealand. These include the Mātaatua , Nukutere , Tākitimu , Arawa and Tainui canoes. Many of

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